AMS / MAA DOLCIANI MATHEMATICAL EXPOSITIONS VOL 7

HOWARD EVES

Great Moments in Mathematics

After 1650
10.1090/dol/007
GREAT MOMENTS
IN
MATHEMATICS
(AFTER 1650)

By
H O W A R D EVES
 THE
DOLCIANI M A T H E M A T I C A L EXPOSITIONS

Published by
THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

Committee on Publications
EDWIN F. BECKENBACH, Chairman

Subcommittee on Dolciani Mathematical Expositions

ROSS HONSBERGER, Chairman
G. L. ALEXANDERSON
J. MALKEVITCH
K. R. REBMAN
The Doleiani Mathematical Expositions

N U M B E R SEVEN

GREAT MOMENTS
IN
MATHEMATICS
(AFTER 1650)

By
H O W A R D EVES
University of Maine

Published and distributed by

THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION'OF AMERICA
 © 1983 by
The Mathematical Association of America (Incorporated)

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 81-86186

Hardcover ISBN 978-0-88385-307-8

Paperback ISBN 978-0-88385-311-5

eISBN 978-1-61444-215-8

Printed in the United States of America

Current printing (last digit):

10 9 8 7 6
The DOLCIANI MATHEMATICAL EXPOSITIONS series of the Mathe-
matical Association of America was established through a generous gift to
the Association from Mary P. Dolciani, Professor of Mathematics at Hunter
College of the City University of New York. In making the gift, Professor
Dolciani, herself an exceptionally talented and successful expositor of
mathematics, had the purpose of furthering the ideal of excellence in
mathematical exposition.
The Association, for its part, was delighted to accept the gracious gesture
initiating the revolving fund for this series from one who has served the Asso-
ciation with distinction, both as a member of the Committee on Publications
and as a member of the Board of Governors. It was with genuine pleasure
that the Board chose to name the series in her honor.
The books in the series are selected for their lucid expository style and
stimulating mathematical content. Typically, they contain an ample supply
of exercises, many with accompanying solutions. They are intended to be
sufficiently elementary for the undergraduate and even the mathematically
inclined high-school student to understand and enjoy, but also to be in-
teresting and sometimes challenging to the more advanced mathematician.

The following DOLCIANI MATHEMATICAL EXPOSITIONS have

been published.

Volume 1: MATHEMATICAL GEMS, by Ross Honsberger

Volume 2: MATHEMATICAL GEMS II, by Ross Honsberger

Volume 3: MATHEMATICAL MORSELS, by Ross Honsberger

Volume 4: MATHEMATICAL PLUMS, edited by Ross Honsberger

Volume 5: GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS (BEFORE i65o), by Howard

Eves

Volume 6: MAXIMA AND MINIMA WITHOUT CALCULUS, by Ivan Niven

Volume 7: GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS (AFTER i6So), by Howard

Eves
 A GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my sincerest thanks to Professor Ross Honsberger

and Professors G . L . Alexanderson, J. Malkevitch, and K . R. Reb-
man, Chairman and Members of the Dolciani Subcommittee, for
their careful and constructive reading of the original manuscript.
Their criticisms and suggestions were invaluable.
HOWARD EVES
Dedicated to Carroll V . Newsom,
in friendship and gratitude
 PREFACE

In this second volume of GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS we

continue the lecture sequence started in the first volume. Having, in
the first volume, presented twenty lectures devoted to outstanding
events in mathematics that occurred prior to 1650, in this second
volume we devote twenty lectures to outstanding events in mathe-
matics that occurred after 1650. Here the choice of topics was much
more difficult than for the first volume; the modern era in mathe-
matics is so rich in fine candidates for GREAT MOMENTS IN
MATHEMATICS that, for sheer lack of space, many had regrettably to
be passed over.
The reader will find, as is naturally to be expected, that this second
volume is somewhat more demanding than the first volume, but a
reasonable acquaintance with beginning differential and integral
calculus should suffice for a proper understanding of the material.
Once again, we must apologize for the loss of sparkle and excite-
ment suffered when oral lectures are presented in abbreviated written
form. T h e multitudinous array of lecture props (overhead trans-
parencies, colored slides, maps, portraits, objects, desk experiments,
etc.) must be forsaken, and, for lack of space, many charming anec-
dotes and related stories must be omitted. How much less impelling
and stimulating, for example, is the written presentation of LEC-
TURE 29, devoted to the thrilling discovery of the first noncommuta-
tive algebra. Gone are the transparency portraits of Hamilton, Grass-
mann, Cayley, and Gibbs; the set of colored slides of a pilgrimage to
the Brougham Bridge over the Royal Canal near Dublin, with a shot
of the plaque commemorating Hamilton's sudden realization on the
evening of October 16, 1843, at that very spot, of the quaternionic
multiplication table, and shots of the famous mathematician's fa-
vorite walk along the canal tow-path; pictures of Trinity College of
Dublin, the Dunsink Observatory, specimens of Hamilton's poetry,
and other Hamiltonian memorabilia; and the insightful anecdotes
about Ireland's foremost mathematician.

HOWARD EVES
Fox Hollow, Lubec, Maine
Winter 1978-79

ix
 CONTENTS

PREFACE IX
LECTURE TWENTY-ONE. Order within disorder 1
24. The birth of mathematical probability (1654)
LECTURE TWENTY-TWO. Moving pictures versus still pictures 11
25. The invention of the differential calculus (1629-1680s)
LECTURE TWENTY-THREE. Like opening and closing a door 28
26. The fundamental theorem of the calculus (1669-1690s)
LECTURE TWENTY-FOUR. Powerful) series 40
27. Taylor and Maclaurin series (1715, 1742)
LECTURE TWENTY-FTVE. Yea + Yea + Yea + Yea 52
28. Fourier series (1807)
LECTURE TWENTY-SIX. The liberation of geometry, 1 63
29. The discovery of non-Euclidean geometry (1829)
LECTURE TWENTY-SEVEN. The liberation of geometry, II 76
29. The discovery of non-Euclidean geometry (1829)—continued
LECTURE TWENTY-EIGHT. The liberation of algebra, I 88
30. The discovery of a noncommutative algebra (1843)
LECTURE TWENTY-NINE. The liberation of algebra, II 98
30. The discovery of a noncommutative algebra (1843)—continued
LECTURE THIRTY. An important atomic structure 110
31. The group structure (1830-1860)
LECTURE THIRTY-ONE. A remarkable codification 119
32. The Erlanger Programm (1872)
LECTURE THIRTY-TWO. Pythagoras justified 132
33. The arithmetization of analysis; the natural number system
as a foundation of mathematics (end of the nineteenth century)
LECTURE THIRTY-THREE. Digging deeper 146
34. Set theory as a foundation of mathematics (end of the
nineteenth century)

xi
xii GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS (AFTER 1650)

35. Abstract spaces (1906)

36. The function concept refined by set theory (beginning of the
twentieth century)
LECTURE THIRTY-FOUR. Beyond the finite 159
37. Transfinite numbers (1874-1895)
LECTURE THIRTY-FIVE. Some remarkable definitions 171
38. Formal axiomatics (early twentieth century)
39. A definition of mathematics (early twentieth century)
LECTURE THIRTY-s rx. Some clarifying examples 181
39. A definition of mathematics (early twentieth century)—
continued
LECTURE THIRTY-SEVEN. The third level 189
40. Metamathematics (1899-1920)
LECTURE THTRTY-EIGHT. Mathematics as a branch of theology 200
41. Gödel's incompleteness theorem (1931)
LECTURE THIRTY-NINE. The dream that came true 209
42. The modern electronic computing machines (1944)
43. Resolution of the four-color conjecture (1976)
LECTURE FORTY. Apology and regrets 221
HINTS FOR THE SOLUTION OF SOME OF THE EXERCISES 230
INDEX 251
 HINTS F O R T H E SOLUTION OF SOME
OF T H E EXERCISES

21.1. (a) 15 : 1.

21.1. ( b ) 21 : 11.

21.2. (a) See any College Algebra text.

21.2. ( b ) Use 21.2 ( a ) .

21.2. ( c ) Use 21.2 ( a ) .

21.3. (a) By the binomial theorem, the sought coefficient is

n(n - 1)···(« - r + l)/r\.

Now multiply numerator and denominator by (re — r)\ and use 21.2
(a).

21.3. ( b ) In the binomial expansion of (a + b) n

set a = b = 1.

21.4. (a) This follows from the definition of the arithmetic

triangle as given in the lecture text.

21.4. ( b ) Use successive applications of 21.4 ( a ) .

21.4. ( c ) Use mathematical induction, 21.4 ( a ) , and 21.2 ( a ) .

21.4. ( d ) Use 21.4 ( c ) .

21.4. ( e ) Use 21.4 ( a ) .

21.4. ( f ) Use 21.4 ( e ) .

21.4. ( g ) Use 21.4 ( c ) .

22.1. ( a ) Use the fact that the sum of the focal radii of a point on
an ellipse is constant.

22.1. ( b ) Use the fact that the difference of the focal radii of a
point on a hyperbola is constant.

22.2. Here we have

(*-* ) 2
2
+ v = (l - *
2
2 ) 2
+ 4.

230
 HINTS FOR THE SOLUTION OF SOME OF THE EXERCISES 231

The elimination of y gives

(x - x )
2
2
+ 4x = (I - x ) 2
2
+ 4,
or
x + 2x(2 - x ) + (2x
2
2 2 - 5) = 0.

The condition that this quadratic equation have two equal roots is
that its discriminant vanish, that is, that

(2 - x)2
2
- (2x - 5) =
2 0

or x 2 = 3. The required tangent may now be drawn.

2 2 . 3 . Consider the tangent at the point (x yi) as the limiting it

position of the secant line through (xi, yi) and a neighboring point

(xi + Ax, y ι + Ay)

of the curve as Ax — 0 .

2 2 . 4 . ( a ) One finds t = —y /x. Slope = y/t

2
= —χ/y = —3/4.

2 2 . 4 . ( b ) One finds slope = a/e = —χ/y = —3/4.

2 2 . 4 . ( c ) One finds slope = y/x = —x/y — —3/4.

2 2 . 4 . ( d ) One has y = V25 — χ , whence 2

dy/dx = - 2 J C / 2 V 2 5 - x 2
- -3/4.
2 2 . 5 . Consult any introductory calculus text.

2 2 . 6 . Employ mathematical induction.

2 2 . 7 . ds/dt is the time rate of change of distance and d s/dt 2 2

is
the time rate of change of ds/dt.

2 2 . 8 . At a turning-point maximum or minimum, the tangent line

is horizontal, and therefore has zero slope. The condition is not suf-
ficient, since for y = χ we have dy/dx = 0 at ( 0 , 0 ) , but there is
3

neither a maximum nor a minimum at this point.

23.1. The operation of taking cube roots.

23.3. In χ + C.
23.4. —cos χ + C and sin χ + C.
232 GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS (AFTER 1650)

23.5. ln(x - 2
3x + 5) + C.

23.6.
d / sin χ \
£?(tan x)/dx — ——
dx \ cosx J

- cosx——(sin ac) sin χ——(cosx) /cos x

2

dx dx

cosi x + sin x 1
2 2

— sec x.
2

Therefore
2
x dx = tan χ + C.

23.7. d(tanx — x)/e£x '" sec x — 1 = tan x. Therefore

2 2

tan x dx = tan χ — χ + C.
2

23.8. 81/4.

23.9. 4.17.

23.10. 2.

24.1. (a) S = n[2a + (n - \)d]/2.

24.1. ( b ) S = a(l - r")/(l - r).

24.1. ( c ) In the formula for S in Exercise 24.1 ( b ) , let η — oo.

24.2. (a) Let χ be the largest share and d the common difference
in the arithmetic progression. Then we find 5x — lOd = 100 and
l l x - 46d = 0.

24.2. ( b ) Apply Exercise 24.1 ( b ) .

24.2. ( c ) Apply Exercise 24.1 ( c ) .

24.3. (a) Recall that Σ?=ι i = n(n + l ) / 2 .

24.5. (a) e = 1 + χ + x /2! + x /3! +

x 2 3
···
sin χ = χ - x / 3 ! + x / 5 ! - x / 7 ! + · · ·
3 5 7

cosx = 1 - x / 2 ! + x / 4 ! - x / 6 ! + · · · .
2 4 6
 HINTS FOR T H E S O L U T I O N O F SOME O F THE EXERCISES 233

24.5. ( c ) Take χ = τ in Exercise 24.5 ( b ) .

24.6. 1.6487.

24.7. 0.71934.

24.9. 0.764.

24.10. 0.747.

25.2. Merely for convenience, so that the formula ( 2 ) of the lec-

ture text for a will hold for « = 0 as well as for η = 1, 2, · · · , as is
n

seen by integrating

fix) = + Σ (α„ cos nx + b„ sin nx)

2 71 = 1

termwise between — π and +π and then using Exercise 25.1.

25.3. One finds

= — t f(x)dx=— j 2dx+— \dx = 2+l = 3,

τ J_ τ Ι J - , τ Jo

I f 0
I f
α„ = - ι / ( j c ) cosnjcdx — I 2 cos nx dx Η I cos « x dx
1Γ ' TT J - , TT J e

-[- Lι Ir T «
sin « j c
ττη
ι
sin

r°
«JC
ο
= 0, η - 1, 2,.

if*
£»„ = - ) /(JC) sin WJC OJC = — 1 2 sin WJC ÛJC Η sin «JC dx
IT J- r 7Γ Jo

πη
•cos nx + —
πη
COS «JC

2 , 2 1 1
+ cos/ιπ — cosnir +
•πη πη πη -πη

- ( C O S / I T — 1), η = 1, 2,.
234 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

Thus all the a's vanish except a , and all the é's with even subscripts
0

vanish (since the cosine of an even multiple of w is unity). W e find

U - 2
U - 2
A - 2

τ 3τ 5τ

25.4. x/2\x\ = - 1 for χ < 0 and + 1 for χ > 0.

25.5. The positive roots of cos χ = 0 are χ = τ/2, 3τ/2, 5τ/2,

— Now use the sum for i r / 8 found in Example 2 of the lecture
2

text.

25.7. In the Fourier series set χ = τ/2.

26.1. T o deduce Euclid's fifth postulate, let AB and CD be cut by

a transversal in S and T, respectively, and suppose ABST + ADTS
< 180°. Through S draw straight line QSR, making ARST +
ADTS = 180°. By 128 (if a transversal of two straight lines makes a
pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal equal to
two right angles, then the two lines are parallel), QSR is parallel to
CD. Therefore, by Playfair's postulate, AB is not parallel to CD and
AB and CD must intersect. By I 17 (any two angles of a triangle are
together less than two right angles), AB and CD cannot meet on that
side of ST not containing angles BST and DTS.

26.3. Let ABC be any right triangle and draw the perpendicular
CD to the hypotenuse AB. Then triangles ABC and ACD have two
angles of one equal to two angles of the other, whence the third
angles must also be equal. That is, AB = A ACD. Similarly, A A
= ABCD. It follows that AA + AB + AC = 180°. Now, if A S C
is not a right triangle, divide it into two right triangles by an
altitude.

26.4. Try the same experiment and reasoning on a spherical tri-

angle, using a great circle arc in place of the straightedge.

26.5. The "proof" assumes that if two triangles have two angles
of one equal to two angles of the other, then the third angles are also
equal. This, in turn, assumes the existence of noncongruent similar
triangles.
 HINTS FOR THE SOLUTION OF SOME OF THE EXERCISES 235

26.6. (a) Draw the diagonals of the isosceles birectangle.

26.6. ( b ) Draw the diagonals of each "half" of the isosceles bi-

rectangle and apply Exercise 26.6 ( a ) .

26.6. ( c ) Draw a perpendicular, from the vertex of the triangle,

upon the line joining the midpoints of the two sides of the triangle.

26.6. ( d ) Draw the diagonals, radiating from the intersection of

the two concerned lines, of the two lower "quarters" of the isosceles
birectangle and apply Exercise 26.6 ( b ) .

26.7. ( d ) In Figure 20 we have

defectABC = 180° - («i + a 2 + ß 2 + 7 l )

= 360° - + β ι + 7 l + a 2 + ß 2 + 7 )2

= [180° - (<*! + ß + )]l yi + [180° - (a + ß + y )] 2 2 2

= defect ADC + defect ABD.

26.8. See Exercise 26.6 ( b ) .

26.9. A n g l e d < 60°.

26.10. Consult any standard text on elementary solid geometry.

B D c
FIG. 20
236 GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS (AFTER 1650)

27.1. ( d ) W e have

"distance" PQ + "distance" QR

. (QS)(PT) (RSKQT)
(PS)(QT) ° (QS)(RT)

(QS)(PT)(RSXQT) _ (RS)(PT)
° g
(PS)(QT)(QS)(RT) °g
(PS)(RT)

= "distance" PR.

27.1. ( e ) W e have

(QS)(PT)
lim "distance" P Q = lim log - — , , „ = oo.
Q-T * Q-T (PS)(QD
S

27.3. (a) One might interpret "abba" as "committee" and "dab-

ba" as "committee member," and assume that there are just two
committees and that no committee member serves on more than one
committee.

27.3. ( b ) One might interpret a "dabba" as any one of the three

letters a, b, c, and an "abba" as any one of the three pairs ab, be, ca
of these letters.

27.4. See Wolfe, Η. E., Introduction to Non-Euclidean

Geometry, pp. 174-176.

28.1. (a) No.

28.1. ( b ) Yes.

28.4. (a) Replacing a by ζ ' in the first equality, and by ζ in the

second equality, we find z ' © ζ = z ' , z © z ' = z. Therefore
z' = z' ® ζ = ζ ® z' = z.

28.4. ( b ) A d d each member of the equality a ® b = a ® c to a,

and then use the associative law for © .

28.4. ( c ) Show that χ = ä ® b is a solution; then show, by 28.4

(b), that if there are two solutions, χ and y, we must have χ = y.
 HINTS FOR THE SOLUTION OF SOME OF THE EXERCISES 237

28.4. ( d ) By the distributive law,

(a (g) a ) © (a (g) z) = a (g) (a ® z ) = a (g) a = (a <g) a ) © z.

Therefore, by 28.4 ( b ) , a ® ζ = z .

28.4. ( e ) Consider the triple sum (a (g) A ) © (a (g) A ) © (a (g) A ) .

Combine the first two summands, and use the distributive law; then
combine the last two summands, and use the distributive law.

28.4. ( f ) Since a ( g ) A = z = a ( g ) z , we have, if α ?f ζ , by the

cancellation law for the operation (g), b = z .

28.4. ( g ) Show that χ = α (g) b is a solution; then show, by the

- 1

cancellation law for the operation (g), that if there are two solutions,
χ and y, we must have χ = y.

28.4. ( h ) Show that (a <g> 6 ) © (a (g) Ä ) = z .

28.5. ( e ) Since a © A, a © A is positive. Since b © c, A © c is

positive. Therefore, by P12, (a © Ä ) © (A © c ) is positive. But
(a © A ) © (A © c ) = a © c. Hence a © c is positive, and α © c .

28.5^ ( g ) Since α © Α, α © A is positive. Sjnce c is given positive,

(a © A ) <g> c is positive, by P12. But (a © A ) (g) c = (a <g) c ) ©
( A <g> c ) , by 28.4 (h). Therefore (a <g) c ) © (A (g> c ) .

28.5. (h) This follows from 28.4 ( e ) and 28.4 ( h ) .

28.5. (j) Use 28.5 ( i ) .

28.7. W e have a = a <g> u (by P7) = α (g) (c (g) c " ) (by ΡΙΟ) = 1

(α (g) c ) (g) c (by P4) = (A (g) c ) (g) c

- 1
(by substitution) =
- 1

A (g) (c (g) c " ) (by P4) = A (g) « (by ΡΙΟ) = A (by P7).
1

28.8. Examples ( b ) , ( c ) , ( k ) are fields.

29.1. (a) * is neither commutative nor associative; | is both com-

mutative and associative; the distributive law holds.

29.1. ( b ) None of the laws hold.

29.1. ( c ) I is associative and the distributive law holds.

29.1. ( d ) Only the two commutative laws hold.

238 GREAT MOMENTS IN MATHEMATICS (AFTER 1650)

29.3. ( b ) ( 1 , 0, - 2 , 3) ( 1 , 1, 2, - 2 ) = (11, - 1 , 3, 3 ) ; and

(1, 1, 2, - 2 ) ( 1 , 0, - 2 , 3) = (11, 3, - 3 , - 1 ) .

29.4. ( b )

'-4 -5" ' 4 8" -8 -9~

AB = BA = , A2
=
-8 11 12 3 12 -11

29.4. ( e ) There are no divisors of zero; the left cancellation law

for multiplication.

29.5. (a) Show that

"0 1" a b~

0 0 c d

implies: (1) b(a + d) = 1, (2) c(a + d) = 0, (3) a + be = 0, 2

(4) eb + d = 0. From (1) it follows that a + d * 0. Therefore,

2

from (2), c = 0. Hence, from (3) and ( 2 ) , a — d = 0. This contra-

dicts that a + d * 0.

30.2. (a) Yes. ( b ) N o . ( c ) N o . ( d ) No; G l does not hold, ( e ) Yes.

30.5. No.

30.10. By G 2 ' we are guaranteed the existence of an element i

such that, for a given element b, b * i = b. Now let a be any element
of G. By G2' there exists an element c such that a = c * b. Then

a*i — (c*b)*i — c*(b*i) = c*b=a,

and G2 is established. Finally, by G 2 ' , there exists for each element

α of G an element a of G such that a * a
- 1
= i, and G3 is - 1

established.

30.11. No. Let G be the set of real linear functions of the form a
= αχχ + α , a ^ 0, and let a * b mean a (db/dx), where db/dx is
2 x

the derivative of b with respect to x. Then χ is a right identity ele-

ment and χ/αχ is a left inverse of a.

31.1. Pairs ( a ) , ( b ) , ( e ) are commutative.

 HINTS FOR THE S O L U T I O N O F SOME OF THE EXERCISES 239

31.2. Find the product (B _1

A)
-1
(AB).

31.3. ( b ) Rotation of 180° about the origin; reflection in a line.

31.4. (a) C'B' = (ACA~ )l

(ABA ) -1
= AC (A' 1
A) BA~ l
=
A (CB)A~K

31.4. ( b ) (ABA- )- 1 1
= AB' 1
A ' 1
(by Exercise 31.2).

31.4. ( c ) ABA' 1
= (AB) A ' 1
= (BA)A~ 1
= Β (AA- ) 1
= B,
etc.

31.4. ( d ) Apply Exercises 31.4 ( a ) and 31.4 ( b ) .

31.5. Show that the product of any two such transformations,

and the inverse of any such transformation, are such transforma-
tions.

31.6. (a) Show that the product of any two such transformations,
and the inverse of any such transformation, are such transforma-
tions.

31.6. ( b ) Take it = 1 in the representation of a planar Lorentz

transformation.

31.6. ( c ) Show that the product of any two lorotations about

(c,d), and the inverse of any lorotation about (c,d), are lorotations
about (c,d).

31.6. ( d ) Show that the line rx + sy + t = 0 is carried onto the

line

(r/k)x + sky + rc(l - Vk) + sd(l - k) + t = 0.

31.6. ( e ) See Exercise 31.6 ( d ) .

31.6. ( f ) Show that the circle (x — c ) + (y — d) 2 2
= r is carried
2

onto the ellipse

(y - d) 2

+ r /k
2 2
- 1.

31.6. ( g ) The area of a counterclockwise triangle with vertices

(xlt yi), (x , y ), ( * 3 . Λ»3) is given by
2 2
240 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

(1/2) *2 yi ι

*3 Λ 1

31.6. (h) Eliminate & from the equations

χ = ka + c ( l - k), y = ( 6 / * ) + d(l - 1/Jfc).

31.7. (a) The square of the distance between the two points.

31.7. ( b ) The tangent of the angle from the first line to the se-
cond line.

31.7. ( c ) The distance from the point to the line.

31.7. ( d ) The power of the point with respect to the circle.

31.8. (a) Show, for example, that RH = D' and HR = D.

31.8. ( b ) I, R', H, V, D, D' are self-inverse; R and R" are in-

verses.

32.1. (a) (In — V2)7r < JC < (2n + /ί)τ, ι

η any integer.

32.1. ( b ) One real solution if α Φ 0; no real solution if a = 0 and

b Φ 0; infinitely many real solutions if a = 0 and b = 0.

32.2. (a) Va VÄ = VäZTif and only if not both a and b are

negative.

32.2. ( b ) Vx — y = Ny — χ if and only if χ — y is nonpositive.

32.3. - 5 / 2 , not - 2 / 3 .

32.4. The theorem should read: " I f two fractions are equal and
have equal nonzero numerators, then they also have equal
denominators."

32.5. If the two members of an inequality are multiplied by the

same negative number, the direction of the inequality changes; log
(1/2) < 0.

32.6. The integral is improper, since the integrand is discon-

tinuous at χ = 0.
 HINTS F O R THE S O L U T I O N OF SOME OF THE EXERCISES 241

32.7. Examine for endpoint maxima and minima.

32.8. The terms of an infinite series may be bracketed to suit

one's pleasure if and only if the series is absolutely convergent.

32.9. (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a + d = b + c,

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d),
(a, b) (c, d) = (ac + bd, ad + be).

32.10. (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if ad = be,

(a, b) + (c, d) = (ad + be, bd),
(a, b) (c, d) = (ac, bd).

33.1. Let Mi be the midpoint of AB, M the midpoint of Μφ, M 2 3

the midpoint of M B, etc. Denote by Ε the set of all points on [AB]

2

with the exception of points A B, M M , M uThen we have 2 3

[AB] is composed of Ε, Α, Β, Mi M , M , . . . , 2 3

(AB] is composed of Ε, B, M M , M l t 2 3

[AB) is composed of E, A, M M , M , . . . ,
lt 2 3

(AB) is composed of E, M M, M, . . . .
it 2 3

It is now apparent how we may put the points of any one of the four
segments in one-to-one correspondence with the points of any other
one of the four segments.

33.2. Employ Figure 21.

A M

Q'
R
P'

Ν Β

FIG. 21
242 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

33.3. Employ Figure 22.

33.4. ( c ) It is only the verification of the triangle inequality that

presents any difficulty. Denote d(y, z ) , d(x, z ) , d(x, y) by a, b, c,
respectively. Then we have

b/(l + b) = l/(l/b + 1) = l / [ l / ( c + a) + 1]

= (c + a ) / ( l + c + a ) = c / ( l + c + a)

+ a / ( l + c + a) = c / ( l + c ) + a / ( l + a ) .

Notice that for this metric all distances are less than 1.

33.5. ( b ) It is only the verification of the triangle inequality that

presents any difficulty. Toward this verification note that, for any
three points (x yj, (x , y ), (*3> v ) , we have
u 2 2 3

I *3 - *1 I =S I *2 - *1 I + I *3 — *2 I .
Iy
- 3 Vi I < I y -
yι 2 I + |y - v j ·
3 2

33.7. ( b ) Postulate H3 is not satisfied for points Β and C.

33.8. Since χ is a limit point of S, any neighborhood N of χ con- x

tains a point vi of S, where y χ ^ χ. By Postulate H4, there then exist

neighborhoods iVy, ofj» andW.,. of χ such thatW^n N = 0. Again,
1 yi

by Postulate H2, there exists a neighborhood N" of χ such that N" x x

C (N Π N' ). It follows that vj ί JV"^. But, since jt is a limit point of

x x

S, N" , and hence N , contains a point y of S, where y ^ χ and

x x 2 2

V!. Continuing in this way, we find that N contains an infinite se- x

quence of distinct pointsy y , y , . . . of S, and the desired result is

lt 2 3

established.

33.10. ( b ) Let χ be any point of a metric space M and denote by

S(x, r) the open sphere of center χ and radius r. W e now show that
these open spheres, if regarded as neighborhoods, satisfy the four
postulates of a Hausdorff space.
W e omit the obvious verification of H I and H 2 .
T o verify H3, let d(x, y) < r, and set R = r - d(x, y) > 0. T h e
triangle inequality states that d(x, y') < d(x, y) + d(y, y') —
(r - R) + d(y, y') < r, if d(y, y') < R. That is, S(y, R) C
S(x, r ) .
 HINTS FOR THE S O L U T I O N O F SOME O F THE EXERCISES 243

FIG. 22

T o verify H4, let χ be distinct fromy and set r = d(x, y) > 0. Then
it is easy to show that the two open spheres S(x, r / 3 ) and S(y, r / 3 )
have no point in common.

33.11. From M ' l and M ' 2 we shall deduce the following two
theorems.

T H E O R E M 1. d(x, y) — d(y, x).

By Postulate M ' 2 we have

d(x, y) < d(y, z) + d(z, x)

and,

d(y, x) < d(x, w) + d(w, y).

244 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S (AFTER 1650)

Taking ζ — χ in the first of these inequalities, and w = y in the sec-

ond one, we find (recalling Postulate M ' l )

dix, y) < d(y, x), d(y, x) < dix, y).

It now follows that dix, y) — d(y, x).

T H E O R E M 2. d(x, y) â 0.

By M ' 2, for any point z,

d(x, z) < d(z, y) + d(y, x).

Taking ζ = χ we have

dix, χ) < dix, y) + diy, x).

But dix, x) = 0 (by M ' l ) , and diy, x) - dix, y) (by Theorem 1). It
follows that 0 < 2dix, y ) , whence dix, y) > 0.

33.12. ( g ) See Figure 23.

FIG. 23
 HINTS FOR THE S O L U T I O N O F SOME O F THE EXERCISES 245

34.1. ( b ) Use the idea employed in the proof of Theorem 1 of the

lecture text.

34.1. ( c ) Use an indirect argument along with 34.1 ( a ) and

Theorem 1 of the lecture text.

34.1. ( d ) Use an indirect argument along with 34.1 ( a ) and

Theorem 2 of the lecture text.

34.5. (a) A circle through three points with rational coordinates

has a center with rational coordinates.

34.5. ( b ) See Problem E832, American Mathematical Monthly, 56

(1949), p. 407.

34.5. ( c ) N o , for there are c points on a straight line and on a cir-

cle, and there are only d rational numbers and d algebraic numbers.

34.5. ( d ) Take a number axis on the given straight line. In each in-
terval choose a point with rational coordinate. These points are
distinct, and therefore in one-to-one correspondence with the inter-
vals, and they constitute an infinite subset of the denumerable set of
all rational numbers.

34.5. ( e ) Place upon a Cartesian plane and choose within each cir-
cle a point having rational coordinates, etc.

34.6. (a) For the rational number a/b, consider the polynomial
bx — a.

34.6. ( b ) Consider the polynomial x 2

— 2.

34.6. ( c ) Algebraic, since it is a zero of the polynomial x 2

+ 1.

34.6. ( d ) If x / 2 is not transcendental, then it is algebraic and is a

zero of some polynomial f(x). Then τ would be a zero of the
polynomial/(x/2).

34.6. ( e ) If Tr + 1 is not transcendental, then it is algebraic and is

a zero of some polynomial f(x). Then π would be a zero of the
polynomial f(x — 1).

34.6. ( f ) If a is transcendental, then so also are a/n and a + n,

where η is a natural number.
246 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

34.6. ( g ) Multiply the polynomial through by the lowest common

denominator of the a^'s.

34.7. The one-to-one correspondence η — η + 1 shows that d =

d + 1. The one-to-one correspondences η ** 2n and η ** 2n — 1
show that d + d = d, or 2d = d.

34.8. With the finite sequence {n lt n2 , n} r associate the

natural number

η = 2 3" Πί 2
••• p ',r
n

where p is the rth prime number. Since factorization of a natural

r

number into powers of primes is unique, there is a one-to-one cor-

respondence between the set of all finite sequences of nonnegative in-
tegers and the set of all natural numbers.

34.9. Assume S is denumerable. Then we can arrange the

members of S in a sequence {f (x),f 2 (x) f ( * ) • · · · } · Con-
n

sider the array

/id) / i ( 2 ) Λ(3) . . .
Λ(ΐ) Λ(2) Λ(3) . . .
/ (1)
3 / (2) / (3)
3 3 ...

Now form the function fix) such t h a t / ( « ) = / „ ( » ) + 1. T h e n / f a )

belongs toS. B u t / ( x ) cannot be in the given denumeration, for it dif-
fers f r o m / i (x) in the value taken by χ = 1, f r o m / (x) in the value 2

taken by χ = 2, and so on.

35.4. (a) 48 miles per hour.

35.4. ( b ) 2.4 days.

35.4. ( c ) 15 for 68 cents.

35.4. ( d ) 67.5 cents.

35.4. ( e ) The second one.

35.4. ( f ) A t the end of 59 seconds.

35.4. ( g ) A fantastic salary.

 HINTS FOR THE S O L U T I O N O F SOME OF THE EXERCISES 247

35.4. (h) 11 seconds.

35.4. ( i ) Five cents.

35.4. ( j ) Neither; the amounts are equal.

35.4. ( k ) The final pile will be over 17,000,000 miles high.

35.4. (1) N o .

35.4. ( m ) One third.

35.4. (n) Y e s .

35.5. The primitive terms are any things that satisfy the postulates.

35.6. No, for all four parts.

36.1. Since aGc, there exists mm Κ such that aFm and mFc, and
since bGc, there exists η in Κ such that bFn and nFc. Since mFc and
nFc, by T6 η = m. Since aFm and bFm, by T 6 , a — b.

36.2. (a) Employ reductio ad absurdum and argue by cases.

36.7. See R . A . Rosenbaum, "Remark on equivalence relations,"

American Mathematical Monthly, 62 (1955), p . 650.

37.1. Suppose q is true. Then, by ( 1 ) , r is false. But this con-

tradicts (3). Suppose q is false. Then, by (2), ρ is true. But this con-
tradicts (4).

37.2. Interpret the elements of S as a set of all rectangular Carte-

sian frames of reference which are parallel to one another but with no
axis of one frame coincident with an axis of another frame, and let
bFa mean that the origin of frame b is in the first quadrant of frame
a. Or, interpret the elements of S as the set of all ordered pairs (m, n)
of real numbers, and let (u, v) F (m, η) mean u > m and ν > η.

37.3. Interpret Κ as the set of all points on a given circle, and let
R(abc) mean "points a, b, c lie in clockwise order."

37.5. Interpret the bees as six people A, B, C, D, E, F, and the

four hives as the four committees {A, B, C), {A, D, Ε), (B, F, E), and
(C, F, D).
248 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

37.6. Let S be the set of points of a horizontal straight line, and let
F mean "is to the right of."

37.7. T o show independence of P2, interpret the bees and the

hives as four trees and four rows of trees forming the vertices and sides
of a square. T o show the independence of P3, interpret the bees as
four trees located at the vertices and the foot of an altitude of an
equilateral triangle, and the hives as the four rows of trees along the
sides and the altitude of the triangle. T o show independence of P4,
interpret the bees and the hives as three trees and three rows of trees
forming the vertices and sides of a triangle.

37.8. The following three theorems can be deduced from the

postulates of Exercise 37.5: (1) There are exactly six bees. (2) There
are exactly three bees in each hive. (3) For each bee there is exactly
one other bee not in the same hive with it. Taking these theorems into
account, let us designate the four hives by I , I I , I I I , I V and the three
bees in hive I by A, B, C. Let hive I I have bee A, and only bee A, in
common with hive I . Then we may designate the bees in hive I I by A,
D, E. Now let hive I I I be that hive which has bee Β in common with
hive I . Then we may designate the bees in hive I I I by either B, D, For
Β, E, F. In the first case, hive I V must contain bees C, E, F, and, in
the second case, hive I V must contain bees C, D, F. There are, then,
the following two ways of designating the hives and the bees:

I A, B, C I A, B, C
II A, D, Ε II A, D, E
or
III B, D, F III B, E, F
IV C, E, F IV C, D, F

But the second designation can be changed into the first by inter-
changing the two labels D and E. It follows, then, that any interpreta-
tion of the postulate set can be labeled as in the first designation, and
the desired isomorphism is established.

37.9. Show that there is essentially only one way of labeling the
four elements of K.

37.10. See W . T . Guy, Jr., "On equivalence relations,"America«

Mathematical Monthly 62 (1955), pp. 179-180.
 HINTS FOR THE S O L U T I O N O F SOME O F THE EXERCISES 249

38.1. No.

38.2. Since noughts and crosses are put on the board alternately,
and since the total possible number of noughts and crosses is 9, there
can never be more than 5 crosses on the board at any one time.

38.3. (a) 2 " 3 5 3 19

7 n
l l 13
3 261
17 13
19 .
13

38.3. ( b ) ~(fu).

38.4. 18,750.

38.5. -2/3.

39.1. ( a ) The initial column entries are 4, 5, 2.

39.1. ( b ) The initial column entries are 6, 12, 7, 1.

39.2. (a) T w o .

39.2. ( b ) Four.

39.3. ( a ) n(n 2
+ l)/2.

39.3. ( b ) Denote the numbers in the magic square by letters and

then add together the letters of the middle row, the middle column,
and the two main diagonals.

39.3. ( c ) Use 39.3 ( b ) and an indirect argument.

39.4. (a) N o .

39.4. ( b ) Yes, for example r = 0.1234567890.

39.5. ( b ) Employ mathematical induction.

 INDEX

Ab initio process, 25 Arithmetic progression, 41

Abstract spaces, 150, 151 Arithmetical triangle, 6jf, 9, 10
Hausdorff, 152 Arithmetization of analysis, 138
metric (see Metric space) Ars conjectandi (Bernoulli), 8
taxicab, 151 Artis analyticae praxis (Harriot),
topological, 153 224
Academies, societies, periodicals, ASCC (Automatic Sequence Con-
224, 225 trolled Calculator)
Acta eruditorum, 19, 19n Mark I, 212
Aiken, H., 212 Mark II, 213
Alexander the Great, 223 Associative law of addition, 89, 99,
Algebraic number, 164 101, 105
Algebraic structure, 88, 91, 92, Associative law of multiplication, 89,
110, 115 99,101, 105
Al-Khowârizmî, 223 Astragalus bone, 1
American Journal of Mathematics, Ausdehnungslehre (Grassmann),
216 103
Analysis situs of the plane, 126 Axioms (or postulates) of a discourse,
Analytical engine, 210, 211, 212 173, 174, 177
Apollonius, 11, 223
Conic Sections, 11, 223 Babbage, C , 209, 210, 212, 213,
Appel, Κ . , 217, 218 218, 219
Applied mathematics analytical engine, 210, 211, 212
branch of, 175, 185, 186 difference engine, 209, 219
to-date, 175 Baldwin, F. S., 211
Archimedes, 42, 43, 49, 227 calculating machines, 211
Quadrature of the Parabola, 42 Ballistic Research Laboratory, 212
Area under a curve, 28, 29 Barrow, I., 16, 17, 34, 36
Aristotle, 159, 222, 228 differential triangle, 17
law of excluded middle, 228 differentiation, 16
systematization of deductive logic, Lectiones opticae et geometricae,
222 16, 34
Arithmetic algebra, 91 Basis of a discourse, 174

251
252 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S (AFTER 1650)

Bell, E. T., 80 Categoricalness of a postulate set,

The Development of Mathemat- 190, 194, 195, 196
ics, 80n Catenary curve, 53
The Magic of Numbers, 69n Cauchy, A . L., 19, 110, 137, 138,
Beltrami, E., 69, 79 160
Berkeley, Bishop G., 47, 133 Cavalieri, B., 21, 36
Bernoulli, D., 9 indivisibles, 21
Bernoulli, Jacob, 8, 53 Cayley, Α . , 79, 104, 106, 110, 125,
Ars conjectandi, 8 216, 228
Bernoulli, Johann, 53,133, 153, 225, matric algebra, 104, 105, 106
228, 229 product of matrices, 106
brachystochrone problem, 225 CDC 6600 computer, 214
calculus of variations, 225 CDC 7600 computer, 214
Beta function, 135 Cevian, 74
Binary operations, 88 Chasles, M . , 224
Birkhoff, Garrett, 104 Chevalley, C , 228
Bolyai, F., 77 Church, Α . , 213
Bolyai, J., 76, 77, 78, 93, 98, 228 theorem, 203
Bolzano, B., 160 Cissoid, 15
Paradoxes of the Infinite, 160 Clairaut, C. Α . , 154
Boole, G., 227 Théorie de la figure de la Terre,
Boundlessness vs. infiniteness of 53
lines, 81 Théorie de la Lune, 53
Bourbaki, N . , 228 Claudius (Roman Emperor), 3
Brachystochrone, 53, 225 How to Win at Dice, 3
British Royal Society, 21, 209, 225 Cohen, P. J., 167
Brouwer, L. E. J., 161, 215 Colmar, T. de, 211
Bulletin of the American Mathemat- calculating machines, 211
ical Society, 217 Columbia University, 221
Bureau of Standards, 212 Commentary on Euclid, Book I
(Proclus), 64, 66
Calculating (computing) machines, Commissariat à l'Énergie Ato-
211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 218 mique, 214
Calculus, 19ff Commutative law of addition, 89, 92,
priority quarrel, 21, 22 99,101, 105
Calculus of variations, 225 Commutative law of multiplication,
Cancellation law for addition, 96 89, 92, 98, 99,101
Cantor, G., 81, 140, 160, 161, 162, Commutative ring, 104,116
163, 164, 165, 167 Complete ordered field, 95
diagonal process, 165 Completed infinite set, 159,160,161
Cardano, G., 3 Completeness of a postulate set, 196,
Cardinal numbers, 148, 149, 161 201
Carlyle, T., 72 Complex numbers, Hamilton's treat-
Cartan, É., 127 ment, 98, 99,100
Cartesian oval, 13n Computeritis, 213, 215
 INDEX 253

Computing machines (see Calculat- Descartes, R., 12, 52, 205

ing machines) folium of, 15,16,18
Conchoid, 15 La géométrie, 1 2
Conic Sections (Apollonius), 11, 223 method of tangents, 12, 24
Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, De Sua, F., 204, 205
211 De triangulis omnimodis (Regiomon-
Consistency of mathematics, 138, tanus), 223
140,146,149 Development of Mathematics, The
Consistency of postulate sets, 189, (Bell), 80/1
191, 213 Dice, 2
absolute, 191, 203 Die Theorie der Parallellinien (Lam-
relative, 191 bert), 69
test by models, 191 Dieudonné, J., 228
Continuity, 155 Difference engine, 209, 219
Continuum hypothesis, 167 Differential triangle, 17
"Copernicus of geometry," 78 Differentiation, 14ff
Cross ratio, 117,123 ab initio process, 25
Cross ratio group, 117 four-step rule, 25
Cycloid curve, 4,15 rules, 19, 20
Dirichlet, P. G. L., 56, 154
D'Alembert, Jean-le-Rond, 53, 136, definition of function, 154
137 theorem, 56, 57, 59
causes of winds, 53 Distance function, or metric, 151
motion of fluids, 53 Distributive law of multiplication
principle, 53 over addition, 89, 92, 99, 101,
Traité de dynamique, 53 105
vibrating strings, 53 Division ring, 103, 116
Decimal fractions, 223, 224 Domain of definition of a function,
Dedekind, R., 140,156, 161 154
cuts, 140« Duplication of a cube, 226
definition of infinite set, 156 Dyadic relation, 181
Definite integral, 29 asymmetric, 184
Definitional, or genetical, approach determinate, 184
to the real numbers, 139 equivalence, 187
Delsarte, J., 228 intransitive, 184
De Moivre, Α., 9 irreflexive, 184
De Morgan, Α . , 34, 92, 216, 227 reflexive, 184
Denjoy, Α., 227 simple order, 186
Denumerability of algebraic num- symmetric, 184
bers, 164 transitive, 184
Denumerability of rational num-
bers, 163, 207 École Polytechnique, 57
Denumerable sets, 162 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Vari-
Desargues, G., 52, 224 able Calculator), 212
projective geometry, 224 Einstein, Α . , 82, 83
254 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

Elements (Euclid), 63, 64, 65, 66, differentiation, 13, 14

67, 71, 84, 91, 121, 122, 171 greatest mathematician of seven-
parallel postulate, (Hff teenth century, 5
Elements de géométrie (Legendre), last theorem, 202
71, 72, 82 mathematical probability, 5, 11
Ellipse, 15, 223 maxima and minima, 13, 14
Elliptic functions, 54 Pascal-Fermat correspondence, 3,
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical In-
tegrator and Computer), 212, problem of the points, 6
213, 215 tangents, 14
Epsilon-delta procedures, 139, 229 theory of numbers, 5
Equivalent postulate sets, 189, 190 Field, 93, 116
Equivalent sets, 148 complete ordered, 95
Erlanger Programm, 119, 124, 127, number, 96
150 operations, 97
Euclid, 63, 64, 76, 77, 79, 84, 88, 98 ordered, 93, 94
Elements (see Elements (Euclid)) Finite geometries, 82
"Euclid of algebra," 91 First adding machine, 4
Euclidean geometry, 138, 139, 140, Fluent, 22
150, 177, 190, 193, 195, 196, Fluxion, 22
201 Folium of Descartes, 15, 16, 18
Euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus Formal axiomatics, 171, 175, 176,
(Saccheri), 67, 68 189, 202
Eudoxus, 136 pattern of, 173, 174
Euler, L., 9, 46, 50, 53, 56, 134, Four-color conjecture, or problem,
135, 154, 229 216, 217, 218
Institutiones calculi differentialis, Fourier, I . , 43, 54ff, 154
53 coefficients, 56
Introductio in analysin infini- integral, 58
torum, 53 series, 56jff
Eves, H., An Introduction to the Théorie analytique de la chaleur,
History of Mathematics, 221 56
Eves, H., and C. V. Newsom, An In- trigonometric series, 43
troduction to the Foundations Four-step rule, 25
and Fundamental Concepts of Franklin, P., 217
Mathematics, 63/t, 221 Fréchet, M . , 150, 151
Existence proof, 184 Frege, G., 149, 227
French Academy of Sciences, 4, 54,
Factorial « , 7 « , 45w 55, 225
Farrar, J., 71 Mémoires, 55, 56
Felton, 213 Friden calculator, 211
Fermât, P., 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, Frobenius, G., 110
18, 36, 52 Function concept, 153, 154
analytic geometry, 5 Dirichlet's definition, 154
calculus, 5 domain, 154
 INDEX 255

range, 154 non-Riemannian, 82

refined by set theory, 154, 155 notions of, 149, 150
Fundamental theorem of algebra, plane affine, 123, 125
38, 141, 226 plane centro-affine, 123, 125
Fundamental theorem of calculus, plane Euclidean, 122, 123, 138,
30, 31 139, 140, 150, 177, 190, 193,
algebraic proof, 31, 32 195, 196, 201
geometric proof, 34, 35, 36 plane Euclidean metric, 122, 123,
Fundamental theorem of projective 125
geometry, 38 plane Lobachevskian, 192, 195,
196, 201
Galileo Galilei, 52, 80, 159, 162 plane Lorentz, 129
Two New Sciences, 159 plane similarity, 122
Galois, É., 110 point, 123
Gaming, 2 Riemannian, 82
Gamma function, 135 rubber-sheet, 126
Gauss, C. F., 43, 76, 77, 78, 83, topology, 127
136, 137, 160 Gergonne, J. D., 225
hypergeometric series, 43, 43n Gibbs, J. W . , 106
Gaussian integers, 90 Gödel, Κ., 167, 200, 202, 204, 205,
General theory of relativity, 82, 83 206
Generalized parabolas, 34 first theorem, 202
Genetical, or definitional, approach index, 207
to the real numbers, 139 numbers, 205, 206, 207
Genuys, F., 213 second theorem, 204
Geometriae pars universalis (Gre- Goldbach conjecture, 202
gory), 34 Grandi, L. G., 135
Geometric progression, 41 Grassmann, H. G., 92, 93, 103
Geometrica organica (Maclaurin), Ausdehnungslehre, 103
47 hypercomplex numbers, 103
Geometrische Untersuchungen zur Greatest mathematician of the sev-
Theorie der Parallellinien (Lo- enteenth century, 5
bachevsky), 78 Greatest "might have been," 5
Geometry Gregory, D . F., 92
analysis situs, 126 Gregory, J., 34
finite, 82 Geometriae pars universalis, 34
Kleinian, 127 Groups, 104, 110, 119
Klein's definition of, 124 Abelian, 111, 112, 113, 116
modified Klein's definition of, commutative, 111
125 consistency of, 114
non-Archimedean, 82 cross-ratio, 117
non-Desarguesian, 82 finite, 111, 112, 113, 114
non-Euclidean, 77Jf, 88, 123, 149, infinite, 111, 112, 113, 114
171, 177, 189, 192, 195, 196, non-Abelian, 111, 113
201 symmetric, 118
256 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

symmetries of a square, 131 Hyperbolic functions, 53

theorems, 115 Hypercomplex numbers, 103
transformation, 121, 150 Hypergeometric series, 43, 43n, 137
Grundlagen der Geometrie (Hil- Hypothesis of the acute angle, 67ff,
bert), 171, 189 76, 79, 81
GuUloud, M. J., 214 Hypothesis of the obtuse angle, 67ff
Guthrie, Francis, 216 Hypothesis of the right angle, 67»y,
Guthrie, Frederick, 216 76

Haar, Α . , 227
Haken, W . . 217. 218 IBM (International Business Ma-
Hamilton, Sir W. R., 92, 93, 98, 99, chines), 210, 212, (704) 213,
100, 102, 103, 106, 140, 216, (7090) 213
228 Improper integrals, 138
complex numbers, 98, 99, 100 Indefinite integral, 33
quaternions, 101, 102, 106 Independence of a postulate, 192
Hankel, Η., 92 Independence of a postulate set,
Harriot, T., 52, 224 189, 190, 192, 193
Artis analyticae praxis, 224 Infinite series
Harvard University, 200, 212 alternating, 48
Hauff, J. K. F., 73 convergent, 41
Hausdorff space, 152 divergent, 41
limit point, 157 Fourier, 56j(jf
neighborhoods, 152 power, 44
Height of a polynomial, 164 sum of, 41
Hermite, C , 166, 226 trigonometric, 43
transcendentality of e, 166, 226 Infinite sets, 159#
Herschel, Sir J. F. W . , 209 Dedekind's definition of, 156
Hubert, D., 161, 189, 193, 200, 201, Infiniteness vs. boundlessness, 81
203, 204, 226 Infinitesimals, 228, 229
Grundlagen der Geometrie, 171 Infinite-valued logics, 228
189 Institute for Advanced Study, 200,
number, 167 212
Paris problems, 226 Institutiones calculi differentialis
postulates, 195 (Euler), 53
space, 152 Integral domain, 103, 116
Hindu-Arabic numeral system, 223 Integral sign, origin of, 21
Historical growth of number system, Integration rules, 33, 38, 39
141 International Congress of Mathema-
Holder, O., 110 ticians, 226
How to Win at Dice (Claudius), 3 Interpretation of a branch of pure
Huygens, C , 8, 9, 52 mathematics, 175
treatise on probability, 8, 9 Interval of convergence, 44
Hydraulic press, 4 lntroductio in analysin infinitorum
Hyperbola, 223 (Euler), 53
 INDEX 257

Introduction to Mathematics, An Mécanique analytique, 53

(Whitehead), 37n Théorie des fonctions analytiques,
Introduction to the Foundations and 54, 136
Fundamental Concepts of Lambert, J. H., 53, 69, 70, 76
Mathematics, An (Eves and comet orbits, 53
Newsom), 63«, 221 Die Theorie der Parallellinien, 69
Introduction to the History of Math- hyperbolic functions, 53
ematics, An (Eves), 221 Lamé curve (special), 18
Involutoric transformation, 128 Laplace, P. S., 9, 53, 55
Isochrone, 53 "the Newton of France," 54
Isometries, 122 Théorie analytique des probabil-
Isomorphic interpretations, 194, 195 ités, 54
Isosceles birectangle, 67 Traité de mécanique céleste, 54
La Thiende(Stevin), 224
Jeenel, 213 Law of excluded middle, 228
levons, W . S., 9 Laws of planetary motion, 223
Jordan algebra, 106 Least upper bound, 94
Journal für Mathematik, 161 Lebesgue, H., 227
integral, 227
Kant, Ε., 80 Lectiones opticae et geometricae
Kappa curve, 18 (Barrow), 16, 34
Kazan Messenger, 78 Legendre, A . M., 53, 55, 70, 71, 72,
Kelvin, Lord (Sir William Thom- . 76
son), 58 Éléments de géométrie, 71, 72, 82
Kempe, A. B., 216, 217 elliptic functions, 54
Kepler, J., 13, 52, 223 method of least squares, 54
laws of planetary motion, 223 Leibniz, G. W . , 19, 29, 34, 36, 37,
Keyser, C , 82 52, 132, 153, 211, 227
King's College, 210 Acta eruditorum, 19, 19«
Kleene, S. C , 205 calculating machine, 211
Klein, F., 79, 84, 110, 119, 121, invention of calculus, 19ff
124, 125, 126, 127, 138 rule, 26
definition of "a geometry," 124 Lie, S., 110, 119
Erlanger Programm, 119,124,150 algebra, 106
modified definition of "a geome- Limit concept, 23
try," 125 Limit point, 157
Kleinian geometry, 127 Lindemann, C. L. F., 166, 226
Kramp, C , 7n transcendentality of τ , 166
Kronecker, L., 142, 161 Line at infinity, 123
Liouville, J., 166«, 226
La Disme (Stevin), 224 Lobachevsky, Ν. I., 76, 78, 93, 98,
La galande, 18 228
La géométrie (Descartes), 12 Geometrische Untersuchungen
Lagrange, J. L., 9, 46, 53, 55, 110, zur Theorie der Parallellinien,
136 78
258 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

geometry, 78, 80, 201 Mémoires (French Academy of Sci-

Pangéométrie, 78 ences), 55, 56
"the Copernicus of geometry," 78 Mencke, Ο., 19n
Logic Mere, Chevalier de, 3
Aristotelian, 222, 223 Metamathematics, 189
infinite-valued, 228 Method of Fluxions and Infinite
law of excluded middle, 228 (Newton), 22
Series
mathematical, 227 Method of least squares, 54
multiple-valued, 227 Methodus incrementorum directa et
m-valued, 228 inversa(Taylor), 46
symbolic, 227 Metric of a space, 151
two-valued, 228 Metric spaces, 151, 152
Logica demonstrativa (Saccheri), 66 Hilbert space, 152
London Mathematical Society, 216 taxicab space, 152
Lorcle, 130 Model of a branch of pure mathe-
Lorotation, 129 matics, 175
Lukasiewicz, J., 228 concrete, 191
ideal, 191
Mac Lane, S., 104 Moment of a fluent, 22
Maclaurin, C , 43, 46, 47 Monge, G., 57
expansion, or series, 46, 49 Monroe calculator, 211
of e, 47 Moore, R. L., 193, 194
of sin x, 48 Morland, Sir S., 211
Geometrica organica, 47 calculating machine, 211
mathematical theory of tides, 46 Müller, J. (see Regiomontanus)
mutual attraction of ellipsoids, 46 Multiple-valued logics, 227, 228
Treatise on Fluxions, 46 m-valued logics, 228
Magic of Numbers, (Bell), 69n
The "Mystic hexagram" theorem, 4, 4 «
Magic squares, 214, 214n, 220
MANIAC computer, 214 Napier, J., 52, 211
Marchant calculator, 211 rods, 211
Mark I computer, 210, 212 Napoleon Bonaparte, 58
Mark II computer, 212 Nasir-ed-din, 65, 66
Material axiomatics, 171,175,189 Natural number system as basis of
Mathematical logic, 227 mathematics, 140
Mathematische Annalen, 161 Nature, 210, 216
Matric algebra, 104,105,106 Naval Proving Ground, 212
Cayley product, 106 Negative elements, 94
Jordan product, 106 Neighborhoods, 152
Lie product, 106 Neugebauer, Ο., 49, 50, 222
Matrix, 104 "New math," the, 146, 155, 156
Maxima and minima, 13 Newton, I . , 16, 34, 36, 37, 38, 47,
Fermat's method, 13, 14 52, 132, 133
Maxwell, J. C , 9, 58 invention of calculus, 19, 2\ff
Mécanique analytique (Lagrange), Method of Fluxions and Infinite
53 Series. 22

Philosophiae naturalis
mathematica, 21
Quadrature of Curves,
Nicholson, 213
Non-Archimedean geometry, 82
Noncommutative algebra, 171
Nondenumerability of real num-
bers, 165
Non-Desarguesian geometry, 82
Non-Euclidean geometry, llff, 79,
88, 123, 149, 171, 177, 189,
192, 195, 196, 201
relative consistency of, 79
Nonsingular transformation(s), I19ff
group, 121, 150
identity, 121
inverse, 121
involutoric, 128
isometries, 122
planar Lorentz, 129
product of, 119
similarities, 122
Nonstandard analysis, 228, 229
NORC computer, 213
Normal number, 215
Null set, 90
Number field, 96
Odhner, W . T., 211
calculating machines, 211
Oldenburg, H., 21
One-to-one correspondence,
119n, 147
Open sphere, 152
Ordered field, 93, 94
negative elements, 94
positive elements, 94
Ore, O., 217
Orthogonal trajectories, 53
Oughtred, W . , 52
Pacioli, L., 3
Süma, 3 Plane affine geometry, 123, 125
Pangéométrie (Lobachevsky), 78
Parabola, 223
INDEX 259
principal Paradoxes, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143,
144
133 Zeno's, 159, 161, 222
Paradoxes of the Infinite (Bolzano),
160
Parallel, or fifth, postulate, 63ff, 79,
82, 88, 167, 190, 192, 228
alternatives, 64, 65
Playfair's, 65, 76
Pascal, B., 3, 4, 36, 52, 211
adding machine, 4, 211
arithmetic triangle, 6ff, 9, 10
cycloid curve, 4
greatest "might have been," 5
hydraulic press, 4
mathematical probability, 5
"mystic hexagram" theorem, An
Pascal-Fermat correspondence, 3,
6#
Pensées, 5
problem of the points, 6ff
Provincial Letters, 5
Traité du triangle arithmétique,
4, 6
Peacock, G., 91, 92
arithmetic algebra, 91
"Euclid of algebra," 91
principle of permanence of equiv-
alent forms, 91, 92
symbolic algebra, 91, 92
Treatise on Algebra, 91
Peano, G., 140
119,
postulates, 202
Pegasus computer, 213
Peirce, B., 176
Peirce, C. S., 227
Pensées (Pascal), 5
Pentominoes, 214, 214«
Philosophiae naturalis principia
mathematica (Newton), 21
Photogrammetry, 46
•κ, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216
normalcy or nonnormalcy of, 215
Plane centro-affine geometry, 123,
125
260 G R E A T M O M E N T S I N M A T H E M A T I C S ( A F T E R 1650)

Plane equiform geometry, 122, 123, Probability

125 Bernoulli's Ars conjectandi, 8
Plane Euclidean geometry, 122, 123 Huygen's treatise, 8
(also s e e Euclidean geometry) Jevons on, 9
Plane Euclidean metric geometry, Laplace on, 9
122, 123, 125 mathematical, 3, 5, 11
Plane Lobachevskian geometry, 192, Maxwell on, 9
195, 1% (also s e e Non-Euclid- origin as a study, 2
ean geometry) problem of the points, 3, tff
Plane Lorentz geometry, 129 Problem of the points, 3, tff, 11
Plane similarity geometry, 122 Fermat's solution, 6
Plato, 223 Pascal's solution, 6, 7, 8
Playfair, J., 65 Proceedings of the Royal Geograph-
parallel postulate, 76 ical Society, 216
Plimpton, G. Α., 221 Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Plimpton 322, 221,222 Edinburgh, 216
Plücker, J., 226 Proclus, 64, 65, 66, 159
Poincaré, H., 79, 86, 110, 176 Commentary on Euclid, Book I,
Point geometries, 124 64,66
Poncelet, J. V., 225 Projective geometry, 123, 125, 126,
Traité des propriétés projectives 224, 225
des figures, 225 golden period, 225
Positive elements, 94 principle of duality, 225, 226
Post, E. L., 228 Propositional function, 172
Postulate set for calculus, 95 Provincial Letters (Pascal), 5
Postulate set for elementary algebra, Ptolemy, C , 65
94 Pure mathematics
Postulates (or axioms) of a discourse, branch of, 175
173, 174, 177 economy feature of, 175, 186
Power series, 44 example of, 182,183, 184
interval of convergence, 44 interpretation of, 175
Primitive terms of a discourse, 173, model of, 175, 177
174 of to-date, 175
Principia mathematica (Whitehead Pythagoras, 132, 141
and Russell), 147n, 227 Pythagorean triples, 222
Principle of duality, 225, 226
of Boolean algebra, 226 Quadratrix, 15, 18
of calculus of propositions, 226 Quadrature of a circle, 226
of partially ordered sets, 226 Quadrature of Curves (Newton), 133
of plane projective geometry, 225 Quadrature of the Parabola (Ar-
of solid projective geometry, 226 chimedes), 42
of spherical triangles, 226 Quantum mechanics, 205
of trigonometric equations, 226 Quantum theory, 228
Plücker's proof of, 226 Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,
Principle of permanence of equiva- 217
lent forms, 91, 92 Quaternionic multiplication table, 102
 INDEX 261

Quaternionic units, 101 Semigroup, 111, 115, 116

Quaternions, 101, 102, 106 Abelian, 111, 116
Sequence, 40
finite, 41
Raleigh, Sir W . , 224
general, or wth, term, 40
Range of a function, 154
infinite, 41
Real number system, relative con-
Series, 40
sistency of, 140
alternating, 48
Regiomontanus, 223
finite, 41
De triangulis omnimodis, 223
Fourier, S6ff
Reichenbach, H., 228
general, or nth, term, 40
infinite-valued logic, 228 infinite, 41
Reitwiesner, G. W . , 213 Maclaurin, 46
Relative consistency, 79 power, 44
Religion, a definition of, 205 Taylor, 46
Reynolds, C. N . , 217
trigonometric, 43, 54ff
Rhind papyrus, 49
Sets (and set theory), 146
Riemann, G. F. Β., 81, 82, 137,
cardinal number of, 148
138, 150, 227
completed infinite, 159, 160
Habilitationschrift, 83
dense, 162
Uber die Hypothesen welche der
denumerable, 162
Geometrie zu Grunde liegen,
equivalent, 148
83, 150 finite, 149
Riemannian geometries, 82
function concept, 154, 155
Riemannian non-Euclidean geome-
infinite, 149, 159
try, 81, 82
Dedekind's definition of, 156
Ring, 104, 116
"new math," 155, 156
with identity (unity), 104, 116
of zero measure, 168
Roberval, G. P. de, 11, 36
one-to-one correspondence be-
method of tangents, 12
tween, 147
Robinson, Α . , 229
Sfield, 103
Rosser, Β., 205
Shanks, D., 213, 214
Royal Irish Academy, 98
Shanks, W . , 215
Rubber-sheet geometry, 126
Shelly, P. B., 37
Russell, B., 149, 172, 176, 177
Similarities, 122
Principia mathematica, 147«, 227
Simple order, 186
Simply normal number, 215
Saccheri, G., 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, Sluze, R. F. W. de, 15
76 Smithsonian Institution, 212
Euclides ab omni naevo vindi- South Kensington Science Museum,
cates, 67 210
Logica demonstrativa, 66 Spherical degree, 75
Sachs, A. J., 222 Spherical excess, 75
Schröder, Ε., 227 SSEC (Selective Sequence Electronic
Schumacher, H. C , 160 Calculator), 212
Scott, D. S., 214 Stemple, J., 217
262 GREAT MOMENTS I N MATHEMATICS (AFTER 1650)

Stevin, S., 223, 224 Traité de dynamique (d'Alembert),

decimal fractions, 223, 224 53
La Disme, 224 Traité de mécanique céleste (Laplace)
La Thiende, 224 54
Stieltjes, T. J., 227 Traité des propriétés projectives des
Stirling, J., 46 figures (Poncelet), 225
STRETCH computer, 214 Traité du triangle arithmétique (Pas-
Subtangent, 14 cal), 4, 6
Süma (Pacioli), 3 Transactions of the London Mathe-
Sylow, L., 110 matical Society, 216
Symbolic algebra, 91 Transcendental numbers, 164, 226
Symbolic logic, 227 e, 166, 226
Symbolized arithmetic, 89 existence of, 165, 166
Symmetric groups, 118 τ, 166, 226
Transfinite numbers, 161
Transform, 128
Tait, P. G., 216 Treatise of Fluxions (Maclaurin), 46
Tangent curve, 18 Treatise on Algebra (Peacock), 91
Tarski, Α . , 228 Trigonometric series, 43, S4ff, 161
Tartaglia, 3 Trigonometry, 222, 223
Tautologies, 227 Trirectangle, 69
Taxicab space, 151 Trisection of an angle, 226
Taylor, B., 43, 46, 47 Two New Sciences (Galileo), 159
expansion, or series, 46, 49, 136 Two-valued logics, 228
Methodus incrementorum directa
et inversa, 46 Uber die Hypothesen welche der
Theorems of a discourse, 174 Geometrie zu Grunde liegen
Théorie analytique de la chaleur (Riemann), 83
(Fourier), 56 Ultimate ratios, 23
Théorie analytique des probabilités Uniqueness proof, 184
(Laplace), 54 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Com-
Théorie de la figure de la Terre puter), 213
(Clairaut), 53 University College in London, 216
Théorie de la Lune (Clairaut), 53 University of Berlin, 161
Théorie des fonctions analytiques University of Edinburgh, 216
(Lagrange), 54, 136 University of Erlanger, 119
Theory of equations, 224 University of Halle, 160
Theory of limits, 133, 136, 137, 138, University of Pennsylvania, 212
139 University of Toronto, 218
Thibaut, Β. F., 72 University of Vienna, 200
Thomson, Sir W. (Lord Kelvin), 58 Upper bound, 94
Topological space, 153
Topology of the plane, 126 Variable, 154
Torricelli, E., 12, 34, 36 dependent, 154
method of tangents, 12 independent, 154
 INDEX 263

Veblen, O., 127 Whitehead, Lord Α . Ν . , 37n

Vector analysis, 106 An Introduction to Mathematics,
Vectors, 100, 100η 37n
Viète, F., 13 Principia mathematica, 147/j, 227
Von Neumann, J., 212 Wilder, R. L., 193, 194
Winn, C. E., 217
Wallis, J., 36, 66 Wrench, J. W . , Jr., 213, 214
Weierstrass, K . , 137, 138, 139, 140,
160 Zeno, 222
Weil, Α . , 228 paradoxes, 159, 161, 222
 AMS / MAA DOLCIANI MATHEMATICAL EXPOSITIONS

What a splendid addition this is to the Dolciani Mathematical Exposition series! This second set
of lectures on great moments in mathematics (after 1650) is a fascinating collection of pivotal
points in the historical development of mathematics...The four lectures devoted to the liberation
of geometry and algebra are of particular interest. The lectures should be required reading for
all teachers of mathematics.
—Herbert Fremont, The Mathematics Teacher

Eves is never less than tantalizing and usually inspiring...each ‘great moment’ has detailed
exercises following it, as these have been carefully chosen to illustrate the depth of the ideas in
question.
—C. W. Kilmister, The London Times, Higher Education Supplement

As is usual with Eves’ work, the books are well written and entertaining. They give an histor-
ical background to many of the best known mathematical results, and, in addition, provide
interesting pieces of information about the mathematicians involved. Eves includes relevant
exercises at the end of each chapter. These are a good source of different, interesting problems,
and when combined with the material in the chapter, could form the basis for a mathematical
project...Eves’ book provides an interesting, well-written, and enjoyable account. You won’t be
disappointed.
—David Parrott, The Australian Mathematics Teacher