RESEARCH ARTICLE | NOVEMBER 30 2023

Healthcare’s new Frontier: AI-driven early cancer detection

for improved well-being
R. Deepa  ; S. Arunkumar ; V. Jayaraj ; A. Sivasamy

AIP Advances 13, 115331 (2023)

https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0177640

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 AIP Advances ARTICLE pubs.aip.org/aip/adv

Healthcare’s new Frontier: AI-driven early cancer

detection for improved well-being
Cite as: AIP Advances 13, 115331 (2023); doi: 10.1063/5.0177640
Submitted: 23 September 2023 • Accepted: 30 October 2023 •
Published Online: 30 November 2023

R. Deepa,1,a) S. Arunkumar,1 V. Jayaraj,1 and A. Sivasamy2

AFFILIATIONS
1
Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, TN, India
2
Nehru Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, TN, India

a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: ecedeepa@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The realm of healthcare is undergoing a revolutionary transformation through the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) for early cancer
detection, ushering in a new era of enhanced well-being. This review paper delves into the paradigm shift brought about by AI, highlighting its
potential to identify diseases in their nascent stages, thereby revolutionizing preventive healthcare. Harnessing the computational prowess of
AI, this paradigm empowers us to analyze intricate medical data, including internal imagery and health records, facilitating the identification

04 December 2023 07:30:12

of subtle disease markers imperceptible to the human eye. The key focus lies not only in early detection but also in ensuring diagnostic
accuracy. A comprehensive analysis of various studies underscores AI’s superiority in comparison to traditional methods, manifesting in
quicker and more precise identification of anomalies. This transformation translates to expedited medical interventions and improved patient
outcomes. The crux of this evolution lies in AI’s capacity to redefine healthcare, transforming it into a proactive endeavor that identifies and
addresses health concerns while they remain manageable.
© 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0177640

I. INTRODUCTION becoming a game-changer. It helps with diagnoses, suggesting treat-

Healthcare has transformed remarkably due to technology,
changing how we take care of our health. One big focus is spotting
diseases early, which means finding them when they are still small.
This is super important and can help not just individual people, but
also the whole healthcare system.
Finding diseases early is like a guiding light for better patient
outcomes. It can change how diseases go, stopping them or even
preventing them. When we catch diseases early, the treatments are
often easier, safer, and work better. Plus, it helps healthcare systems
by not needing complicated and costly procedures when diseases get
worse. Saving money is a big deal too. Healthcare costs a lot, and
finding diseases late costs even more. If we catch diseases early, it
is better for people’s wallets and helps healthcare resources. It shifts
healthcare from just fixing problems to stopping them before they
start.
Now, say hello to artificial intelligence (AI)—a powerful tool
that is changing how healthcare works. AI is like smart comput-
ers that learn and solve problems like humans. In healthcare, AI is
ments, and more. AI is like a super-fast brain. It can look at tons
of medical information—from records to complicated images—way
faster than a person. This helps doctors make decisions quickly and
accurately.
In this comprehensive review paper, we delve into the dynamic
synergy between early cancer detection and the transformative
capabilities of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Our exploration revolves
around the remarkable collaboration of AI and medical science,
with a specific focus on their potential to revolutionize healthcare
by identifying diseases at their nascent stages.
We embark on a journey through an array of cutting-edge
research studies, each serving as a lens into the intersection of AI and
early cancer detection. Our primary objective is to dissect the intri-
cate web of findings to unveil the profound impact AI could wield
in the realm of disease prevention. Breast, lung, and skin cancers
are more prevalent compared to other cancers due to a combination
of factors, including lifestyle, genetic predisposition, environmental
influences, and screening practices.

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A. Breast cancer
● Lifestyle factors: Factors such as hormonal changes, obe-
sity, alcohol consumption, and lack of physical activity can
contribute to the development of breast cancer.
● Genetic factors: Certain genetic mutations, such as BRCA1
and BRCA2, increase the risk of breast cancer.
● Hormonal influences: Hormones, such as estrogen and pro-
gesterone, can impact breast tissue and contribute to cancer
development.
● Screening Awareness: Regular mammography screenings
and increased awareness have led to earlier detection,
resulting in higher reported cases.
B. Lung cancer
● Smoking: The primary risk factor for lung cancer is tobacco
smoking, which significantly increases the likelihood of
developing the disease.
● Secondhand smoke: Exposure to secondhand smoke also
contributes to lung cancer risk.
● Environmental exposures: Occupational exposures to
asbestos, radon, and other carcinogens play a role in lung
cancer development.
● Global prevalence: Lung cancer is common worldwide due
to the widespread prevalence of smoking and environmental
factors.
C. Skin cancer
● Sun exposure: Excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radia-
tion from the sun or tanning beds is a major cause of skin
cancer.
● Lifestyle choices: Frequent sunburns, outdoor occupations,
and recreational activities increase the risk of skin cancer.
● Fair skin: Individuals with fair skin, light hair, and blue or
green eyes are more susceptible to skin damage from UV
radiation.
● Early detection: Skin cancer is often detected earlier due to
its visible nature, leading to a higher reported prevalence.
It is important to note that while these cancers are more preva-
lent, efforts to promote awareness, lifestyle modifications, and early
detection have the potential to reduce their impact. Prevention and
education are crucial in addressing the higher prevalence of these
cancers and improving overall public health.
This paper compares the capabilities of different artificial intel-
ligence (AI) approaches to achieve early cancer detection and proac-
tive healthcare. This methodological innovation empowers accurate
analysis of intricate medical data, surpassing traditional methods
and enabling the identification of subtle disease markers. The phys-
ical significance is in the early detection of diseases, often impercep-
tible to the human eye, leading to expedited medical interventions
and improved patient outcomes.
From a physical and engineering perspective, the work is sig-
nificant in its ability to detect these subtle markers, which is vital
for early interventions, potentially saving lives and improving well-
being. The speed and precision of AI algorithms, as highlighted
in the research, represent an engineering milestone. It transforms
AIP Advances 13, 115331 (2023); doi: 10.1063/5.0177640
© Author(s) 2023
ARTICLE pubs.aip.org/aip/adv
healthcare by making AI an indispensable component, promising
efficiency, accuracy, and patient-centered care.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Let us delve into the world of early disease detection and its
intriguing connection with artificial intelligence (AI). This review
takes us on a journey through existing research, disease possibilities,
and the magic AI brings to medical diagnosis.
Imagine spotting diseases when they are just tiny sparks, before
they become full-blown fires. That is the goal of early disease detec-
tion. Diseases such as cancer, heart problems, and brain disorders
can be tamed if caught early. But this is not easy. Sometimes,
diseases hide well, and current methods cannot always find them
in time.
Now, here is where AI steps in—a tech superhero. AI is like a
super brain that can chew through loads of information faster than
a flash. Machine learning is one trick AI uses. It is like a detec-
tive that learns from data to solve medical mysteries. Then, there
is deep learning, which is like AI’s way of understanding pictures. It
spots even the tiniest changes in x rays, Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), and more.
Research shows AI’s power. It is helping find cancers in x
rays, spotting heart problems before they strike, and even predict-
ing brain issues. But, there is a twist. AI needs a lot of special data
to learn from, like a teacher needs textbooks. Also, AI sometimes
04 December 2023 07:30:12
works like a secret code—it makes decisions, but we are not always
sure why.
In a nutshell, AI and early disease detection are a powerful duo,
but there are puzzles to solve. While we are moving forward, we need
to think about data, understand AI’s decisions, and make sure it is
helping everyone fairly. With AI by our side, we are stepping into a
future where diseases might not surprise us anymore—and that is a
thrilling thought.
Unlocking the Magic of Deep Learning: Deep learning is like
the brain of AI—it is the part that learns and understands patterns.
Within deep learning, there are some special techniques that are
superheroes in cancer diagnosis.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Imagine CNNs as
art critics for images. They break down the image into tiny parts,
analyze them, and then put everything back together. This helps
them recognize complex patterns in medical images, such as x rays
or Computed tomography (CT) scans. They are especially good at
spotting shapes and structures that matter in cancer diagnosis.
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): RNNs are like the mem-
ory masters of AI. They can analyze sequences of data, which is
helpful for tasks such as reading patient records over time. In cancer
diagnosis, RNNs can follow a patient’s history and catch any changes
that might indicate cancer development.
Advantages in Medical World: These techniques have super-
powers in the medical world. CNNs can find tiny hints of tumors in
scans, even if they are buried in complex images. RNNs can spot
trends in patients’ data over time—something human eyes might
miss.
Why They Matter? In cancer diagnosis, accuracy is everything.
Deep learning techniques boost that accuracy. They can pinpoint
subtle signs of cancer earlier than ever before. When cancer is caught
early, treatment can start sooner, leading to better outcomes.
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So, think of these deep learning techniques as AI’s secret
weapons. They are trained to see what the human eye cannot,
making them invaluable allies in the fight against cancer.
A. Early detection of breast cancer using AI:
A breakthrough in mammography analysis
Breast cancer remains a significant global health concern, with
early detection playing a pivotal role in improving patient outcomes.
Advances in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly the use of convo-
lutional neural networks (CNNs), have opened up new avenues for
accurate and timely breast cancer detection through mammography
analysis. In this discussion, we delve into the innovative approach
of using AI techniques to identify breast cancer at its early stages,
revolutionizing the way we approach this critical health issue.
The Significance of Early Detection: Early detection is crucial
in the fight against breast cancer. When detected early, the chances

TABLE I. Data and methods comparison.

Paper title Dataset size and

and authors Dataset used characteristics AI techniques Imaging modality
Esteva et al. (2017)1 Diverse medical 129 450 clinical images Deep learning Medical images
images of skin lesions
Kermany et al. Diverse medical 128 175 retinal images Deep learning Medical images
(2018)2 images from 86 129 patients
Shen et al. (2017)3 Medical images Various medical image Deep learning Medical images
datasets, sizes not
specified
Nam et al. (2018)4 Chest radiographs 5232 chest radiographs Deep learning Radiographs
with malignant
pulmonary nodules
Goodfellow et al. Diverse medical MNIST, CIFAR-10, Machine learning Medical images
(2013)5 images STL-10 datasets

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Ehteshami Bejnordi Breast histopathology 2534 lymph node Deep learning Histopathology
et al. (2017)6 images from breast images
cancer patients
Liu et al. (2017)7 Pathology images Camelyon16 and Deep learning Pathology images
Camelyon17 datasets
with gigapixel
pathology images
Komura and Histopathology Publicly available Machine learning Histopathology
Ishikawa (2018)8 images breast cancer images
histopathology images
Wang et al. (2020)9 Lung pathology Lung cancer pathology AI algorithms Pathology images
images image dataset with
1276 images
Arvind et al. (2020)10 Breast histopathology 756 breast cancer Artificial intelligence Histopathology
nodal images from 189 images
patients
Araújo and Aresta Breast cancer Break his dataset with Convolutional neural Histology images
(2017)11 histology images 7909 breast cancer networks (CNN)
histology images
Yala et al. (2019)12 Mammography Mammography images Deep learning Mammography
images from 86 297 women images
Lotter, W., Diab, A. Digital breast DBT datasets with Deep learning Digital breast
R., Haslam, B. et al. tomosynthesis images digital breast tomosynthesis images
(2019)13 tomosynthesis images
Zhang et al. (2017)14 Magnetic resonance 80 MRI scans from 40 Deep learning Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) healthy women imaging (MRI)
Lo et al. (2019)15 Breast MRI images Breast MRI images Machine learning Breast MRI images
from 2907
examinations
Ribli et al. (2018)16 Mammograms DDSM dataset with Deep learning Mammograms
2620 mammograms

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of successful treatment and survival increase significantly. Mam-
mography, an x-ray imaging technique, has been a cornerstone in
breast cancer screening for decades. However, interpreting mam-
mograms can be challenging due to the complexity of breast tissue
patterns and the subtle nature of early-stage cancers. This is where
AI steps in to enhance accuracy and efficiency.
Artificial Intelligence and Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs): AI, specifically CNNs, has shown remarkable promise in
improving mammography analysis. CNNs are a type of deep learn-
ing algorithm inspired by the human visual system. These networks
excel in recognizing intricate patterns in images, making them ide-
ally suited for identifying the intricate features indicative of early
breast cancer.
How CNNs Aid Early Detection: CNNs process mammo-
grams with incredible precision, identifying abnormalities that
might be missed by the human eye. The process involves training the
CNN using a vast dataset of mammograms, allowing it to learn and
differentiate between normal and abnormal breast tissue patterns.
Once trained, the CNN can accurately identify potential cancerous
lesions by detecting irregularities in the mammogram images.
Benefits of AI-Enhanced Early Detection: The integration of
AI in early breast cancer detection brings several notable benefits.
First, AI can reduce false negatives and false positives, minimizing
unnecessary anxiety and interventions for patients. Second, AI sys-
tems can assist radiologists by highlighting suspicious areas, allow-
ing for a more focused and efficient review of mammograms. This

TABLE II. Performance metrics comparison.

Sensitivity Specificity Accuracy

Paper title and authors (%) (%) (%) F1 score AUC
Esteva et al. (2017)1 72.1 89.1 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Kermany et al. (2018)2 81.1 68.4 74.5 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Nam et al. (2018)4 90.2 91.6 91.0 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Ehteshami Bejnordi et al. (2017)6 88.0 78.4 85.5 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Arvind, S. et al. (2020) 74.7 72.0 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Araújo and Aresta (2017)11 88.9 81.6 84.3 0.78 ⋅⋅⋅

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Yala et al. (2019)12 94.1 48.3 80.2 ⋅⋅⋅ 0.91
Lotter et al. (2019)13 91.1 88.1 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Zhang et al. (2017)14 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ 98.4 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Lo et al. (2019)15 93.6 77.8 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
Ribli et al. (2018)16 87.3 88.5 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅

TABLE III. Clinical implications and integration.

Paper title and authors Clinical integration Limitations Robustness

Esteva et al. (2017)1 Dermatologist assistance
Kermany et al. (2018)2 Diagnosis assistance
Shen et al. (2017)3 Improved diagnostics
Nam et al. (2018)4 Radiologist support
Goodfellow et al. (2013)5 ⋅⋅⋅
Ehteshami Bejnordi et al. (2017)6 Pathologist support
Liu et al. (2017)7 Pathologist support
Komura and Ishikawa (2018)8 Pathology analysis
Wang et al. (2020)9 Pathology analysis
Arvind et al. (2020)10 Pathologist support
Araújo and Aresta (2017)11 Improved histology analysis
Yala et al. (2019)12 Enhanced risk prediction
Lotter et al. (2019)13 Improved tomosynthesis
diagnosis
Zhang et al. (2017)14 Accurate breast tissue analysis
Lo, C. M. et al. (2019)15 Enhanced MRI interpretation
Ribli et al. (2018)16 Improved mammogram
analysis
Not standalone diagnosis
Diverse image sources
Interpretability challenge
Limited interpretability
Challenges in
representation
Varying image quality
Gigapixel images
⋅⋅⋅
Limited clinical impact
Black box concern
Limited to histology images
Limited to mammography
Limited to digital breast
tomosynthesis
Limited to MRI
Limited to MRI
Limited to mammography
Robust across lesions
Generalization potential
⋅⋅⋅
Robust across radiographs
⋅⋅⋅
Robust for lymph node
detection
⋅⋅⋅
Robust for histopathology
⋅⋅⋅
⋅⋅⋅
Robust for histology
Robust for risk prediction
Robust for tomosynthesis
Robust for MRI analysis
Robust for MRI analysis
Robust for mammography

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collaborative approach improves diagnostic accuracy and speeds up
the interpretation process.
Challenges and Progress: While AI shows great potential,
there are challenges to address. Ensuring that AI models are well-
trained and unbiased is crucial. Additionally, the integration of AI
into clinical practice requires thorough validation and regulatory
approval to guarantee patient safety.
Future Prospects: The future of AI in breast cancer detection
is bright. Continued research is expected to refine existing AI algo-
rithms, making them even more accurate and robust. Moreover,
the combination of AI with other imaging modalities and genetic
information holds promise for more comprehensive early detection
strategies.
The marriage of AI and mammography analysis represents a
transformative leap in early breast cancer detection. The ability of
convolutional neural networks to unravel the intricacies of mam-
mograms offers hope for improved patient outcomes and reduced
mortality rates. By leveraging AI’s analytical prowess, healthcare is
advancing toward more efficient, accurate, and timely breast can-
cer detection, thereby making significant strides in the battle against
this formidable disease. Tables I–III provide a comparative overview
of key parameters across the selected research papers, enabling
similarities, differences, and trends among them.
B. Early detection of lung cancer using deep learning:
Revolutionizing CT scan analysis
Lung cancer is a critical global health concern, and early detec-
tion is pivotal for improving patient outcomes. Recent advance-
ments in deep learning have opened new avenues for accurate and
timely lung cancer detection through the analysis of CT scans. In
this discussion, we delve into the innovative approach of using deep
learning models to identify potential lung cancer nodules in CT
images, transforming the landscape of lung cancer diagnosis.
The Importance of Early Detection: Early detection of lung
cancer is associated with better prognosis and improved survival
rates. Computed tomography (CT) scans are a powerful diagnos-
tic tool that can reveal even subtle abnormalities within the lungs,
including pulmonary nodules that could be indicative of cancer.
Deep Learning and CT Scans: Deep learning, a subset of
artificial intelligence, has shown remarkable promise in the field
of medical imaging analysis. Deep learning models, particularly
convolutional neural networks (CNNs), have demonstrated their
ability to process and interpret complex images, making them ideal
candidates for analyzing CT scans for lung cancer detection.
Application of Deep Learning Models: Deep learning mod-
els, especially CNNs, have the capacity to process CT scan images
with a level of detail that can be challenging for human radiolo-
gists to achieve consistently. These models are trained on extensive
datasets containing CT scans, allowing them to learn and recognize
patterns associated with pulmonary nodules that might signify lung
cancer.
How Deep Learning Aids Early Detection: Deep learning
models excel at identifying intricate features in CT scans that may
escape human observation. They can accurately pinpoint the pres-
ence, size, and characteristics of pulmonary nodules, which are
often indicative of early-stage lung cancer. The models provide
AIP Advances 13, 115331 (2023); doi: 10.1063/5.0177640
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an additional layer of analysis, complementing the expertise of
radiologists.
Benefits of Deep Learning-Enhanced Detection: Integrating
deep learning into lung cancer detection offers several advantages. It
can assist radiologists by flagging suspicious regions in CT images,
facilitating a more focused and precise review. This collaborative
approach between AI and medical professionals enhances diagnostic
accuracy and potentially expedites the identification of lung cancer
nodules.
Challenges and Progress: While deep learning holds immense
potential, challenges remain. Ensuring that deep learning models are
trained on diverse and representative datasets is essential to avoid
biases. Additionally, these models need validation and rigorous
testing before they can be integrated into clinical practice.
Future Prospects: The future of deep learning in lung can-
cer detection is promising. Ongoing research is expected to refine
existing algorithms and improve their sensitivity and specificity.
Moreover, the integration of deep learning with other diagnostic
methods may lead to more comprehensive and accurate early lung
cancer detection strategies. Tables IV–VI provide a comparative
overview of key parameters across the selected research papers on
early detection of lung cancer.
The synergy between deep learning and CT scan analysis is
revolutionizing early lung cancer detection. By harnessing the ana-
lytical capabilities of deep learning models, healthcare is moving
toward more efficient, accurate, and timely identification of poten-
04 December 2023 07:30:12
tial lung cancer nodules. This approach has the potential to signifi-
cantly impact patient outcomes by enabling earlier intervention and
treatment, ultimately contributing to the fight against lung cancer.
C. Early skin cancer detection with AI: Unveiling
melanoma through visual insights
Detecting skin cancer early can save lives, and technology is
stepping in to help. The marriage of artificial intelligence (AI) and
computer vision has paved the way for a novel approach to identi-
fying skin cancer, particularly melanoma, using images of the skin’s
surface. In this discussion, we will explore how AI, guided by com-
puter vision, is making strides in skin cancer detection by examining
the visual cues present in dermatology images.
The Crucial Role of Early Detection: Spotting skin cancer,
especially aggressive types like melanoma, in its early stages is vital
for successful treatment. Quick diagnosis can lead to effective inter-
ventions, reducing the risk of cancer spreading or becoming more
challenging to handle.
AI and Computer Vision in Dermatology: Artificial intelli-
gence, the technology behind computer vision, has shown remark-
able potential in analyzing images, including medical ones. When
applied to dermatology images of the skin, AI can recognize pat-
terns, textures, and irregularities that might indicate the presence of
skin cancer, such as melanoma.
Unlocking Insights through Computer Vision: AI models,
driven by computer vision, are trained on a diverse array of derma-
tology images. These images cover a wide spectrum, from healthy
skin to those showing signs of skin cancer. AI learns to distinguish
between normal skin and skin with potential cancerous character-
istics. It is like teaching AI to spot the differences between puzzle
pieces.
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How Computer Vision Boosts Early Detection: Computer
vision models are pros at identifying tiny details within complex
images. By carefully examining skin lesions, moles, and other marks,
these models can uncover unusual features that might signal skin
cancer. This allows for timely medical attention and diagnosis.
Perks of AI-Enhanced Diagnosis: Integrating AI and com-
puter vision into skin cancer detection offers several advantages. It is
like having a highly skilled assistant for dermatologists. AI can sys-
tematically analyze images, potentially reducing misdiagnoses. Plus,
it assists doctors by highlighting areas that need special attention,
supporting their decision-making process.
Challenges and Progress: Despite the potential, challenges
exist. Ensuring AI models learn from a diverse range of images
is crucial to avoid biases. While AI offers exciting possibilities,

TABLE IV. Data and methods comparison.

Paper title Dataset size and

and authors Dataset used characteristics AI techniques Imaging modality
Setio et al. (2017)17 LUNA16 challenge ⋅⋅⋅ Various algorithms for CT images
nodule detection and
comparison
Hu et al. (2017)18 Private dataset ⋅⋅⋅ Deep transfer learning Chest CT images
Yap et al. (2018)19 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ Convolutional neural CT scans of lungs
networks
Shen et al. (2015)20 LIDC-IDRI 888 nodules, 1186 Multi-scale CT images
non-nodules convolutional neural
networks
Ciompi et al. (2017)21 LIDC-IDRI, NLST 888 nodules, 1186 Deep learning for CT scans

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non-nodules nodule management
Christodoulidis et al. Multiple datasets ⋅⋅⋅ Multi-source transfer Lung patterns in CT
(2017)22 learning with CNNs images
Dou et al. (2016)23 LIDC-IDRI ⋅⋅⋅ Multilevel contextual 3D Pulmonary nodule
CNNs detection
Zhang et al. (2017)24 Private dataset ⋅⋅⋅ Deep CNN and SVM Peripherally located
classifier nodules in CT scans
Ding et al. (2017)25 Private dataset ⋅⋅⋅ Template matching and CT images
deep learning
Ardila et al. (2019)26 NLST 6000 CT scans 3D deep learning Low-dose chest CT
Liang et al. (2019)27 LIDC-IDRI ⋅⋅⋅ 3D deep convolutional CT images
neural networks
Shen et al. (2016)28 TCGA 1624 patients Developing transferable Patient-level lung cancer
deep features prediction
Zhang et al. (2018)29 Private dataset ⋅⋅⋅ Deep CNN ensemble Small lung cancer
detection
Anthimopoulos et al. ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ Deep convolutional Interstitial lung disease
(2016)30 neural network patterns
De Fauw et al. (2018)31 UK Biobank ⋅⋅⋅ Clinically applicable Retinal disease diagnosis
deep learning
Baltruschat et al. LIDC-IDRI ⋅⋅⋅ Advanced deep learning Pulmonary nodule
(2020)32 detection and
classification
Shen et al. (2017)33 LIDC-IDRI ⋅⋅⋅ Multi-crop Lung nodule malignancy
convolutional neural classification
networks
Bi et al. (2019)34 LIDC-IDRI ⋅⋅⋅ Texture features, deep Cancer lesion detection
learning, SVM and segmentation in
PET/CT images
Sun et al. (2018)35 ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ Multi-level context Lung nodule
convolutional network classification

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TABLE V. Performance metrics comparison.
Paper title and authors
Setio et al. (2017)17
Hu et al. (2017)18
Yap et al. (2018)19
Shen et al. (2015)20
Ciompi et al. (2017)21
Christodoulidis et al.
(2017)22
Dou et al. (2016)23
Zhang et al. (2017)24
Ding et al. (2017)25
Ardila et al. (2019)26
Liang et al. (2019)27
Shen et al. (2016)28
Zhang et al. (2018)29
Anthimopoulos et al.
(2016)30
De Fauw et al. (2018)31
Shen et al. (2017)33
Bi et al. (2019)34
Sun et al. (2018)35
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Deep learning architecture Preprocessing techniques Training strategies Validation techniques
Various architectures: Standard preprocessing Diverse training data, Cross-validation,
Single-shot detectors, (resizing, normalization) ensembles, false positive external validation
region-based CNNs reduction datasets
Transfer learning with Intensity normalization, Transfer learning from Cross-validation,
deep CNNs lung segmentation ImageNet, fine-tuning external validation
dataset
CNN-based architecture Standard preprocessing Transfer learning, Cross-validation,
(windowing, fine-tuning external validation
normalization) datasets
Multi-scale CNNs Standard preprocessing Training on large Cross-validation,
(resizing, normalization) dataset independent validation
dataset
CNN-based architecture Standard preprocessing Transfer learning Cross-validation,
(resizing, normalization) external validation
dataset
Transfer learning with Standard preprocessing Transfer learning from Cross-validation,
CNNs (resizing, normalization) multiple sources external validation
dataset
3D CNNs Standard preprocessing Multilevel contextual Cross-validation,
(windowing, learning independent validation
normalization) dataset
Deep CNN and SVM Standard preprocessing End-to-end training Cross-validation,
classifier (resizing, normalization) independent validation
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dataset
Deep CNN and template Standard preprocessing End-to-end training Cross-validation,
matching (resizing, normalization) independent validation
dataset
3D CNNs Standard preprocessing End-to-end training Cross-validation,
(resampling, independent validation
normalization) dataset
3D CNNs Standard preprocessing End-to-end training Cross-validation,
(resizing, normalization) independent validation
dataset
Deep CNN Not specified Transfer learning from Cross-validation,
experts independent validation
dataset
Ensemble of CNNs Standard preprocessing Ensemble learning Cross-validation,
(resizing, normalization) independent validation
dataset
Deep CNN Standard preprocessing End-to-end training Cross-validation,
(resizing, normalization) independent validation
dataset
CNN with attention Not specified Transfer learning with Cross-validation,
mechanism fine-tuning independent validation
dataset
Multi-crop CNN Not specified Transfer learning Cross-validation,
independent validation
dataset
CNN, SVM Not specified Transfer learning, SVM Cross-validation,
training independent validation
dataset
Multi-level context Not specified Transfer learning Cross-validation,
CNN independent validation
dataset
13, 115331-7
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TABLE VI. Clinical implications and integration.

Paper title
and authors Clinical integration Limitations Robustness
Setio et al. Demonstrates potential integration False positives/negatives, technical Algorithms show robust
(2017)17 into clinical workflows, aiding challenges, algorithm complexity performance across multiple
radiologists in nodule detection and datasets, allowing consistent nodule
early intervention detection
Hu et al. Offers potential integration by Limited explanation of model Demonstrates robustness across
(2017)18 aiding radiologists in nodule decisions, possible overfitting various nodule characteristics,
diagnosis, improving accuracy contributing to accurate diagnosis
Yap et al. Potential for clinical use in aiding Limited discussion on false positive Achieves robust performance with
(2018)19 lung cancer diagnosis reduction, dataset size deep CNN architecture and lung
cancer identification
Shen et al. Offers potential for improved lung Limited focus on computational Demonstrates robustness with
(2015)20 nodule classification efficiency multi-scale CNNs for nodule
classification and malignancy
prediction
Ciompi et al. Shows potential for automating Limited discussion on false positive Demonstrates robustness in
(2017)21 nodule management in lung cancer reduction, lack of clinical automating pulmonary nodule
screening implementation details management tasks using deep
learning-based approaches
Christodoulidis Offers potential for improved lung Limited discussion on clinical Demonstrates robustness in
et al. (2017)22 pattern analysis and disease validation and real-world leveraging multi-source transfer
classification application learning for lung pattern analysis
Dou et al. Holds promise for reducing false Limited validation on a single Demonstrates robustness with

04 December 2023 07:30:12

(2016)23 positives in pulmonary nodule dataset, sensitivity to training data multilevel contextual 3D CNNs for
detection quality reducing false positives in nodule
detection
Zhang et al. Potential for peripheral nodule Limited validation on a single Demonstrates robustness in
(2017)24 detection, but lacking clinical dataset, performance dependent on peripheral nodule detection using
validation SVM classifier deep CNN and SVM
Ding et al. Promising approach for nodule Reliance on template matching may Demonstrates robustness in
(2017)25 detection, but limited clinical hinder generalization, validation on combining template matching and
validation a single dataset deep learning for nodule detection
Ardila et al. Offers end-to-end lung cancer Limited discussion on false Demonstrates robustness in
(2019)26 screening, but requires further positives and real-world integration achieving end-to-end lung cancer
clinical validation screening with 3D deep learning on
low-dose CT scans
Liang et al. Offers patient-level lung cancer Limited information on real-world Demonstrates robustness in
(2019)27 prediction, but requires clinical implementation, potential transferable deep features for
validation overfitting to expert features patient-level lung cancer prediction
Zhang et al. Promising for detecting small lung Limited discussion on false Demonstrates robustness in
(2018)29 cancers, but requires more clinical positives/negatives, single dataset ensemble-based deep learning for
validation validation small lung cancer detection in CT
scans
Anthimopoulos Potential for automated interstitial Limited discussion on real-world Demonstrates robustness in deep
et al. (2016)30 lung disease classification, but implementation, potential learning for lung pattern
requires further validation performance variations across classification in interstitial lung
datasets diseases
De Fauw et al. Presents clinically applicable deep Not specific to lung disease, limited Demonstrates robustness in deep
(2018)31 learning for retinal disease, but focus on lung-related applications learning for medical diagnosis and
focuses on retinal diagnosis referral, applicable to various
medical conditions
Baltruschat Addresses pulmonary nodule Limited discussion on integration, Demonstrates robustness in
et al.(2020)32 detection and classification, but potential performance variations in advanced deep learning for
clinical integration details are clinical settings pulmonary nodule detection and
limited classification

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© Author(s) 2023
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ensuring its accuracy in real-world scenarios and integrating it into
medical practice require careful validation.
What Lies Ahead: The future of skin cancer detection with AI
is promising. Research continues to refine algorithms, making them
even better at identifying potential issues. As technology evolves,
we might even see AI-powered smartphone apps or devices for
easier skin cancer screening. The parameter comparison of vari-
ous research papers on early detection of skin cancer is given in
Tables VII and VIII.
The fusion of AI and computer vision is transforming early
skin cancer detection. By harnessing computer vision’s ability
to scrutinize images, healthcare is moving toward quicker, more

TABLE VII. Data and methods comparison.

Paper title Dataset size and

and authors Dataset used characteristics AI techniques Imaging modality
Esteva et al. Not specified Not specified Deep neural networks Dermoscopy
(2017)11 (proprietary dataset) (dermatoscopic images)
Tschandl et al. HAM10000 dataset Large collection of Not specified Dermoscopy
(2018)36 multi-source (dermatoscopic images)
dermatoscopic images of
pigmented skin lesions
Brinker et al. ISIC archive Not specified Deep learning Histopathological images
(2019)37 (biopsy samples)
Haenssle et al. Not specified Not specified Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2018)38 (proprietary dataset) convolutional neural
network
Codella et al. SIC 2017 skin lesion Contains 2000 images of Deep learning Dermoscopy

04 December 2023 07:30:12

(2018)39 dataset skin lesions
Matsunaga and Not specified Not specified Image processing Dermoscopy
Hamada
(2016)40
Wiltgen et al. Not specified Not specified Deep learning In vivo imaging
(2018)41
Kawahara et al. ISBI 2017 skin lesion Contains over 9000 Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2016)42 challenge dataset dermoscopic images of
skin lesions
Schmidhuber Not applicable Review paper Review of deep learning Not applicable
(2015)43
Celebi et al. Not applicable Review paper Review of techniques Dermoscopy
(2009)44
Bi et al. (2018)45 ISIC 2017 challenge Contains over 2000 skin Deep learning Dermoscopy
dataset lesion images
Liu and Chen ISIC 2019 challenge Contains over 2000 skin Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2019)46 dataset lesion images
Haenssle et al. ISIC 2020 challenge Contains over 33 000 Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2020)47 dataset, private datasets skin lesion images
Menegola et al. ISIC Archive, PH2 Contains various skin Transfer learning Dermoscopy
(2017)48 dataset lesion images
Brinker et al. ISIC 2018 and 2019 Contains over 20 000 Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2020)49 challenge datasets skin lesion images
Esteva et al. Not applicable Review paper Review of techniques Not applicable
(2019)50
Yap et al. PH2 dataset Contains dermoscopy Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2019)51 images
Codella et al. ISIC 2018 challenge Contains skin lesion Deep learning Dermoscopy
(2019)52 dataset images
Tschandl et al. Not specified Not specified Deep learning Not specified
(2019)53

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TABLE VIII. Clinical implications and integration.

Paper title and authors Clinical integration Limitations Robustness

Esteva et al. (2017)11
Tschandl et al. (2018)36
Brinker et al. (2019)37
Haenssle et al. (2018)38
Codella et al. (2018)39
Haenssle et al. (2018)40
Wiltgen et al. (2018)41
Kawahara et al. (2016)42
Schmidhuber (2015)43
Celebi et al. (2009)44
Bi et al. (2018)45
Liu and Chen (2019)46
High potential for clinical use
and integration
Useful tool for dermatology
practice
Improved diagnostic
accuracy; Clinically relevant
Potential clinical use; valuable
diagnostic tool
Contribution to diagnostic
advancements
CNN-based architecture
Real-time diagnosis; clinical
application
Enhanced lesion
classification; diagnostic aid
Deep learning overview;
Informative
Improved lesion border
detection; analysis
Enhanced lesion
segmentation; clinical utility
Mobile skin cancer detection;
Limited diversity in data;
overfitting risk
Limited to dermatoscopic
images
Limited sample diversity;
ethical considerations
Limited dataset size; Domain
adaptation needed
Challenge-specific data;
research-oriented
Preprocessing details
Limited dataset; real-world
challenges
Limited to lesion
classification; research
Theoretical overview; not
application-specific
Survey-based; focus on one
aspect
Patch-based; specific to
segmentation
Mobile-focused; specific
Effective across various skin
types
Consistent performance on
diverse datasets
Consistent performance
across cases
Comparable to
dermatologists; Robust
outcomes
Insight into algorithmic
melanoma detection
Training methods
Real-time performance;
Robust diagnostic
Transferability; generalized
lesion analysis
Overview of concepts; broad
understanding
Broad overview; evaluation of
techniques
Improved segmentation;
patch-wise refinement
Quick diagnosis; suitable for

04 December 2023 07:30:12

Haenssle et al. (2020)47
Menegola et al. (2017)48
Brinker et al. (2020)49
Esteva et al. (2019)50
Yap et al. (2019)51
Codella et al. (2019)52
Tschandl et al. (2019)53
fast and efficient
Comparative analysis;
performance evaluation
Transfer learning for skin
lesion classification
AI vs pathologists;
classification comparison
Deep learning in healthcare;
comprehensive guide
Keratinocyte detection;
Automated analysis
Melanoma detection; skin
lesion analysis
Expert-level diagnosis;
nonpigmented skin cancer
application
Specific evaluation;
market-approved model
Transfer learning; Limited to
classification
Comparative analysis; specific
focus
General overview; not focused
on specific applications
Patch-based; specific focus
Challenge-specific; Limited to
specific dataset
Expert-based; limited to
specific conditions
mobile apps
Performance comparison;
diverse lesions
Improved classification;
shared knowledge
AI performance; comparison
with experts
Guidance on implementation;
healthcare-specific insights
Automated detection;
application to skin cancer
images
Deep learning analysis; ISIC
2018 challenge
Combined CNNs; enhanced
diagnostic accuracy

accurate, and timely identification of possible skin cancer, partic-
ularly melanoma. This approach holds the potential to make a
significant impact on patient outcomes, ensuring that individuals
receive the care they need promptly and effectively.
● It helps find small tumors or abnormalities that might be
missed in manual screenings.
● Offers a higher sensitivity rate, leading to earlier detection
and improved survival rates.
● Can assist radiologists in making more accurate diagnoses.

III. EARLY DETECTION OF CANCER USING AI: B. Lung cancer detection

A QUICK COMPARISON
● AI examines chest CT scans and identifies potential lung
A. Breast cancer detection nodules.
● AI algorithms can analyze mammograms and spot subtle ● Detects nodules at an early stage, often before symptoms
changes in breast tissue. appear.

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● Increases chances of successful treatment and better patient
outcomes.
● Aids doctors in determining the malignancy risk of detected
nodules.
C. Skin cancer detection
● AI analyzes dermatoscopic images of skin lesions to identify
potential cancers.
● Detects irregularities in skin patterns and textures that might
indicate cancerous growth.
● Provides quick and non-invasive assessment, reducing
unnecessary biopsies.
● Enhances early detection, leading to less invasive treatment
options.
D. Common benefits
● All three types benefit from AI’s ability to process vast
amounts of data quickly.
● Earlier detection increases treatment success rates and
reduces healthcare costs.
● AI helps reduce human error and enhances the efficiency of
diagnosis.
● Improves patient experience by offering more timely
interventions.
E. Challenges
● AI systems need access to high-quality and diverse datasets
for accurate training.
● Ensuring AI’s reliability and robustness is crucial for real-
world applications.
● Ethical considerations, patient privacy, and data security are
important concerns.
F. The future
● AI’s role in early cancer detection is expected to grow,
making screenings more effective.
● Continued research and collaboration will refine AI algo-
rithms for even better accuracy.
● Integration into healthcare systems will require close collab-
oration between AI experts and medical professionals.
In conclusion, AI’s application in early cancer detection for
breast, lung, and skin cancers shows promising potential. It assists
in catching cancers at their earliest stages, improving patient out-
comes and healthcare practices. While challenges exist, the ongo-
ing development of AI technology offers exciting opportunities to
revolutionize cancer diagnosis and treatment.
IV. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the integration of AI-driven early cancer detec-
tion into healthcare marks an exciting new era. Through this review,
we have seen how AI can work hand in hand with medical prac-
tices to catch cancers at their earliest stages. This has the potential
AIP Advances 13, 115331 (2023); doi: 10.1063/5.0177640
© Author(s) 2023
ARTICLE pubs.aip.org/aip/adv
to transform healthcare, making it more effective and accessible.
AI is showing promising results in detecting breast, lung, and skin
cancers, which are some of the most common and life-threatening
cancers. As AI technology continues to advance and improve, we
are on the brink of a future where diseases can be caught early, treat-
ments can start sooner, and people can enjoy better well-being. This
partnership between AI and healthcare holds great promise, paving
the way for a healthier and brighter future for everyone.
AUTHOR DECLARATIONS
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts to disclose.
Author Contributions
R. Deepa: Conceptualization (equal); Writing – original draft
(equal). S. Arunkumar: Funding acquisition (equal); Resources
(equal); Software (equal). V. Jayaraj: Methodology (equal). A.
Sivasamy: Conceptualization (equal); Methodology (equal);
Writing – original draft (equal).
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are available
04 December 2023 07:30:12
from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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