There are several communication systems that make use of ICT technology.

For example: » newsletters and posters » websites »

multimedia presentations » media streaming » e-publications. 6.1.1 Communication media Newsletters and posters Newsletters and
posters can be produced very easily using, most commonly, a word processor. Often, the newsletter or poster will have photos which
have In this chapter you will learn about: ★ communication ★ modelling applications: – financial, civil engineering – flood water
management – traffic management – weather forecasting ★ computer-controlled systems ★ school management systems ★ online
booking systems ★ banking applications ★ computers in medicine – information systems – 3D printing ★ expert systems ★
computers in the retail industry ★ recognition systems – OMR – QR codes – OCR – RFID – NFC – biometric ★ satellite systems ★ GPS,
GIS and media communication This chapter will cover a number of different applications associated with the use of ICT. Many of the
applications bring together notes from earlier and later chapters in this book. There are many more examples of the use of ICT, and
you may wish to investigate other uses within the framework of syllabus requirements. Exercises throughout the chapter, and exam-
style questions at the end of the chapter, will allow you to test your understanding of the various ICT applications which have been
covered. 111 6.1 Communication been taken specially or have been downloaded from the internet (with the permission of the
copyright holder). The following sequence is fairly typical of how such a document would be produced on a computer system. The
sequence is not always necessarily in the order shown; it can vary depending on what already exists or what needs to be created): »
First a word-processor application would be opened » Photos could be obtained by: – using a digital camera and taking photos –
searching for images/photos on the internet, or suitable photos could already be stored on the hard drive or cloud – using hard copy
photos, which could be scanned in. » If necessary, camera images would then be uploaded (either by connecting the camera or
camera memory card) to the computer via a USB port, or by using Bluetooth connectivity). » Photos from all selected sources would
then be saved to a file on the HDD or SSD. » When the user is finally ready to produce the document, the photos would be imported
from the file stored on the HDD/SSD. » Once imported, photos would need to be cropped, edited and/or resized. » Text would be
typed in using a keyboard. » Alternatively, any previously saved text would need to be imported. » Photos need to be placed in their
correct position and the text wrapped. » Finally, the whole document would need to undergo proofreading for errors and then saved,
ready for printing. Very often, other features, such as a spell checker, would be used to make sure no mistakes had been made. Care
needs to be taken when using a spell checker for the following reasons: » The language used in checking the spelling could be
different; for example, British English and American English often have different spellings of words. » Names or proper nouns might
be highlighted as an error by the spell checker, but may be acceptable. » Similar sounding words need to be checked; for example,
where, were or wear all sound the same but have very different meanings – these will not be picked up by the spell checker (but
might be picked up by a grammar checker). » The (correct) highlighted word may not exist in the spell checker dictionary. Exercise 6a
Find out what other word-processing features would need to be used when producing a newsletter or poster. For each feature
identified, write down how you would use it to produce a professional-looking document. Link Other wordprocessing features could
be used when producing the newsletter or poster; refer to Chapter 17 for more information. A newsletter is a very useful method for
getting important information to a target group. If, for example, you are doing a fundraising exercise, a wellpresented newsletter to
accompany the fundraising would be invaluable. Newsletters can be either printed out or available online as an e-publication (see
later in this chapter); the method used depends on who the target audience is. With a printed document handed personally to
somebody, you can be certain they have seen the newsletter – but in both cases it is nearly impossible to be certain that they have
read it! 112 6 ICT applications A few of the common guidelines to produce an attractive newsletter include: » Do not try and squeeze
too much information onto one page. » Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts (for example, Arial or Trebuchet MS) and use a suitable font
 size (11-, 12- or 14-point font size). » Decide on whether to use columns (a useful feature if there are diagrams and photos). » Avoid
using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’! » Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text. » Use real photos rather
than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting. Posters are a good way of publicising, for example, a sporting event or an
advertisement for a forthcoming movie. A sporting event poster would need to include at least the following information: » what the
event is and where it will take place » date, time and place of event » admission fees (if any) » contact details » other information
(such as whether there will be a crèche or facilities for people with disabilities). The movie poster would need to include: » an image
taken from the movie to give some idea of the type of movie (that is, comedy, horror, science fiction, and so on) » the date of release
» a list of the main characters. Exercise 6b Using a word processor, produce two posters for the following: a an upcoming charity
event where there will be stalls selling food and gifts b a music band advertising the release of their new song. Refer to chapters in
the second half of this book wherever necessary. ▲ Figure 6.1 Examples of posters THE HODDER WELLY THROWING CONTEST Come
and see us at the Wellington Cricket Ground on August 22nd 2022 from 1 pm untill 4 pm. No entry fee. Créche, reception tent, free
parking JACKSON ROSE TIGER DUDE TRUE CRIME TRUE CRIME August 22nd 2022 113 6.1 Communication As with newsletters,
posters can be printed out using high-quality printers or can be posted online. Printed posters can be any size. Large posters have the
advantage that they are eye-catching and usually very difficult to miss. They are used in many countries on the sides of roads so
motorists see them on their way to work. By placing the posters in strategic positions, it is possible to target certain people rather
than the general public (for example, advertising expensive cars by placing the posters on buildings or advertising hoardings in
financial districts in big cities). The drawback is the cost of display (the advertising areas can only be rented) and that they are subject
to weather conditions, so only have a limited life. Websites Rather than producing newsletters and posters by printing them out, it is
possible to use websites for advertising. This method of advertising requires a company to either develop their own website or pay
another company to advertise on their website. Using the first option may require the company to either employ a team of web
designers or go to a specialist company with experience in website design. It may also be necessary to buy hardware and software to
develop and store the website. This method can therefore be expensive, but the cost does not stop there. It will be necessary to use
programmers to make sure that their website is safe from hackers and from pharming attacks. It has, however, become much easier
and cheaper for individuals or small organisations to create and host their own website, using off-the-shelf content management
systems to organise content, and pay hosting fees to rent space on a web server. The big advantage to websites is that they offer
worldwide advertising capability and there is no need to buy paper and other consumables, or pay people to deliver newsletters or
flyers. Before deciding which is the best way to advertise their goods or services, companies have to weigh up the advantages and
disadvantages of both methods. Websites tend to be used to advertise goods or services which require national or international
coverage. They can cover almost anything from car sales to advertising a musician’s forthcoming album. The main reasons for using
websites, rather than newsletters or posters for advertising products and services, are summarised in Table 6.1. ▼ Table 6.1
Advantages and disadvantages of using websites for communication Advantages Disadvantages » sound/video/animation can be
added » links to other pages and websites can be added in hyperlinks and hot spots » buttons to navigate/move around the website,
leading to more information » ‘hit counters’ allow the owner to see detailed information about how many people have visited the
website » can be seen by a global audience » cannot be defaced or thrown away » it is much easier to update a website (and there is
no need to do a reprint and then distribute the new version) » websites can be hacked into and modified or viruses introduced » risk
of potential pharming » it is necessary for the potential customers to have a computer and internet connection » it is not as portable
as a paper-based system (although with modern smartphones and phablets this is fast becoming untrue) » possible for customers to
go to undesirable websites (either by accident or as a result of a pharming attack) – this can lead to distrust from customers » there is
 a need for the company to maintain the website once it is set up – this can be expensive » because it is a global system, it is more
difficult to target the correct audience using website advertising » still need to find a way for people to find out about the website
114 6 ICT applications Multimedia presentations Presentations that use animation, video and sound or music are generally much
more interesting than static presentations done on slides or paper. Presentations are produced using one of the many software
packages on the market and then used with a multimedia projector so that the whole audience is able to see the presentation. There
are many advantages and disadvantages for this type of presentation, with some examples listed below. Advantages of multimedia
presentations » use of sound and animation/video effects which are more likely to grab the attention of the audience, and can make
the presentation easier to understand » possible to have interactive hyperlinks built into the presentation; this means the
presentation could access a company’s website or even key files stored on the cloud (such as video footage, images, spreadsheets
and so on) » use of transition effects allow a presentation to display facts in a key or chronological order » can be interactive » more
flexible; because of the links to websites and other external systems (for example, the cloud), the presentation can be tailored to suit
a particular audience. Disadvantages of multimedia presentations » a need to have special equipment which can be expensive »
danger that equipment could fail while giving multimedia presentations » there may need to be internet access » danger when using
multimedia in presentations that the focus is on the medium (that is, the multimedia presentation) rather than the message or facts
» very easy to make a bad presentation with too many animation effects and too much text or images. Media streaming Media
streaming is when users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the internet. When using media streaming
there is no need to actually download and save the video or audio files. Streaming is a continuous transmission of video or audio files
from a remote server where the files are stored. This means data is transmitted and played in real time. In contrast, when
downloading it is necessary for the user to store the entire file on the computer’s HDD or SSD before they can watch the video or
listen to the music. This uses up valuable storage space and download times for a two-hour video can be up to one hour, depending
on the internet speed and the video quality. With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is interpreted
by the web browser. Streaming only works well if the internet speed is stable, and at least 25 Mbits/second (for an HD video). Link
Refer to Chapter 19 for more information on producing presentations. 115 6.1 Communication Because the playback of the media
files is usually much faster than the rate at which data is received over the internet, data packets are buffered in the computer.
Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing. While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will be sending the
data from the previous data packets to the playback device. In this way, there appears to be no gaps in the received data. Obviously,
having a large buffer will considerably reduce the possibility of freezing the play back. Data packet 9 Data packet 8 Data packet 7
Playback device Data packets being received Data packets sent to playback device BUFFER ▲ Figure 6.3 Buffering of media stream ▲
Figure 6.2 Media streaming data packets data packet 6 data packet 5 data packet 4 data packet 3 data packet 2 data packet 1 web
server storing media files e-publications Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic format. For
example: » e-books » digital magazines » digital newspapers » digital libraries. In all cases, the publication can be downloaded to a
device connected to the internet where it can be read. Moving between pages is usually done by swiping a finger across the screen.
E-publications also have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size and it is possible to include media, which would be
impossible with the more traditional paper-based publications. Specific devices, such as the Kindle, have been developed to allow a
library of e-books to be stored on the device. These devices use a white background with black text to fully replicate reading a normal
book. Because no printing costs are incurred, e-publications are usually cheaper than their paper-based counterparts. 116 6 ICT
applications 6.1.2 Mobile communication Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to
cover large areas. The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network. Exercise 6c Write down as many
 advantages and disadvantages you can think of for offering customers e-publications rather than paper-based publications. Write a
paragraph describing each advantage and disadvantage. Cell showing tower at the centre. Each cell overlaps giving mobile phone
coverage ▲ Figure 6.4 Each cell overlaps, giving mobile phone coverage. Each tower transmits within its own cell. If you are driving a
car and get to the edge of a cell, the mobile phone signal starts to weaken. This is recognised by the network and the mobile phone
then picks up the signal in one of the adjacent cells. If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a different country,
then satellite technology is used to enable the communication to take place. Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity
module) card to allow it to connect to the mobile phone cellular network, or they use wireless internet connectivity. Together they
allow all of the following features: » SMS (short message service) messaging » phone calls » Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
communication » video calling » internet access. SMS (text) messaging SMS or text messaging allows a very quick way of
communicating with another person by typing on a keyboard (the keyboard is often virtual on a mobile phone or tablet). Its
advantage is that the other person does not need to be available, and can pick up the message as and when they want. SMS/text
messaging between phones using the same cellular network may be free-of-charge. Some of the features of SMS/text messaging
include: » quicker and less expensive than making phone calls » can be sent at any time of the day even if the recipient’s phone is
switched off » predictive texting, where the system completes a word from the first few letters keyed in; for example, key in ‘preci’
and the phone completes the word as ‘precious’; predictive texting also allows the system to remember frequently used words –
together they increase typing speed. 117 6.1 Communication Phone calls Probably the most obvious use of a mobile phone is its
ability to make a phone call on the move. Because mobile phones are so small and they have their own power source, they are an
ideal way of keeping in touch anywhere, provided there is a network signal. Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline
systems and for that reason alone, landline phones are still in common use. Using mobile phones to make phone calls has the
following advantages: » There is no need to look for an operational public telephone in an emergency. » It is possible to conduct
business or personal phone calls on the move. » It is easier to keep in contact with co-workers at the office no matter where you are.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video calling One of the most common forms of internet telephony (that is, having a
telephone conversation via the internet) is Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method used
to talk to people using the internet. VoIP converts sound, picked up by the mobile device’s internal microphone, into discrete digital
data packets that can be sent to their destination via the internet. The internet can be accessed via a mobile phone network or a
broadband network and the voice calls are sent over the internet using VoIP technology. One of the big advantages is that phone calls
themselves are free, no matter where in the world the caller and receiver are (there may be a cost to send lots of data over the
internet via a mobile phone network, however). The main problems are usually sound quality (echo and ‘weird sounds’ are both
common faults). Security is also a main concern with VoIP, as it is with other internet technologies. The most prominent security
issues over VoIP are identity theft, viruses and malware (malicious software), spamming (unwanted emails) and phishing attacks (the
act of sending an email to a user, falsely claiming to be an established legitimate enterprise, in an attempt to scam the user into
surrendering private information that will be used for identity theft). One of the big advantages of using VoIP is that the device’s built-
in cameras can also be used so that it becomes a type of video call. While this does not have the sophistication of a true video
conference, it is much cheaper (no need for special software and additional hardware items – VoIP uses built-in microphones,
speakers and cameras). This relies on good broadband or mobile phone network coverage. Video calling uses software such as
FaceTime or Zoom. Both these options require the user to download an app. FaceTime makes use of the built-in smartphone cameras
and microphone/speakers. A split screen allows you to see a number of people at the same time; although the small screen size limits
the potential of this feature. Zoom is a cloud-based video calling service that allows live video chatting on any device. It is also
 possible to record sessions to be played back at a later date. Cloud-based video calling prevents the need for users to invest in
expensive infrastructure; users can simply dial into a virtual meeting room which makes it much cheaper than conventional video
conferencing. Link For more information on the features of mobile phones, refer back to Chapter 1. Link For more on security threats
see Section 8.3. 118 6 ICT applications Video calls permit: » live video and audio chat » screen-sharing during the call » recording
during sessions. Internet access Access to the internet from a mobile device is another valuable feature. Any mobile device can
connect to the internet either using a wireless broadband connection or via the mobile phone network. Due to the use of smaller
screens, internet pages displayed on mobile phones are often different to those on desktop or laptop computers. Software detects
which type of device is connecting to a website, which then sends out the web page optimised for that device. Mobile devices also
have a built-in feature which automatically selects wireless broadband connectivity (if possible), instead of the mobile phone
network, when connecting to the internet. This has the following advantages: » less expensive (mobile phone company ‘data plans’
often have a cap on how much data can be downloaded, and charge for exceeding this maximum) » lower power consumption (Wi-Fi
routers are usually much closer than the mobile phone towers; the longer the range, the greater the power consumption) » quality of
service (Wi-Fi usually offers greater bandwidth than the mobile phone network giving the possibility of downloading more data more
quickly). 6.2 Modelling applications 6.2.1 Computer modelling A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to
study the behaviour of the system. The model is computer-generated and is based on mathematical representations. The whole idea
is to try and find out how a system behaves, predict the behaviour of the system in the future and see if it is possible to influence this
future behaviour. Advantages of using models » Using computer models is less expensive than having to build the real thing (for
example, a bridge!). » On many occasions it is safer to use a computer model (some real situations are hazardous, for example,
chemical processes). » Computer modelling allows you to try out various different scenarios in advance. » It is nearly impossible to
try out some tasks in advance in real life because of the high risk involved or the remoteness (for example, in space, under the sea, in
nuclear reactors, when crash testing cars, etc.). » It is often faster to use a computer model than do the real thing (some applications
would take years before a result was known, for example, climatechange calculations, population growth, etc.). ▲ Figure 6.5 Cloud
video calling Link See Chapter 4 for more on Wi-Fi networks. 119 6.2 Modelling applications Disadvantages of using models » A model
is only as good as the programming or the data entered; the simulation will depend heavily on these two factors. » Although building
the real thing can be expensive, sometimes computer modelling is also a very costly option, and the two costs need to be compared
before deciding which to use. » People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive; they may not trust the results it
produces (there will always be a difference between the results from modelling and reality). Examples where computer modelling is
used include: » personal finance » bridge and building design » flood water management » traffic management » weather
forecasting. Personal finance Figure 6.6 uses a spreadsheet to model the sales of a tuck shop in a school. A B C D E F G 1 Item Price
Selling Profit Weekly Number Total Profit 2 each ($) price ($) per item shop cost sold per item ($) 3 ($) 4 chew 1.00 1.50 0.50 35 17.50
5 chox 2.00 2.50 0.50 45 22.50 6 gum 3.00 3.50 0.50 30 15.00 7 crisps 1.00 1.50 0.50 45 22.50 8 cake 2.00 2.50 0.50 40 20.00 9 10
200.00 profit/Loss: $ -102.50 A B C D E F G 1 Item Price Selling Profit Weekly Number Total Profit 2 each ($) price ($) per item shop
cost sold per item ($) 3 ($) 4 chew 1.00 1.50 = (C4-B4) 35 = (C4*F4) 5 chox 2.00 2.50 = (C5-B5) 45 = (C5*F5) 6 gum 3.00 3.50 = (C6-B6)
30 = (C6*F6) 7 crisps 1.00 1.50 = (C7-B7) 45 = (C7*F7) 8 cake 2.00 2.50 = (C8-B8) 40 = (C8*F8) 9 10 200.00 profit/Loss: $ =sum(G4:G8)-
E10 The formulae behind this spreadsheet are: ▲ Figure 6.6 Personal finance modelling using a spreadsheet 120 6 ICT applications
By varying the values in column C or in column F, it would be possible to model the shop’s profit or loss. This example is a very simple
model, but it shows the principal of using spreadsheets to carry out any type of modelling that can be represented in a mathematical
form. Spreadsheets are often used in some form to carry out financial modelling. Bridge and building design When an engineer or
 architect designs a new building or bridge, it is necessary to test the design long before any construction work is started. 3D
computer modelling is used to try out a number of scenarios to ensure the final design meets critical criteria. Simulation of the final
structure is often done as a combination of computer modelling and wind-tunnel tests on scale models of the final designs. For
example, when building a bridge, the modeller has to consider a number of scenarios: » the amount of traffic that might be caught in
a traffic jam on the bridge in the event of an accident; this could lead to very heavy loading on the bridge structure » the effects of
strong winds; can the bridge design withstand the worst-case scenario? » the effect of earthquakes; is the bridge earthquake-proof?
» the effect of tidal waves and ice floes during extreme weather conditions; can the pillars supporting the bridge withstand these
conditions? » the effects of vibrations – there have been cases over the years where bridges have collapsed due to, for example, wind
causing the bridge to sway at its ‘natural frequency’. All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model. The design can
then be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused the bridge to fail. After a number of modifications, a final
design will be decided on. To ensure the computer model gives good results, a scale model of the bridge would then be constructed
and subjected to wind-tunnel (and other) trials. Similar methods are used when designing new buildings, particularly skyscrapers.
Again, computer models are used, often in conjunction with wind-tunnel tests on a scale model. When testing the building using a
computer model, a number of scenarios need to be considered: » what is the effect of natural phenomena, such as hurricane winds,
flooding, earthquakes and any other potentially damaging phenomena (wind movement is a key issue with tall buildings; a 100-storey
building may sway one metre to the left and then one metre to the right, cycling every ten seconds, in strong winds – can the building
survive such movement, will such movement be unpleasant or frightening to human occupants, and so on) » the effect of a disaster,
such as a fire – how does the structure stand up to such scenarios? » how is it possible to move people around the building efficiently
(some large structures have over 5000 people working in them and there is a need to model elevator movements to move people
efficiently)? All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model. The design can then be modified on the computer if any of
the above scenarios caused ▲ Figure 6.7 Wind-tunnel tests on a new bridge design 121 6.2 Modelling applications the building to fail
to meet any of its design criteria. After a number of modifications, a final design will be decided on. To ensure the computer model
gives good results, a scale model of the building is then constructed and it is subjected to wind-tunnel trials: ▲ Figure 6.8 Scale
models are used to test buildings. Computer modelling provides the following features: » It is possible to zoom into images so that
fine details can be seen. » The design can be rotated in a number of different ways to allow different views of the design to be made.
» Building a bridge or building is expensive and dangerous if the final design had a serious flaw; modelling should allow any potential
design flaws to be detected before any construction starts. » Various scenarios can be tried out to see the effect on the design (see
earlier list of scenarios). Flood water management Flood water management uses computer modelling to perform a risk assessment
to identify sources of potential flooding, the extent of flooding and how any mitigation or protection measures could work. Computer
models are used to predict water levels, water flows and potential flood depths. Input to the system could include: » cross-section of
rivers and sea inlets (for example, bottlenecks) » dimensions of any bridges, weirs or sluices in the flood area » factors that can affect
water flow rates (for example, tides are affected by the time of year and by strong winds) » boundary conditions (for example,
upstream flows into rivers and downstream water levels) » the start and finishing date for the simulation » calibration data
(observation of actual flooding in the past). Once a model exists which simulates the area where there is potential flooding, a plan
can be put forward to guard against future flooding. Data is continuously added to the model once the flood defences have been put
into place. This could result in further flood defences being built, or modifications to the existing system. 122 6 ICT applications Figure
6.9 shows the management of the flood protection system in the city of Venice as an example. Flooding of the city over many years
has led to the building of a number of flood barriers. It is useful to use computer models to understand how these flood barriers will
 react to a range of possible flooding scenarios. It is possible to try out several different solutions, using the model, before actually
building any flood defences. Following the computer modelling results, Venice decided to develop a computer-based system rather
than build a manual flood defence system. The main advantages of doing this are: » Sensors could be used out in the bay area to
monitor sea height and wave height (and possibly other factors, such as wind speeds); using sensors would give a much faster
response to any deteriorating conditions in the bay. » Using a computer system is safer, since using humans to monitor conditions
could potentially put them at risk. » Data collection is continuous and more accurate than manual measurements (readings can also
be taken more frequently). » Because of the faster response to changing conditions, city dwellers can be warned well in advance of
any flooding actually taking place. » Data from the sensors could also be fed into the simulation modelling the flood area; this could
lead to further improvements as more data is gathered, which means the simulation becomes closer to reality. Traffic management
Computer modelling can be used in traffic management. We will consider two different situations. Closure of motorway lanes Repairs
need to be made to part of the central barriers on an eight-lane motorway. The company given the task of carrying out these repairs
needs to model the impact of the roadworks on the traffic flow. They have decided there are two ways of controlling traffic which
need to be modelled. The two models shown in Figure 6.10 will appear on the computer screens, representing the motorway lanes.
The company will run model ‘A’ and model ‘B’ using different traffic densities at different times of the day to see which one allows for
the best traffic flow. The Model 'A' Model 'B' ▲ Figure 6.10 Motorway closures model ▲ Figure 6.9 Flood management barriers 123
6.2 Modelling applications model will also try out the effect of different speed limits through the roadworks. They will also simulate
the effects of a breakdown to see how this would impact on the traffic flow. By changing conditions in the simulation, it becomes
possible to find an optimum design which allows the traffic to flow freely, but also allows the repairs to be done as quickly as
possible. This is considerably safer, cheaper and much quicker than trying out different traffic closures on a real motorway. Traffic
light simulation Figure 6.11 shows a second use of computer modelling in traffic management – a set of traffic lights are to be
modelled at a Y-junction. In this simulation it is necessary to consider: 1 how and what data needs to be collected 2 how the
simulation is carried out 3 how the system would work in real life. How and what data needs to be collected? Because the success (or
failure) of a model depends on how realistic it is, data needs to be collected by watching traffic for a long period of time at the Y-
junction. This is best done by using induction loop sensors which count the number of vehicles at each junction. Manual data
collection is possible, but is prone to errors and is difficult to do over an 18-hour period per day (for example). The following data is
an indication of what would need to be collected: » the number of vehicles passing the junction in all directions » the time of day
needs to be recorded along with a vehicle count » how many vehicles build up at the junction at different times of the day » data
should cover weekends, bank holidays, etc. as this can alter how the data needs be interpreted » how long it takes a vehicle to clear
the junction » other data needs to be considered (for example, pedestrian crossings nearby, as shown in Figure 6.11) » how long it
takes the slowest vehicle to pass through the junction » consider other factors (for example, left turns, right turns, filtering, etc.). How
is the simulation carried out? Data from the above list is entered into the computer and the computer model is run. Once the
designers are satisfied that the model simulates the real situation ▲ Figure 6.11 Traffic light simulation 124 6 ICT applications
accurately (that is, by comparing the model’s results with actual traffic flow data) then different scenarios can be tried out. For
example: » varying the timing of the lights and observing how the traffic flow was affected » changing the number of vehicles
stopped at part of the junction and then changing the timing of the lights to see how the traffic flow is affected » increasing or
decreasing traffic flow in all directions » considering how emergency vehicles affect traffic flow at different times of the day. How
would the system work in real life? » Sensors in the road gather data and count the number of vehicles at the junction. » This data is
sent to a control box or to a computer (it will need to be converted first into a form understood by the computer). » The gathered
data is compared to data stored in the system (the stored data is based on model/simulation predictions which were used to optimise
the traffic flow). » The control box or computer ‘decides’ what action needs to be taken. » Signals are then sent out to the traffic
lights to change their timing if necessary. Weather forecasting Weather stations are set up to automatically gather data from the
environment. They are usually automatic and use a variety of sensors to measure: » rainfall » temperature » wind speed » wind
direction » barometric pressure (air pressure) » humidity. The data needs to be gathered every hour of every day of the week. This
data can then be input into a model which simulates weather patterns. By running the computer model, weather forecasters can
predict the weather for the next few days or even longer. The foundation for weather models are complex mathematical equations
that represent air movement and how heat and moisture are exchanged in the atmosphere. In a model, the atmosphere is divided up
into a three-dimensional grid. The data from the weather stations is input into the appropriate grid and the model is run forward in
time to make predictions. » Data is input into the model and a prediction of the weather for the next few days is made. » At the end
of the weather forecast period, the model compares its weather forecast with the actual weather that occurred. » The model ‘learns’
from previous weather situations; improvements to how it predicts weather are constantly made. » The new data is then input into
the model, and a weather forecast for the next few days is made. » A very powerful computer is needed to run this model, since it
has to ‘number crunch’ vast amounts of data. Weather modelling is often shown in animated format where cloud, rain, sun and wind
are projected on top of a map of the country and shown in real time (Figure 6.12). Link Also refer to Section 6.10, which describes the
use of automated number plate recognition (ANPR) systems – another way to carry out traffic management. 125 6.2 Modelling
applications Jet Stream Low Low High 2.3 inches rain 66mph gusts ▲ Figure 6.12 Animated weather forecast Exercise 6d Create a
spreadsheet to do some personal financial modelling. Include the monthly income in one row and then show all the monthly
outgoings. For example: A B C D E F G Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Totals Income ($): Outgoings: food cinema clothes other
savings Extend the list as much as you want or change the outgoings to be more realistic if necessary. Insert some values into the
spreadsheet and then change a few values to see the effect on your finances. Add extra columns or extra outgoings to extend the
spreadsheet. Finally, try creating a graph of your income against outgoings for each month and for a year (do a prediction for the year
after four months, for example). 126 6 ICT applications 6.3 Computer controlled systems 6.3.1 Computer controlled systems Robotics
in manufacturing Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing, from heavy work right through to delicate operations. Examples
include: paint spraying of car bodies, welding bodywork on cars, manufacturing of microchips, manufacturing electrical goods and
stock movement in automatic warehouses. Control of robots is either through embedded (built-in) microprocessors or linked to a
computer system. Programming of the robot to do a series of tasks is generally done in two ways: 1 The robot is programmed with a
sequence of instructions which allow it to carry out the series of tasks (for example, spraying a car body with paint). 2 Alternatively, a
human operator manually carries out the series of tasks; this can be done in two ways: i The robot arm is guided by a worker when
spraying the object; each movement of the arm is stored as an instruction in the computer. OR ii The worker straps sensors to his own
arm and sprays the object; each movement is stored as a set of instructions in a computer; the sensors send back information such as
position relative to the object, arm rotation, and so on – this information forms part of the instructions stored in the computer.
Whichever method is used, once the instructions have been saved, each series of tasks can then be carried out by a robot arm
automatically. Each instruction will be carried out identically every time (for example, assembling parts in a television) giving a
consistent product. Robots are equipped with sensors so they can gather important information about their surroundings and
prevent them from doing ‘stupid things’; for example, stopping a robot spraying a car if no car is present, or stop the spraying
operation if the supply of paint has run out, etc. ▲ Figure 6.13 This robot arm is equipped with a spray gun ‘end effector’. Different
end effectors allow the robot arm to carry out many different tasks. Exercise 6e Here is a list of five simulations/models and also a list
 of five reasons why models are carried out. Try and match the five simulations to the BEST REASON why that simulation would be
done. Simulation Reason PILOT TRAINING Cost of building the real thing is too expensive ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING Some
situations are too dangerous to humans SIMULATING BRIDGE LOADING Take too long to get results back from real thing NUCLEAR
REACTOR MODEL It is almost impossible to do the tasks for real SPACE EXPLORATION Easier/safer to make changes to a model 127 6.3
Computer controlled systems Robots are very good at repetitive tasks. However, if there are many different tasks to carry out (for
example, making specialist glassware for some scientific work), then it is often better to use human operators. Advantages in using
robots » They can work in environments harmful to human operators. » They can work non-stop (24/7). » They are less expensive in
the long term (although expensive to buy initially, they do not need wages). » They have higher productivity (do not need holidays,
etc.). » They provide greater consistency (for example, every car coming off a production line is identical). » They can do boring,
repetitive tasks, leaving humans free to do other more skilled work (for example, quality control or design work). » They can carry out
different tasks by fitting them with different end-effectors (attachments); for example, a spray gun, a welding gun, and so on.
Disadvantages in using robots » Robots find it difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks (for example, one-off glassware for a chemical company).
» They can cause higher unemployment (replacing skilled labour). » Because robots do many of the tasks once done by humans,
there is a real risk of certain skills (such as welding) being lost. » Because robots are independent of the skills base, factories can be
moved anywhere in the world (again causing unemployment). » The initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive.
Production line control Production line control using robots is used extensively in industry. For example: » filling bottles with a liquid,
capping the bottle and applying a label » filling metal cans with baked beans, sealing the cans and applying labels. The production
line will be continuous, with various robots at each station given a specific task. Using robots in this way leads to: » faster operations
(the number of cans of baked beans filled is 120 per minute) » much greater productivity (the production can run 24 hours a day for
every day) » greater consistency (every can contains exactly the correct weight of baked beans) » built-in quality control (automatic
testing for foreign material, such as metal filings, which would result in automatic rejection from the production line) » reduced cost
to the consumer (although initial robot arms are expensive, there are far fewer staff in the factory who would need wages). Let us
take a closer view of how robots could be used in a bottling plant. » Sensor 1 (a pressure sensor, light sensor or camera) detects the
presence of a bottle; this sensor is constantly sending signals back to the computer. » When the signal from sensor 1 indicates a
bottle is present, the computer sends a signal to an actuator which opens a valve allowing liquid to flow into the bottle. » Sensor 2 (a
level sensor) is used to detect the correct liquid height in the bottle; this sensor sends continuous signals back to the computer. 128 6
ICT applications » When the signal from sensor 2 indicates the bottle is full, the computer sends a signal to an actuator to close the
valve. » The computer then sends another signal to a second actuator which operates a motor to move the conveyer belt to allow the
next empty bottle to take its correct position. » The whole process is continuous until stopped for maintenance, errors occurring or a
change in the process. Exercise 6f Find out about five industrial processes that use production line control. In each case, find out the
functions of robots at each stage in the process. In each case, find the advantages and disadvantages of using robots on the
production line 6.4 School management systems 6.4.1 School management systems Schools have to manage a number of different
tasks in their day-to-day running. These tasks include: » registration and attendance records of students » student performance »
computer-aided learning. Registration and attendance records of students The traditional way to record the registration and
attendance of a student was to complete daily registers. This was very time consuming because it required a tenminute session at the
beginning and end of each day. It was also prone to error if a student’s name was missed at some point during the registration
process. There are a number of possible ways of automating the registration process using hardware and software, some of which are
included below. computer sensor 2 valve actuator operating valve sensor 1 step-wise moving conveyer belt actuator operating motor
 ▲ Figure 6.14 Bottling plant 129 6.4 School management systems Method 1 Issue each student with an ID card. These contain a
magnetic stripe (shown in black) on the rear of the card. The student would have to sign the card and also write their unique student
ID on the back of the card. The magnetic stripe would contain the name of the school, the name of the student, the student’s data of
birth and their unique ID (registration) number. Each morning the student would arrive at school and swipe their ID card through a
magnetic card reader. The data read would identify the student and the time and date they entered the school’s premises. This data
would now be stored on a database. On leaving the school (either at lunchtime or at the end of the day), the ID card would again be
swiped. This would now record the leaving time and date on the database. This would give a very comprehensive record of when the
student attended the school and the number of hours they attended. It would also be a more secure method in the event of, for
example, a fire. Using the paper-based system, a student could register then just go home, but with an ID card system, the student’s
attendance would be known at all times. The school would now be able to account for every student on the school premises. At the
end of a semester (or school year), the database could be interrogated and it would give an accurate attendance record for the
student. This attendance record could then be sent out to parents or checked by teachers on a regular basis. There are further
functions that could be used such as: » the use of a PIN to stop another student swiping in with the wrong card » the use of GPS
tracking (see Section 6.11) so the exact whereabouts of a student would be known; this would require the addition of a chip in the ID
card so that the tracking system could identify them (see Section 6.11 for information on RFID) – however, there are privacy concerns
surrounding location tracking. Method 2 A second method could make use of biometrics. Each student would have their fingerprints
recorded. Their personal details (as in Method 1) plus fingerprints would be stored on a database. When a student entered the school
premises, they would be asked to put their hand on a scanner which would read their fingerprints. Because each student has unique
fingerprints, this system would be very secure. As with Method 1, the date and time of entering or leaving the school would be
accurately recorded on the database. Advantages of this method compared to use of magnetic ID cards » Fingerprints are unique, so
it would be impossible for a student to sign in pretending to be someone else (with magnetic cards, a student could give their card to
a friend and ask them to sign in for them) – this gives more accurate data and improved security. » ID cards could easily be lost –
fingerprints are ‘part of you’ so cannot be lost. » ID cards could be affected by magnetic fields (for example, by being placed close to a
mobile phone) which would stop them working properly. » It is much easier to ‘clone’ (make copies of) ID cards than it would be to
copy fingerprints (not impossible but very difficult). FIRE-Academy Paul Smith-012 234 555 ▲ Figure 6.15 Student registration card
130 6 ICT applications Disadvantages of this method compared to use of magnetic ID cards » It would take a long time to collect the
fingerprints for every student in the school. » The equipment needed to take and read fingerprints is more expensive than magnetic
stripe reading equipment. » If a student cuts a finger, the fingerprint may not be identified by the system (which would prevent entry
to the school). » There are invasion-of-privacy issues and a number of students and parents may object to having fingerprints stored
on a database. Student performance Teachers could make considerable use of spreadsheets to monitor the performance of their
students. Essentially, spreadsheets could record the test results of each student over a term/year. This would allow a teacher to easily
see how they were performing against other students in the same subjects. It would also be easy to import data into a report, for
example, summarising a student’s performance over the academic year. School management systems are used to record the
performance of students. Performance can consist of both academic achievement and behaviour. To produce an end-of-term or end-
of-year report, the system would need to have access to the following data: » student’s exam and test results in all subjects studied
over the term/year » behavioural data (this would include attendance records and, for example, number of times the student was in
detention) » CAT scores (these are standardisation test results to enable each student to be measured against a standard). After
processing this data, the system could produce: » the average grades for all students in a class » class and year group reports showing
 academic and behavioural performance. Computer-aided learning Computer-aided learning (CAL) is the use of computer-based
systems to assist in the academic teaching of students. They are designed to enhance, and not replace, traditional classroom
teaching. Students would use computers as part of their learning and complete online tests to monitor their performance. If a
student encounters a problem, CAL is not always able to help the student, however, and in those cases, students would need to take
steps to find additional help. Advantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process » Students can learn when they want to and at
their own pace. » It allows virtual reality (VR) learning to be used; with VR, the student is fully immersed into the learning
environment. » The student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left off. » It is possible to re-take tests until
the student reaches the required skills level. » CAL can make learning more interactive. » CAL makes use of various multimedia (for
example, short video clips, animation, music and interactive learning methods). 131 6.5 Booking systems » The real goal of CAL is to
stimulate student learning and not actually replace teacher-based learning; CAL, if used properly, should be an integrated part of the
student’s learning process. » CAL can make use of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) which can be marked immediately by the
computer system, giving instantaneous feedback to the student; other assessment methods can be used, such as fill in the missing
words, crossword puzzles, linking correct terms to descriptions and gaming. » It can deliver micro-learning; this is where a topic is
broken down into small modules which are easy to learn, and is when CAL is most effective. Disadvantages of using CAL to enhance
the learning process » CAL cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment; for example, experiments shown
in CAL are virtual in nature. » It is expensive and time consuming to integrate CAL properly into the learning environment. » Students
can easily be distracted while online; for example, going on to social media sites, visiting websites or even playing online games. » It
can lead to the isolation of a student because they are spending their time on their own in front of a computer screen; this needs to
be carefully managed. » CAL cannot answer unusual questions, and the student will need to seek out guidance from a teacher; in
other words, CAL is not a self-contained learning system. 6.5 Booking systems 6.5.1 Online booking systems Online booking systems
rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing double-booking, which could happen if the system response time was
slow. Online booking systems are used in: » the travel industry » for concerts (theatre and music events) » for cinema tickets » when
booking sporting events. Before we start looking at specific examples, it is worth considering some of the advantages and
disadvantages of using online booking systems. Advantages » They prevent double-booking. » The customer gets immediate feedback
on the availability of seats and whether or not their booking has been successful. » The customer can make bookings at any time of
the day. » The customer’s email allows the booking company to connect ‘special offers’ to their email and inform them of such offers
automatically. » It is usually easier to browse the seating plans (particularly on flights) to choose the best seats available at the price.
» It is possible to ‘reserve’ a seat for a period of time – this allows a customer to ‘make up their mind’ before finalising the booking of
the seat (this was difficult to do with the older paper-based systems). 132 6 ICT applications » Very often there are no printed tickets,
which saves postal costs and also allows ‘impulse’ bookings only a few hours in advance. » Online booking allows the use of modern
smartphone and tablet Apps technology; the customer is sent a QR code which contains all the booking information necessary (this
QR code is stored on the smartphone or tablet and only needs to be scanned at, for example, the theatre or airport on arrival).
Disadvantages » The setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive. » All customers using this service need
access to a computer or mobile phone and a reliable internet connection. » It is often more difficult to cancel the booking and get
your money back using online systems. » If the server is down for maintenance, or if the systems breaks down, it becomes impossible
to book seats by any method (temporary paper-based systems cannot be used in case of the risk of double-booking occurring). » If
the websites are not well designed, it can be difficult to make exactly the booking you want or can lead you to make mistakes; this is a
particular issue with flight bookings where correcting an error can cost the customer an additional fee. » Booking online does not
 allow you to build a personal relationship with a travel agent who might offer free upgrades or special offers which may not be
available to online bookings. The travel industry As an example, we will consider booking a flight online. A form similar to the one
shown in Figure 6.17 would appear on the screen. The user only needs to fill in the appropriate fields and the system will
automatically search for available flights, make bookings and transfer the funds from their bank account. Unless something goes
wrong, there will be no need to talk to a human operator at any stage of the booking process. ▲ Figure 6.16 Example of a booking
QR code Schedule My flight will be Return Departing H & S ight booking 13 JUN 2021 Returning at 20 JUN 2021 at 1 0 0 Route From
Traveller(s) Adult(s) To Include low-cost airlines Direct ights only Child(ren) Infants (2-11 years) (1 infant per adult) Any time Any time
One way Multistop > Are you exible by +/– 1 day? If you need help using this part of the site, please review our information about
Flight booking. ? Need help For peace of mind, we provide comprehensive online travel insurance Don’t forget insurance How can I
get the cheapest deal? • Saturday night stay • Buy a return ticket • Book early • Try different airports Be informed i ▲ Figure 6.17
Online flight booking example 133 6.5 Booking systems Events such as concerts, theatres and cinemas We will now consider the
online booking system when trying to book a concert, theatre or cinema performance. Because all three examples involve booking
seats inside a building fitted with seats, we will use the same booking system for all three. With the example chosen, we have
assumed that the customer has already logged on to the events booking website (and the event is a music concert at a seated
venue). Exercise 6g Using the screenshot in Figure 6.17, describe the stages when a person logs on to a flight booking website and
makes a booking. Describe how the seats are booked, how double-booking is prevented, how the customer’s tickets are produced
and how payment is made. Also investigate the latest ways of creating e-tickets, such as using apps on smartphones, and so on. Why
are these new methods better than printing out a confirmation email to act as the e-ticket? » The customer clicks on the
performance they wish to see. » A date and time is typed in. » The required number of seats is also entered. » The seating display at
the venue is shown on the screen. » The user selects their seat(s) by highlighting the actual seats on the screen display and then
clicks CONFIRM to go to the next part of the process. » The database is then searched to check the availability of the selected seats. »
If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers; this shows on another screen on the web page. » If the
customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen. » The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO
LONGER AVAILABLE – this stops anyone else from booking them. ▲ Figure 6.18 Event booking screen display 6 7 8 9 10 29 27 30 28
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B C D E E D C B A E D C B A E UPPER CIRCLE DRESS CIRCLE STALLS L 1 2345678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 W W L K 1 234 5 6 7 8 9 10
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B A 1 23456 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 A WWC 3456 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 C D C B B A A B A STAGE Please click
here to confirm your seating choice The seating display at the venue is shown on the screen The user selects their seat(s) by
highlighting the actual seats on the screen display and then clicks CONFIRM to go to the next part of the process 134 6 ICT
applications » The customer then enters their personal details or indicates that they are a returning customer (in which case the
website being used will already have their details). » Payment method is then selected and payment made. » The theatre seats are
then booked in the customer’s name. » The final details are again shown on the screen. » An email is sent to the customer which may
contain a QR code which contains all their booking details (this acts as their e-ticket); the QR code is then scanned at the venue. » The
database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats are permanently confirmed as no longer available. Booking
sporting events Booking a sporting event is very similar to the example above. Again, depending on the event, the online booking
system will show a seating plan. 552 143142 144 T NORTH SOUTH WEST EAST NW NE SW SE 101 102 103104 105106 107 108 109
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545 547 548 549 550 551 129 116 138 ▲ Figure 6.19 Sports venue booking system seating plan The customer will need to select the
event, the required day(s), number of people and preferred seats. Because the seats are often sold in blocks, the database will be
searched to see if there are any seats available on the chosen date. Available seats will not show on the booking map, which is
different to the concert/cinema booking system. If there is availability, the customer will be offered seats in the block. If the customer
is happy with the option, they simply confirm the booking and payment is made online. Confirmation will be sent via email and/or
possibly a QR code, which can be downloaded to the customer’s smartphone; this QR code will act as their event ticket(s). Some
sporting events do not book seats (such as a golf tournament) in which case the booking will simply be entry to the event. The
advantages and disadvantages of booking sports events online are the same as for online booking of concert and cinema tickets. One
additional feature often offered with sporting events, is the ability to also book flights and hotels if the event takes place overseas.
135 6.6 Banking systems 6