EXPERIMENT NO.

1
Heat transfer through composite slab
Aim:-

To determine the total thermal resistance and the thermal conductivity of the composite slab.

Description of the Apparatus:-

The apparatus is mounted on a table. It consists of a central heater sandwiched between two
sheets. Three types of slabs are provided on both sides of heater which forms a composite structure.
A C-Clamp is provided to ensure the perfect contact between the slabs. A dimmerstat is provided for
varying the input to the heater. The measurement of input is carried out by a voltmeter and
ammeter. Thermocouples are embedded between the interfaces of the slabs to read the
temperature at the surface.

Specifications:-

1. Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of heater.

a. M.S Plate - Size 25 mm thick x 200 mm dia. ……. 2 Nos.
b. Bakelite Plate - Size 20 mm thick x 200 mm dia. ……..2 Nos.
c. Press Wood - Size 12.5 mm thick x 200 mm dia. ……..2 Nos.
2. Heater – 300 watt maximum, 200 mm Ø, 200 Volts.
3. Heater Control Unit : Dimmerstat 0-230 V, AC, 0-2A.
4. Voltmeter – Digital, range 0 to 200 V AC.
5. Ammeter – Digital, range 0 to 2 A AC,
6. Temperature Indicator (Digital type) 0 – 2000 C, 0.10 C LC with selector switch.

Procedure:-

1. The plates are symmetrically arranged on both sides of the heater plates.
2. Perfect contact between the plates is ensured by tightening the C-clamp properly.
3. The enclosure is closed by Acrylic cover to achieve steady environmental conditions.
4. Keeping the Dimmerstat in zero position, the power supply to the heater is switched ON and
later by varying the Dimmerstat, the input to the heater is adjusted at the desired value.
5. The readings of all the thermocouples are noted at an interval of 10 minutes until fairly
steady temperatures are achieved and rate of rise is negligible.
6. The experiment is repeated for different input value to the heater.
7. After completing the experiment the Dimmerstat Knob is reset to “Zero” position and power
supply is switched OFF.
Precautions:

1) Keep Dimmerstat to zero before starting the experiment.

2) Increase the heat input slowly. DO NOT EXCEED HEATER INPUT BEYOND 120 WATTS.
3) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

Observations:

S. No Input to Heater Thermocouple Readings 0 C

Voltage V Current I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
(Volts) (Amps)

Calculations:-

TA = (T1 + T2) / 2

TB = (T3 + T4) / 2

TC = (T5 + T6) / 2

TD = (T7 + T8) / 2

Rate of Heat Supplied Q = (V x I) x 2 = _________________W.

Now q = Heat flux = Q / A W / m2

Where A = π / 4 x d2 m2 Where d = 200 mm dia. of plates.

1. Total thermal resistance of composite slab

R total = T – T / q m2 0C/W
A D

2. Thermal conductivity of composite slab

Kcomposite
= Q x b / (TA – TD) x A W / m2 0C

Where b = Total thickness of composite slab =

25 + 20 + 12.5 = 57.5 mm = 0.0575 m
Result:

The total thermal resistance of composite slab is found to be _____________ and the thermal
conductivity of composite slab is found to be ______________

Graph:

The thickness of slab material is plotted against the temperature gradient.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Heat transfer through lagged pipe

AIM: To determine the thermal conductivity of the lagging material.

Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of three concentric pipes mounted on suitable stand. The inside pipe
consists of a Cartridge heater. Between first two cylinders from the Heater, asbestos insulating
material if filled with which lagging is done. In between second and third cylinders Saw Dust material
is filled which is used for lagging. The thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders
approximately at equal length to measure the surface temperatures of pipes. The input to the
heater is varied through a dimmerstat and measured on voltmeter and ammeter. The experiments
can be conducted at various values of Heater input.

Specifications:

I. Pipes:

I) Inside GI Pipe 54mm ID and 60mm O.D.

II) Middle GI Pipe 82mm. ID and 89mm O.D.

III) Outer GI Pipe 107mm. ID and 113mm O.D.

IV) Length of pipes – 1000mm.

2. Heater: 500 watts. Lt. – 1000mm.

3. Instrumentation comprising of:

I) Dimmerstat 0 – 230 V. AC.

II) Digital Voltmeter 0 – 200 V. A.C.

III) Digital Ammeter 0-2 Amps, 230V, A.C.

IV) Digital Temperature Indicator 0 – 3000 C.

V) Chromel – Alumel thermocouple – 6 Nos.

Procedure:

1. The supply-mains cable is connected to a stabilized power supply (230V, 50 Hz, I- Phase,
A.C.)
2. Keeping the Dimmerstat in zero position, the power supply to the heater is switched ON and
later by varying the Dimmerstat, the input to the heater is adjusted at the desired value.
3. The readings of all thermocouples are noted at an interval of 20 minutes until fairly steady
temperatures are achieved and rate of rise is negligible.
4. The experiment is repeated for different input value to the heater.
5. After completing the experiment the Dimmerstat Knob is reset to “Zero” position and power
supply is switched OFF.
Precautions:

1) Keep Dimmerstat to zero before starting the experiment.

2) Increase the heat input slowly. DO NOT EXCEED HEATER INPUT BEYOND 120 WATTS.
3) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

Observations:

S. No Input to Heater Thermocouple Readings 0 C

Voltage V Current A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(Volts) (Amps)

Calculations:

Ti(inside) = (T1 + T2) / 2

Tm(middle) = (T3 + T4) / 2

To(outer) = (T5 + T6) / 2

Let

ri = Radius of inner pipe.

r0 = Radius of outer pipe.

rm = Mean radius of middle pipe

L = Length of the pipe 1000 mm.

K = Thermal conductivity = W / m2 K.
Assumptions:

The pipe is so long as compared with diameter that heat flows in radial direction only in middle half
length.

a) Actual heat input is equal to

Q = (V x I) W

b) Now from known value of heat flow rate, value of combined thermal conductivity of lagging
material can be calculated as
Q = 2 rikl (Ti – T0) / Loge (r0 / ri ) W
k = Q Loge (r0 / ri) / 2πL (Ti – T0) W / m2 K.

Result:

The thermal conductivity of the lagging material is found to be _____________

 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Heat transfer through concentric sphere

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

Introduction:

Thermal conductivity is one of the important properties of the materials and its knowledge
is required for analyzing heat conduction problems. Physical meaning of thermal conductivity is how
quickly heat passes through a given material. Thus the determination of this property has one of the
considerable engineering significance. There are various methods of determination of thermal
conductivity suitable for different materials. The present apparatus is suitable for finding out
thermal conductivity of materials in powdered from.

Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus is mounted on a study table. It consists of two thin walled concentric copper
spheres. The inner sphere houses the heating coil. Heating coil is Nichrome wire wound on mica
sheet. The insulating powder is packed between two shells. Power supply to the heater is given
through a Dimmerstat and is measured by a Voltmeter and an Ammeter. Chromel – Alumel
thermocouples are used to measure temperatures. Four thermocouples are embedded on inner
sphere and six thermocouples are embedded on outer sphere. All ten temperatures are measured
on a temperature indicator by operating a selector switch. These readings enable to find out the
thermal conductivity of the insulating powder.

Specifications:

1) Diameter of Inner Sphere - 100mm.

2) Diameter of outer sphere - 200mm.
3) Mica Heater - Nichrome wire, 140mm Dia, - 2 Nos
4) Open type Dimmerstat - 2 Amp, 230 VAC, wire wound
5) Insulating Powder – Material - Asbestos
6) Digital Temperature Indicator - Range: 0 – 300o C
7) Digital Voltmeter - Range: 0 – 200 V, AC.
8) Digital Ammeter - Range: 0-2 Amps, AC.

Procedure:

1. The supply-mains cable is connected to a stabilized power supply (230V, 50 Hz, I- Phase,
A.C.)
2. Keeping the Dimmerstat in zero position, the power supply to the heater is switched ON and
later by varying the Dimmerstat, the input to the heater is adjusted at the desired value.
 3. The readings of all thermocouples are noted at an interval of 20 minutes until fairly steady
temperatures are achieved and rate of rise is negligible.
4. The experiment is repeated for different input value to the heater.
5. After completing the experiment the Dimmerstat Knob is reset to “Zero” position and power
supply is switched OFF.

Precautions:

1) Keep Dimmerstat to zero before starting the experiment.

2) Increase the heat input slowly. DO NOT EXCEED HEATER INPUT BEYOND 120 WATTS.
3) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

Observation:

S. No Heater Input Inner sphere Temp. OC Outer sphere Temp. OC

Voltage V Current I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

(Volts) (Amps)

Calculations:

1) Average temp. of inner sphere

o
Tin = T1+T2+T3+T4 / 4 = C

2) Average temp. of outer sphere

o
Tout = T5+T6+T7+T8+T9+T10 / 6 = C

3) Heat input Q = (V x I) W
4) Thermal Conductivity (W/m2 K)
K = Q (r0 – r1 ) / 4π r1 r0 (Tin - Tout )
Where ri = radius of the inner sphere
and ro = radius of the outer sphere

Result: The thermal conductivity of insulating powder is found to be ____________

 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Thermal conductivity of the metal rod

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of the metal rod.

Introduction:

Thermal conductivity is the physical property of the material denoting the ease with which a
particular substance can accomplish the transmission of thermal energy. Thermal conductivity
of a material is found to depend on the chemical composition of the substance or substances of
which it is composed, the phase (i.e. gas, liquid, or solid) in which it exists, its crystalline
structure of a solid, the temperature and pressure to which it is subjected, and whether or not it
is a homogeneous material.

Description of the Apparatus:

The experimental set up is mounted on the table. It consists of the metal bar, one end of which
is heated by an electric heater while the other end of the bar projects inside the cooling water
jacket. A cylindrical shell field with the Asbestos power surrounds the middle portion of the bar.
The temperature of the bar is measured at seven different positions, while the radial
temperature distribution is measured by separate thermocouples at four different sections in
the insulating shell. The heater is provided with a Dimmerstat for controlling the heat input. The
heater will heat the bar at its one end and heat wil be conducted through the bar to the other
end. Water under constant head condition is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and
temperature rise are noted.

Specifications:

1) Length of the metal bar (Copper Bar) = 410 mm.

2) Size of the metal bar (diameter) = 25 mm.
3) Test length of the bar = 196 mm.
4) Radial distances of thermocouples in installing shell
ri = 40 mm.
r0 = 60 mm.
5) Heater Coil (Brand type) – Nichrome heater = 250 watt
6) Cooling Jacket diameter = 100 mm.
o
7) Temperature indicator 0-199.9 C with channel selector switch
Positions 1 to 7 – Thermocouple positions on metal bar.
Positions 8 to 11 – Thermocouple position in the shell
Positions 12 to 13 – To measure rise in temperature of cooling water.
8) Dimmerstat for heater coil – 2A, 230 V. A.C.
9) Digital Voltmeter: 0 – 200 V, A.C.
10) Digital Ammeter: 0-2 A, AC.
11) Flask for measuring water flow rate – 500ml
12) Stop Watch: Digital
Procedure:

1. The supply-mains cable is connected to a stabilized power supply (230V, 50 Hz, I- Phase,
A.C.)
2. Keeping the Dimmerstat in zero position, the power supply to the heater is switched ON and
later by varying the Dimmerstat, the input to the heater is adjusted at the desired value.
3. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust it to about 300 to 350 cc per
minute.
4. The readings of all thermocouples are noted at an interval of 20 minutes until fairly steady
temperatures are achieved and rate of rise is negligible.
5. The time taken by the water to fill the measuring flask is noted in seconds.
6. The experiment is repeated for different input value to the heater.
7. After completing the experiment the Dimmerstat Knob is reset to “Zero” position and power
supply is switched OFF.

Precautions:

1) Keep Dimmerstat to zero before starting the experiment.

2) Increase the heat input slowly. DO NOT EXCEED HEATER INPUT BEYOND 120 WATTS.
3) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

Observation Table:

S.No V I Thermocouple Readings oC

Volts Amps
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13

Radial distances of thermocouples in insulating shell:

r1 = 40 mm.

r0 = 60 mm
Calculations:

Mass flow rate of water = I / (Time taken for 1 liter of water in sec.) kg/sec.

C/s. area of bar A = π/4 d2, d = dia, of the bar = 25 mm.

1. Heat flowing out of section A-A

qAA = qw = m. Cp (T13 - T12)
= -kAA. (dt / dx)AA x A
Or kAA = qw / (dt / dx) AA x A W / moC

2. Heat flowing out of section B-B

qBB = qw + 2πKL (T9 - T8) / In (r0 / r1)

= -kBB. (dt / dx)BB x A

Or kBB = qBB / (dt / dx) BB x A W / m oC

3. Heat flowing out of section C-C

qCC = qBB + 2πKL (T11 – T10) / In (r0 / r1)
= -kCC. (dt / dx)CC x A
or kCC = qCC / (dt / dx)CC x A W / m oC

Where L = Distance between two radial thermocouples : 100 mm

Result:

The thermal conductivity of the metal rod at three sections is found and its variation with
temperature is studied.

Graph:

The decreases in temperature along the length of the bar is plotted.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Heat transfer through pin-fin.

Aim: To determine the temperature distribution, efficiency and effectiveness of a pin-fin.

Introduction:

Fins are used to increase the heat transfer rate from surface so fluid whenever it is not
possible to increase the value of heat transfer coefficient or the temperature difference between
the surface and fluid. The use of this is very common and they are fabricated in variety of shapes.
Circumferential fins around the cylinder of a motor cycle engine and fins attached to condenser tube
of a refrigerator are two examples.

It is obvious that a fin surface sticks out from the primary heat transfer surface. The temperature
difference with surroundings fluid will steadily diminish as one move out along the fin. The design of
fin therefore requires knowledge of temperature distribution in the fin.

Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of M.S fin of circular cross-section fitted across one end of a long rectangular
duct. The other end of duct is connected to suction side of blower and the air flow pass the
perpendicular to its axis. The temperature of five thermocouples connected along the length of fin is
measured by Digital Temperature Indicator. The air flow is measured by an orifice meter fitted on
the delivery side of blower.

Specifications:

1) Duct size = 150 mm x 100 mm x 700 mm with bell mouth entry.

2) Dia. of Fin = 12.7 mm.
3) Dia. of Orifice = 14 mm.
4) Dia. of delivery pipe ID = 28 mm.
5) Coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.64
6) No. of thermocouples on Fin = 5
7) Air Blower: 0.24 HP, 2800 rpm, 180 watts.
8) Digital Temperature Indicator – Range : 0 – 2000 C
9) Digital Voltmeter – Range : 0 – 200 V AC.
10) Digital Ammeter – Range : 0 – 2 Amp., AC.
11) Dimmerstat : Open type – 0-2 Amp., 0-230 V, wire wound.
12) Heater: size 38mm Dia x 50mm Length, Capacity – 250 watt.
13) No. of pin provided = 3 Nos. (Brass, Al and M.S. Material)

Precautions:

1) Do not exceed the voltage while giving heater input beyond 80 volts.
2) Selector switch, dimmer knobs should be used gently.
3) When the experiment is over, turn the dimmer knob to zero position and allow the blower
to run for 5 to 10 minutes.
Observation:

S.No Voltage Current Manometer Duct

Reading Temp,
V I h=h1 h2 Pin Fin Surface Temperature 0C 0
C
Volts Amps (mm) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

1.

2.

3.

4.

Calculations:

Average surface temp of the Pin Fin (Tm) = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 / 5

Duct temperature (Tt) = T6

Mean film temperature (Tmf) = (Tm + Tt) / 2

(The properties of air at Tmf are to be obtained from data book.)

Velocity of air at orifice (V0)

Vo = Cd √2g.h.pw / pa m3 / sec.

Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

h = manometric head in m
pw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
pa = density of air at Tmf
Cd = 0.64 orifice meter coefficient.

Velocity of air in the duct Va is obtained by continuity equation

Va x C/s area of the duct = V0 x C/s area of the orifice

Therefore Va = V0 x π/4 x d02 / w x b m/sec

Where d0 = diameter of the orifice in m

w = width of the duct in m
b = breadth of the duct in m
Reynolds number (Re)
Re = VD / µ

Where D = Diameter of the Pin Fin m

Va = Velocity of the air in the duct m/sec
µ = Kinematic viscosity of the air at Tmf m2/sec

Nusselt Number (Nup)

Nup = 0.683 (Re) 0.466 (Pr) 0.333 40<Re<4000

Heat transfer coefficient (h)

h = Nu x Kair / D
Kair = Thermal conductivity of air at Tmf
M = √ hp / KA
P = Perimeter of the pin = πD m
A = C/s area of the Fin m2
K = Thermal conductivity of Fin material. (KBrass = 98 W/m0C)

Efficiency of the Fin (n)

n = Tanh (mL) / mL

where L is the length of the fin in m.

Results:

The efficiency of the given PIN FIN is found to be ______________

 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Transient heat conduction
Aim: To determine the heat transfer coefficient on solid surface suddenly exposed to convective
environment.

Introduction:

In all the steady state heat transfer processes, if all the other parameters are constant then
temperature is also constant and does not vary with time also. Contrary to this, in unsteady state
heat transfer process, though other variables are constant, temperature is the function of time. A
very good example of this is when a chisel is to be hardened, it is heated and then quenched in oil or
water. During both the heating and cooling processes temperature is a function of time.

Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of a hot water bath provided with electrical heater, so that water can be
heated up to desired temperature. A test piece with a thermocouple at the centre is immersed in
the water bath and its temperature is measured at fixed interval of time. The unit is provided with
timer, which shows temperature every five seconds. The hot test piece is then cooled in
atmospheric air or cold water. The heat transfer co-efficient during heating and cooling process can
be calculated.

Specifications:

1. Test piece size : 32mm Dia. X 50mm Length

Material : Brass or M.S.
2 Temperature Indicator: Digital, 0-300oC.
3 Buzzer Time interval : 5 seconds and 15 seconds.

Procedure:

1. To top cover plate of the water bath is opened and water is filled up to 3/4th level.
2. The required test piece is attached to the test piece holder, the Cr/Al thermocouple wire
sensor is fixed on it.
3. The small opening for inserting the test piece is covered with cover plate and the heater is
started.
4. The buzzer is set for 5 seconds time interval.
5. The temperature controller is set to 70o C and the water temperature is noted when
temperature controller switched off the heater.
6. The initial temperature of test piece is noted and is put into the water bath through the
opening provided. At the same time the buzzer is switched ON the temperature is noted at
every five seconds ‘interval’.
 7. At test piece temperature approached water bath temperature, the test piece is taken out
of the water bath and cooled it in atmosphere air.
8. During cooling also, the temperature are noted at fixed time interval of 15 seconds.
9. The procedure is repeated at elevated water bath temperatures and also Repeated for the
other test piece.

Precautions:

1) Operate all the switches and controls gently.

2) Do not heat water above 90o C.
3) While heating the water, the small opening for inserting the test piece should be covered.
4) Do not start the heater without water in the tank.

Observations:

I. Heating Process

Test piece material : Brass

Bath temperature (T00 ): _________________ o C
Initial temperature of Test Piece (T0): _________________ o C

S.No Time Temperature of Test Piece (T) o C

1. 5

2. 10

3. 15

4. ---

5. ---

II. Cooling Process

Test piece material : Brass

Ambient temperature (T00 ): _________________ o C
Initial temperature of Test Piece (T0): _________________ o C
 S.No Time Temperature of Test Piece (T) o C

1. 15

2. 30

3. 45

4. ---

5. ---

Calculations:

Ө0 = (T0 – T∞)
After 5 seconds,
Ө5 = (T5 – T∞)
The Heat Transfer Coefficient is obtained as
h = - p Cp r loge (Ө / Ө0) / 2 t
Where,
p = Mass density of specimen.
= 7800 Kg/m3 for M.S.
= 8522 Kg/m3 for Brass

Cp = Specific Heat of specimen.

= 473 J / Kg – K for M.S.
= 385 J / Kg-K for Brass

r = Radius of specimen
t = Time in hours

Therefore the average heat transfer coefficient for heating

(havg) = (h5 + h10 + h 15 + ----) / No of trials.

Similarly average heat transfer coefficient for cooling is calculated.

Result:

1. Average Heat Transfer Coefficient for heating is found to be _________

2. Average Heat Transfer Coefficient for cooling in air is found to be _________
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Heat transfer by forced convection

Aim: To determine the heat transfer coefficient due to forced convection in a tube.

Introduction:

Heat transfer by forced convection is one of the most important heat transfer modes
present in many engineering applications. The apparatus is designed to find out the value of heat
transfer coefficient under the different air flow conditions. Heat is transformed from the heated test
section of the pipe to the air flow through it.

Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus is mounted on a table. It mainly consists of blower with regulator to vary the air flow
rate, electrically heated test section, orifice and a Water tube manometer. A G.I. pipe is fitted at the
outlet of air blower and is connected to the test section where surface of pipe is heated by using
nichrome heater clamped on the pipe. Six thermocouples are fitted inside the test section to
measure the temperature of air and surface temperature of pipe.

An orificemeter is fitted at the outlet of the test section for measurement of air flow with the help of
Water tube manometer. By using dimmerstat the heat input for heater can be varied. A digital
temperature indicator is used to measure the temperature with the help of thermocouples
provided.

Specifications:

1) Blower: 0.14 HP, 230 V AC, having provision to increase the air flow rate by control value.
2) Orifice: diameter – 14 mm.
3) Heater: Band type, 38mm Dia.x 400mm Length, Capacity – 400 watt.
4) Dimmerstat: 2 amp., 230 V, Open type.
5) Digital Temp. Indicator: Range 0 – 3000 C
6) Digital Ammeter: 0-2 Amps, 230 V. AC.
7) Digital Voltmeter: 0-199.9 VAC 8
8) Cr/Al Thermocouple – 6 Nos
9) Length of the test section – 400 mm.
10) I.D. of G.I. Pipe – 28 mm.
11) Manometer: Water tube with scale.
12) Orifice diameter – 14 mm.

Procedure:

1) The blower switch is switched ON and the air flow rate is adjusted by using the valve.
2) Keeping the Dimmerstat in zero position, the heater switch is switched ON.
3) By slowly turning the dimmerstat the heat input is adjusted to the heater. (below 80W).
4) After allowing some time to reach stability, the six temperatures are noted by using selector
switch.
5) The experiment is repeated for different heat input values as well as different air flow
conditions.
Precautions:

1) Do not exceed the voltage while giving heater input beyond 80 volts.
2) Selector switch, dimmer knobs should be used gently.
3) When the experiment is over, turn the dimmer knob to zero position and allow the blower
to run for 5 to 10 minutes.

Observation Table:

S.No Voltage Current Manometer Air Pipe Surface Temperature 0C Air

Reading Inlet Outlet
V I h=h1 h2 Temp, Temp, 0C
0
Volts Amps (mm) C T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
T1

1.

2.

3.

4.

Calculations:

1) The value of heat transfer coefficient ‘havg‘ can be calculated by using

havg = Qa / A (Ts – Ta) W/m2 0C

Where Qa is the heat transfer rate to air

Qa = m x Cp x ∆T
m = Mass flow rate of air from orifice meter reading – kg/sec.
Cp = Sp. Heat of air at Ta
∆T = Temperature rise of air (T6 - T1) 0C
A = heat transfer area - m2
= π x di x L
di = inner diameter of the pipe.

Ts = Average surface Temp, of pipe

0
T2 + T 3 + T4 + T5 / 4 C

Ta = Average Temp. of air

0
= T1 + T 6 / 2 C
 Now ‘q’ Air flow rate = Cd * π/4 * d2 √2g.h.pw / pa m3 / sec.

Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

h = manometric head in m
pw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
pa = density of air at Ta
d = dia. of orifice in m.
Cd = 0.64 orifice meter coefficient.

Mass flow rate of air ‘m’ = Air flow rate (q) x density of air at Ta kg/sec.

Heat transfer rate to air

Qa = m x Cp x ∆T
Therefore Average Heat Transfer Coefficient is obtained as

havg = Qa / A (Ts – Ta) W/m2 0C

Result:

The heat transfer coefficient for the forced conviction is found to be _______________
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Heat Transfer in Natural convection

AIM: To calculate heat transfer coefficient along the length of vertical pipe.

INTRODUCTION:

There are certain situations in which the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting
from temperature gradients, which is the heat transfer mechanism called as free or natural
convection. Natural convection is the principal mode of heat transfer from pipes, refrigerating coils,
hot radiators etc. The movement of fluid in free convection is due to the fact that the fluid particles
in the immediate vicinity of the hot object become warmer than the surrounding fluid resulting in a
local change of density. The warmer fluid would be replaced by the colder fluid creating convection
currents. These currents originate when a body force (gravitational, centrifugal, electrostatic etc.)
acts on a fluid in which there are density gradients. The force which induces these convection
currents is called a buoyancy force which is due to the presence of a density gradient within the fluid
and a body force. Grashoff number (Gr) plays a very important role in natural convection. In contrast
to the forced convection, natural convection phenomenon is due to the temperature difference
between the surface and the fluid is not created by any external agency. Natural convection flow
pattern for some commonly observed situations is given in Figure 1.

(a) Heated vertical plate

(b) Cooled vertical plate

(c) Upper surface of a heated horizontal plate

(d) Lower surface of a heated horizontal plate

The test section is a vertical, open ended cylindrical pipe dissipating heat from the internal surface.
The test section is electrically heated imposing the circumferentially and axially constant wall heat
flux. As a result of the heat transfer to air from the internal surface of the pipe, the temperature of
the air increases. The resulting density non-uniformity causes the air in the pipe to rise. The present
experimental setup is designed and fabricated to study the natural convection phenomenon from a
vertical cylinder in terms of the variation of the local heat transfer coefficient and its comparison
with the value which is obtained by using an appropriate correlation.

THEORY:

When a hot body is kept in a still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the surrounding fluid by natural
convection. The fluid layer in contact with the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the decrease in
its density and the cold surrounding fluid rushes in to take its place. The process is continuous and
heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold particles.
The heat transfer coefficient is given by:

q
Here, h =
A(Ts – Ta)

h = Average surface heat transfer coefficient.

q = Heat transfer rate.

As = Area of heat transferring surface

Ts = Average surface temperature (°C),

DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of vertical pipe fitted in a large enclosure with top and bottom open to
ensure undisturbed natural convection conditions. For visual display, acrylic sheet is fitted on the
front side. The pipe is provided with heating element inside it which heats the pipe uniformly and
heat is dissipated from outer surface by natural convection to ambient air. The temperature of pipe
surface is measured by using chromel-alumel thermocouple. One more thermocouple records the
ambient temperature in the duct. The heater input can be varied with the help of Dimmerstat and is
measured by voltmeter and ammeter. A separate control panel is provided with the necessary
instrumentation on it.
SPECIFICATIONS

1) Enclosure size : 200 x 200 x 600 mm3

2) Tube size : 38mm ID x 510 mm. length.

3) Heater Cartridge Type : Nichrome wire - 400 W.

4) Digital Temperature Indicator.

5) Digital Voltmeter : 0 – 200 VAC.

6) Digital Ammeter : 0 - 2 Amps.

7) No. of thermocouples on pipe – 7.

8) Thermocouple for measuring Duct Temp. – 1 No.

9) Dimmerstat : 0-2 Amp., open type..

SERVICE REQUIRED

230 V.A.C., single phase electric supply.

PROCEDURE

1) Put ‘on’ Heater Switch.

2) Adjust heat input by using Dimmerstat to desired value ( say 50 V.)

3) Wait for sometime (45 min. to 60 min.) to achieve steady state condition.

4) Record all temperatures, Voltmeter reading, Ammeter reading.

5) Make Dimmerstat to zero position and then put ‘off’ Heater Switch.

6) Repeat the experiment for different heat input.

OBSERVATION TABLE

S .No. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
CALCULATIONS

1) Heat transfer area = x di x L = m2

Where di = inside diameter of pipe m.

L = Length of pipe m.

2) a.) Heat input q = V x I Watts.

b) Radiation Heat Loss qR = δ x A x e x ( T s 4 – Ta4 )

where δ = Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 x 10-8 w/m0C

e = Emissivity of Brass = 0.22

T1 + …….. + T7
3) Average surface Temp. Ts = 7

4) Average heat transfer coefficient hav= W/m2 0C

Q
Where Ta = T8 ambient temp. of duct.
A(Ts – Ta)

Q = q – qR …. watts

For Theoretical Heat Transfer co-efficient

Ts + Ta

5) Mean Film Temperature – Tf = ---------

6) DT = Ts – Ta
 1

7) b = -----------

Tf + 273

g x  x L3 xT
8) Gr =
2

Now from Table at Tf =

n = m2/sec.

Pr =

K = w/m k

L = Length of pipe = 0.510 m.

Nu = 0.59 ( Gr x Pr )1/4

\ Now ha = Nu x k/L W/m2 0C

Conclusion:

The heat transfer coefficient is having a maximum value at the bottom of the vertical cylinder as
expected because of the just starting of the building of the boundary layer and it decreases as
expected in the upward direction due to thickening of the boundary layer which is a laminar one.
This trend is maintained up to half the height of the cylinder and beyond that there is little variation
in the value of the local heat transfer coefficient because of the formation of transition and
turbulent boundary layers. The last point shows somewhat increase in the value of ‘h’ which is
attributed to end-loss causing a temperature drop.
PRECAUTIONS

1. DO NOT EXCEED THE HEATER INPUT BEYOND 80 watt.

2. Selector switch, dimmer knobs should be used gently.

3. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Double pipe heat exchanger: parallel flow Counter flow mode

Aim: To compare the heat transfer rate, LMTD, overall heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness of
a heat exchanger working in a parallel flow mode.

Introduction:

Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. The
necessity for doing this arises in industrial applications. Common examples of heat exchangers are
radiators of cars, the condenser at the back of a domestic refrigerator or steam boiler of a thermal
power plant.

Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus is simple transfer type heat exchanger. The apparatus consists of tube in tube type
concentric tube heat exchanger. In this heat exchanger, hot fluid flows through inner tube and
cooling water through the annulus. The apparatus is mounted on a board and provides a system of
pipes and valves. According to the type of the flow, arrangement of valves is made. Hot fluid flows
always in one direction and the direction of cold fluid can be changed accordingly.

Thermometers are provided for temperature measurement of hot fluid and cold fluid. An electric
geyser is used to heat the water. Flow rates of hot and cold water sides are measured with the help
of measuring flask and stopwatch. Outer tube of the heat exchanger is provided with adequate
thermocouple insulation to minimize the heat losses.

Specifications:

1. Length of Heat Exchanger : 1.6m.

2. Outer Tube of Heat Exchanger : Material - G.I.
I.D. - 28 mm.
O.D. - 32 mm.
3. Inner Tube of Heat Exchanger : Material - Copper.
O.D. - 12.7 mm.
4. Thermocouples of Heat Exchanger : 4 Nos.
5. Geyser of Heat Exchanger : Instantaneous type.
3 kw capacity – 1 No
6. Measuring Flask of Heat Exchanger : 1000 ml
Procedure for parallel flow:

1. The connections of the water flow are made by operating the concerned valves as follows:

Type of Flow Open the Valves Close the Valves Nos.

Parallel V1 and V3 V2 and V4

2. The Geyser is switched ON and the water is let to flow for around 10 to 15 minutes to obtain
stable values of temperature
3. The thermocouple readings are noted for every 10 minutes duration till the readings
became stable.
4. The experiment is repeated by varying the flow rate of hot or cold water.
5. After completing the experiment the Geyser is Switched-OFF and the valves are closed.

Procedure for counter flow:

1. The connections of the water flow are made by operating the concerned valves as follows:

Type of Flow Open the Valves Close the Valves Nos.

Counter V2 and V4 V1 and V3

2. The Geyser is switched ON and the water is let to flow for around 10 to 15 minutes to obtain
stable values of temperature
3. The thermocouple readings are noted for every 10 minutes duration till the readings became
stable.
4. The experiment is repeated by varying the flow rate of hot or cold water.
5. After completing the experiment the Geyser is Switched-OFF and the valves are closed.

Precautions:

1. Do not switch – ON the Geyser when there is no water flow through it.
2. Open the water main valve slowly and slightly to obtain the desired flow rate and to avoid
leakages.
3. Use the selector switch of the Temperature indicator’s gently.
Observation:

I. PARALLEL FLOW TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER

S. No Hot Water Cold Water

Time for collecting Inlet Out let Time for collecting Inlet Out let
1000 ml. water Temp. Temp. Tho 1000 ml. water Temp. Temp. Tco
(sec.) Thi (sec.) Tci

1.

2.

3.

II. COUNTER FLOW TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER

S. No Hot Water Cold Water

Time for collecting Inlet Out let Time for collecting Inlet Out let
1000 ml. water Temp. Temp. Tho 1000 ml. water Temp. Temp. Tco
(sec.) Thi (sec.) Tci

1.

2.

3.

Calculations:

Mass flow rate of hot water (mh) = I / time in sec for 1 lit. water kg/sec

Heat Transfer rate at hot water side, (qh) = mh Cph ∆T

Where Cph = Specific heat of water at mean temp.

Thi + Tho / 2

∆T = Thi – Tho

Mass flow rate of cold water (mc) = I / time in sec for 1 lit. water kg/sec

Heat Transfer rate at cold water side, (qc) = mc Cpc ∆T

Where

Cpc = Specific Heat of water at mean temp.

 Tei + Tco / 2

∆T = Tco – Tci

Average heat Transfer (q) = qc + qh / 2

L.M.T.D.

∆Tm = ∆Ti - ∆To / loge (∆Ti / ∆To)

Where ∆Ti = Thi - Tci ] In parallel flow condition

∆To = Tho – Tco ]

Effectiveness

€ = Thi – Tho / Thi – Tci in parallel Flow condition

Overall heat transfer coefficient, ‘U’

q = U A ∆Tm

Where
Ai = π/4 di2 , di = inner tube dia.
Ao = π/4 do2 ,do = outer tube dia

Result:

The results are tabulated in the tabular column.

Graph:

A graph of Temperature Vs. Length of the Pipe are plotted for Parallel flow.

Calculations:

Mass flow rate of hot water (mh) = I / time in sec for 1 lit. water kg/sec

Heat Transfer rate at hot water side, (qh) = mh Cph ∆T

Where Cph = Specific heat of water at mean temp.

Thi + Tho / 2

∆T = Thi – Tho

Mass flow rate of cold water (mc) = I / time in sec for 1 lit. water kg/sec

Heat Transfer rate at cold water side, (qc) = mc Cpc ∆T

Where

Cpc = Specific Heat of water at mean temp.

Tei + Tco / 2

∆T = Tco – Tci

Average heat Transfer (q) = qc + qh / 2

L.M.T.D.

∆Tm = ∆Ti - ∆To / loge (∆Ti / ∆To)

and ∆Ti = Thi – Tco ] In counter flow conditon

∆To= Tho – Tci ]

Effectiveness

€ = Thi – Tco / Thi – Tco in Counter Flow condition

Overall heat transfer coefficient, ‘U’

q = U A ∆Tm

Where Ai = π/4 di2 , di = inner tube dia.

Ao = π/4 do2 ,do = outer tube dia

Result:

The results are tabulated in the tabular column.

Graph:

A graph of Temperature Vs. Length of the Pipe are plotted for Counter flow.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Emissivity of metal plate

Aim: To determine the emissivity of a metallic plate.

Introduction:
All substances at all temperatures emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an
electromagnetic wave and does not require any material medium for propagation. All bodies can
emit radiation and have also the capacity to absorb all or a part of the radiation coming from the
surroundings towards it.

An idealized black surface is one, which absorbs all the incident radiation with reflectivity and
transmitivity equal to zero. The radiant energy per unit time per unit area from the surface of the
body is called as the emissive power and is usually denoted by ‘e’. The Emissivity of the surface is
the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive power of a black surface at the same
temperature. It is denoted by ‘E’.

Thus E = e / eb

For black body absorbtivity= I and by the knowledge of Kirchoff’s law Emissivity being a property of
the surface depends on the nature of the surface and temperature. It is obvious from the Stefan
Boltznann Law that the prediction of emissive power of a surface require knowledge about the
values of its Emissivity and therefore much experimental research in radiation has been
concentrated on measuring the values of Emissivity as a surface temperature. The present
experimental set up is designed and fabricated to measure the property of Emissivity of the test
plate surface at various temperatures.

Description of the Apparatus:

The experimental set up is mounted on a sturdy table. It consists of two circular Aluminum
plates identical in size and is provided with heating coils. The plates are fitted on the base
horizontally and are kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection
surroundings.

The heat input to the heater is varied by separate dimmersats and is measured by using an ammeter
and a voltmeter with the help of double pole double throw toggle switches. The temperature of the
plates is measured by Cr-Al thermocouples. A thermocouple is kept in the enclosure to read the
ambient temperature of enclosure.

Plate I is blackened by a thick layer of lamp black to form the idealized black surface whereas the
plate 2 is the test plate of which Emissivity is to be determined.

The Heat Energy through heater inputs to the two plates is dissipated from the plates by
conduction, convention and radiation. The experimental set up is designed in such a way that under
steady state conditions the heat dissipation by conduction and convention is same for both the
plates. When the surface temperatures are same, the difference in the heater input readings is
because of the difference in radiation characteristics due to their different emissivities. The
schematic arrangement of the set up is shown in the figure.

Specifications:

1) Test Plate = 160mm dia. = 0.16 m

2) Black Plate = 160 mm dia. = 0.16 m
3) Heater for Black Plate = 250 watts
4) Heater for Test Plate = 250 watts
5) Dimmerstat for Test Plate = 0-2 Amp., 0-230 V
6) Dimmerstat for Black Plate = 0-2 Amp., 0-230 V
7) Digital Voltmeter : 0 – 200 VAC.
Digital Ammeter : 0-2 Amps.
8) Enclosure size = 58cmx30cmx30cm approx. with oneside of Perspex sheet.
9) Thermocouples – Chromel – Alumel type – 3 Nos.
10) Digital Temperature Indicator – 0-300OC.

Procedure:

1. The supply-mains cable is connected to a stabilized power supply (230V, 50 Hz, I-phase, AC.)
2. Keeping the Dimmerstat in zero position, the power supply to the heater is switched ON.
3. The input to the heater to the black plate is adjusted to some value viz 30,50 or 60 watts
4. After 20 to 30 minutes when the temperature of the black plate becomes stable, The input
to the heater of the test plate is adjusted in such a way that the temperatures of both the
plates are equal.
5. After attaining the steady state, the readings Vb , Ib , VT , 1T , T1 , T2 , and T3 , are recorded and
the observation column is filled.
6. The same procedure is repeated for different temperatures in increasing order.
7. After completing the experiment, the Dimmerstat Knob is set to Zero position and the
power button is switched off.
Precautions:

1. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

2. Do not exceed the input to the heater beyond 80 watts.
3. See that the black plate is having layer of lamp black uniformly.

Observation Table:

S.No Test Plate Black Plate Ambient Temp. (Ta)

0
C
VT IT (T1) VB IB (T2)
0 0
(Volts) (Amps) C (Volts) (Amps) C

1.

2.

3.

4.

Calculations:

Let,
T1 = Temperature of the test plate K
T2 = Temperature of the black plate K
Ts = Average temperature of Test and Black Plates = (T1 + T2) / 2 K
Ta = Ambient Temperature K
CB = Emissivity of black plate. (To be assumed equal to unity)
C = Emissivity of test plate.
Ό = Stefan Botlzmann Constant.
= 5.67 x 10-8 W / m2 – K4
Area of the plates A = π/4 d2 x 2
= π/4 x (0.160)2 x 2
= 0.04 m2

Heat input for black plate

QB = VB x IB W

Heat input for test plate

QT = VT x IT W

Now, we have by Stefan Boltzmann law,

(QB – QT) = ΌA (Ts4 – Ta 4) (Cb – C)
 Therefore (Cb-C) = (QB – QT) / Ό.A. (Ts4 – Ta 4)

Therefore (I-C) = (QB – QT) / Ό.A. (Ts4 – Ta 4)

Therefore Emisivity of the Test plate is obtained as

C = I - [ (QB – QT) / Ό.A. (Ts4 – Ta 4) ]

Calculations:

Let,
T1 = Temperature of the test plate K
T2 = Temperature of the black plate K
Ts = Average temperature of Test and Black Plates = (T1 + T2) / 2 K
Ta = Ambient Temperature K
CB = Emissivity of black plate. (To be assumed equal to unity)
C = Emissivity of test plate.
Ό = Stefan Botlzmann Constant.
= 5.67 x 10-8 W / m2 – K4

Area of the plates A = π/4 d2 x 2

= π/4 x (0.160)2 x 2
= 0.04 m2

Heat input for black plate

QB = VB x IB W

Heat input for test plate

QT = VT x IT W

Now, we have by Stefan Boltzmann law,

(QB – QT) = ΌA (Ts4 – Ta 4) (Cb – C)

Therefore (Cb-C) = (QB – QT) / Ό.A. (Ts4 – Ta 4)

Therefore (I-C) = (QB – QT) / Ό.A. (Ts4 – Ta 4)

Therefore Emisivity of the Test plate is obtained as

C = I - [ (QB – QT) / Ό.A. (Ts4 – Ta 4) ]

Result:

The Emissivity of the test plate is calculated at various surface temperatures and is tabulated.

Graph:

A Graph of Emissivity of the test plate Vs. Surface Temperature is plotted.

Conclusion:

Emissivity of the test plate increases with the increase in surface temperature.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

Stefan Bolzmann Apparatus

AIM: To calculate Stefan Boltzmann Constant.

INTRODUCTION

The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzmann Law which states that

thermal radiation heat flux or emissive power of a black surface is proportional to the fourth power

of absolute temperature of the surface and is given by Q/A = eb = sT4

The constant of proportionality ‘s’ is called the Stefan Boltzmann Constant and has the value of :

5.67 W/m2-k4.

The object of this experimental set-up is to measure the value of this constant by an easy

arrangement.

DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-conductive Bakelite plate.

The outer surface of copper hemisphere is enclosed in metal water jacket to heat to some suitable

constant temperature.

Four chromel-alumel thermocouples are attached on inner surface of hemisphere to measure its

mean temperature.

The disc, which is mounted in an insulating Bakelite sleeve, is fitted in a hole drilled in the centre of

base plate. The base of a sleeve is conveniently supported from bottom side. A chromel-alumel

thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of disc. The thermocouple is mounted on the

disc to study the rise of its temperature.

When the disc is inserted at the bottom of hemisphere, the response of temperature change of disc

with time is used to calculate the Stefan Boltzmann Constant.

SPECIFICATIONS
1. Hemispherical enclosure dia = 200 mm. Approx.

2. Suitable sized water jacket for hemisphere.

3. Base plate of Laminated wooden plyboard = 300 x 300 mm2

4. Sleeve size = 50 mm. Dia. Approx. (Bakelite Disc)

5. Test disc. Dia = 20mm.

6. Mass of Copper test disc = 0.003 Kg. (3 gms approx.)

7. Specific heat, ‘S’ of the Copper test disc = 385 J/kg.k

8. Thermocouple No. T1 for measuring the bath temperature.

9. No. of thermocouples mounted on hemisphere T2 To T5

10. Thermocouple mounted on disc (Copper test disc) T6.

11. Temperature Indicator Digital 0.10C Least Count, 0-2000C range and timer set for 5 sec to
display the temperature rise of the disc, for thermocouple No.6.

12. Immersion water heater of 1500 watt capacity for hot water.
NOTE :
The surface of disc and inner portion of hemisphere are blackened by dark smoke of
lamp to make their absorbitivities to be approximately unity.
PROCEDURE

1. Heat the water in the steel tank by the immersion heater up to a desired temperature. ( say
about 800C, 900C etc.)

2. The disc is kept open before pouring the hot water in the jacket.

3. The hot water is poured in the water jacket. Allow water till it reaches the level up to the mark
on the tube.

4. The hemispherical enclosure will come to some uniform maximum temperature ‘T’ in short
time after filling the hot water in the jacket.

5. Note down the temperatures of T2 To T5.

6. Now, insert the test piece from bottom side and start the buzzer switch.

7. Note down the rise in temperature of disc at every 5 secs.

THEORY & CALCULATIONS

The radiation energy falling on ‘Copper test disc’ from the enclosure is given by :

E = Ad (Ta)4 … … … … … … (1)

Where Ad = area of the disc in m2

Ta = Average temperature of the enclosure recorded by the thermocouples T2 To T5.

The Emissivity of the ‘copper test disc’ is assumed to be unity (Black disc). The radiant energy

of ‘copper test disc’ is emitting into the enclosure will be

E1 = Ad x s x T64 … … … … … … … … … (2)

Net heat input to ‘copper test disc’ per unit time is given by (1) – (2)

E – E1 = s x Ad x ( Ta4 – T64 ) … … … … … … (3)

Mass ‘m’ of ‘copper test disc’ having specific heat ‘S’, is inserted at bottom side. One should

observe the indicator and take the temperature reading at an interval of 5 secs. accordingly. A

buzzer is used to for this purpose.

m.s. (dT/dt) = s x Ad x (Ta4 – T64 )

therefore

m.s. (dT / dt ) t = 0 ….. ….. …… (4)

s =
Ad ( Ta4 – T64 )

In this equation (dT/dt)t = 0 denotes the rate of rise of temperature of the ‘Copper test disc’ at

the instance when its temperature is T6 and will vary with time. It is clearly best measured at

time t = 0 before heat conducted has any significant effect.

 This ‘dT/dt’ obtained from plot of temperature rise of ‘Copper test disc’ with respect to time
and obtaining its slope at t = 0 when temperature at T6, this will be the required value of
(dT/dt) at t = 0. The thermocouple mounted on ‘Copper test disc’ (i.e. T6) is to be used for this
purpose.

Note that the ‘copper test disc’ with its insulating sleeve is placed quickly in position and start

the time and record the temperature at fixed time intervals. The above process of measuring

temp ‘T6’ is completed in about 30 seconds of time.

T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 in 0C
Ta = Average temperature =
4

Ta = Average temperature = Ta + 273 K

Temperature of ‘copper test disc’ at the instant when it is inserted = (T6)

T6 + 273 in K

Temperature time response of the disc

Use the Copper test Disc Thermocouple No.6 on Temperature Indicator and note down rise at

the time interval of 5 seconds.

 OBSERVATION TABLE

Time (Sec.) t Temperature (T6) 0C

10

15

20

25

30

Plot the graph of T against t.

Obtain slope from the graph.

0
(dT/dt) at t = 0 = C/Sec. =

Value of s can be obtained by using equation 4.

m.s.(dT/dt) t = 0
s = w/K4 m2
Ad (Ta4 – T64 )

Note : All the Indicators are calibrated by the supplier at standard conditions which may give slight

variation in the reading, at different places due to ambient conditions, voltage fluctuations

etc. Also due to manual errors there can be difference between theoretical and practical

values.
PRECAUTIONS

1. Before starting the experiment fill the water in the Water bath and then only switch ‘On’ the
heater.
2. Selector switch, dimmer knob should be used gently.

3. When the experiment is over turn the Heater switch to OFF position.

4. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 12
Drop-wise & Film wise Condensation

Aim: To determine overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient in Drop-wise & Film wise Condensation
process.

Introduction:

Condensation is a phase change heat transfer process occurring in many industrial

applications, such as in steam power plants, refrigeration plants etc. Thus this is one of the
important heat transfer process present in mechanical and chemical engineering application. The
condensation of vapour on a surface is of two types.

1. Dropwise Condensation
2. Film wise condensation

From the calculations it is seen that in dropwise condensation the overall heat transfer co-efficient is
higher than that of film wise condensation. It is because, in drop condensation the surface always
remains in direct contact with the vapour, while in film condensation the film offers considerable
thermal resistance to heat flow.

Description

This equipment is mounted on a table. It is designed for finding heat transfer coefficients of two
modes of condensation and for visualization of these processes. This consists of a vertical frame.
Condensation tubes are fitted inside compact glass cylinder. Steam generator is fitted at the
backside of the cylinder. Steam comes directly from generator to cylinder. Two valves are fitted to
control flow rate of water in individual tubes. Temperature indicator records temperatures. Pressure
gauge is fitted to measure the steam pressure. Rota meter to observe and measure the flow of
water inside the tubes.

Specifications

1. Steam generator of 8 Liter capacity of water - 2 Kw heater capacity.

2. Glass cylinder assembly with two condensation tubes of copper.
a) Copper tube with natural finish - Non plated for Filmwise condensation.
b) Pressure surface finish – plated for Drop wise condensation.
3. Pressure gauge to measure the steam pressure.
4. Steam trap.
5. Digital temperature indicator to measure various temperatures.
6. Flow control valves – 2 Nos

Procedure

1. Fill water in steam generator up to the ¾ capacity and close the lid properly.
2. Switch on the Heater.
3. Give water connection to the tubing and start the water flow.
4. Adjust the water flow at the desired rate by using control valve provided.
5. Now, wait for some time to generate steam so that enough steam is generated and the required
pressure is seen on the pressure gauge (up to 1 kg/cm2)
6. Confirm that the water flow is in steady state condition.
7. With the help of needle valve provided, release the steam to the glass cylinder.
8. Record all temperatures by using selector switch.
9. Note down the readings in observation table.
10. Now carefully observe the two modes of condensation processes on the copper tubes.
11. Repeat the experiment for different water flow rates.

Service Required : 230 V, Single phase A.C Supply

Observation table for Drop wise condensation (plated)

S. No Steam Water Temperatures 0C

Pressure flow rate T1 T2 T4 T5
Surface Steam Water Water
Temperature inlet inlet outlet

Condensate collected in 1 minute = ……..ml

Calculations for drop wise condensation

𝑇4 + 𝑇5
Bulk mean temperature (r) = = 0
C
2

Properties of water at bulk mean temperature

Density of water “ρ” = kg/m3

ν = Kinematic viscosity from table = m2/sec

K1 = Thermal conductivity = w/m oC

Pr = Pradalt Number from table =

Di = 0.02480, D0 = 0.02580 ……..m

Now,

4 × 𝑀𝑤
Reynold’s Number R𝑒 =
𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖 × 𝜈 × 𝑟

Mw = Mass flow rate of water

Nu = Nusselt number = 0.023 × (Re) 0.8 × (Pr)0.4

Now, hi = inside heat transfer co efficient

𝑁𝑢 × 𝐾1
ℎ𝑖 = = Watt/m2 0C
𝐿

Where L = Length of condenser = 170 mm

Now h0 = Outside heat transfer coefficient

𝑇1 + 𝑇3
Bulk mean temperature (r) = = 0
C
2

Properties of water at bulk mean temperature

Density of water “ρ” = kg/m3

K1 = Thermal conductivity = 0.574 Kcal/hr m2 0C

Pr = Pradalt Number from table =

µ = Dynamic viscosity = 41.4 × 10-6

λ= KJ/kg

0.25
𝜆 × 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × 𝑘 3
ℎ0 = 0.943 × ( )
(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑊 ) × 𝐿 × µ

Overall heat transfer coefficient = (U)

1 1 D𝑖 1 w
= + × =U ….
U H𝑖 D0 h0 m2 0C
Now, Heat transfer rate ‘q’ = h0 A (Ts – T w)

Where A = Surface area of the condenser tube = 𝜋 × D × 𝐿 ………𝑚2

= 𝜋 × 0.02480 × 0.150
= 0.01168 m2

Observation table for Film wise condensation (Non plated)

S. No Steam Water Temperatures 0C

Pressure flow rate T2 T3 T4 T6
Surface Steam Water Water
Temperature temperature inlet outlet

Condensate collected in 1 minute = ……..ml

Calculations for film wise condensation

𝑇4 + 𝑇6
Bulk mean temperature (r) = = 0
C
2

Properties of water at bulk mean temperature

Density of water “ρ” = kg/m3

ν = Kinematic viscosity from table = m2/sec

K1 = Thermal conductivity = w/m oC

Pr = Pradalt Number from table =

Di = 0.022, D0 = 0.025 ……..m

Now,

4 × 𝑀𝑤
Reynold’s Number R𝑒 =
𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖 × 𝜈 × 𝑟

Mw = Mass flow rate of water

Nu = Nusselt number = 0.023 × (Re) 0.8 × (Pr)0.4

Now, hi = inside heat transfer co efficient

𝑁𝑢 × 𝐾1
ℎ𝑖 = = Watt/m2 0C
𝐿

Where L = Length of condenser = 150 mm

Now h0 = Outside heat transfer coefficient

𝑇2 + 𝑇3
Bulk mean temperature (r) = = 0
C
2

Properties of water at bulk mean temperature

Density of water “ρ” = kg/m3

K1 = Thermal conductivity = w/m2 0C

Pr = Pradalt Number from table =

µ = Dynamic viscosity =

λ= KJ/kg

0.25
𝜆 × 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × 𝑘 3
ℎ0 = 0.943 × ( )
(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑊 ) × 𝐿 × µ

Overall heat transfer coefficient = (U)

1 1 D𝑖 1 w
= + × =U ….
U H𝑖 D0 h0 m2 0C

Now, Heat transfer rate ‘q’ = h0 A (Ts – T w)

Where A = Surface area of the condenser tube = 𝜋 × D × 𝐿 ………𝑚2

= 𝜋 × 0.02480 × 0.150
= 0.01168 m2

Result & Conclusion:

Results for observation: On the surface which is polished we get drop wise condensation. Also the
rate of condensation is high in the drop wise condensation.
It is observed that the condensate collected per minute in drop wise condensation is higher than
film wise condensation.
Note:
It is advised to maintain an interval of 30 minutes with continuous water flow in the condenser
tubes, so that the tubes get cooled, after taking one reading in a particular tube. Then one can start
taking another reading for other tube.

Precautions
1. Selector switch knob should be used gently.
2. When the experiment is over, switch off the mains.
3. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance and always clean the cylinder with
clean soft cloth.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13
Critical Heat flux of Water

Aim: To determine the critical Heat Flux at different temperatures of water.

Introduction:

“Critical heat flux describes the thermal limit of a phenomenon where a phase change occurs during
heating (such as bubbles forming on a metal surface used to heat water), which suddenly decreases
the efficiency of heat transfer, thus causing localized overheating of the heating surface”.When
liquid coolant undergoes a change in phase due to the absorption of heat from a heated solid
surface, a higher transfer rate occurs. The more efficient heat transfer from the heated surface (in
the form of heat of vaporization plus sensible heat) and the motions of the bubbles (bubbles driven
turbulence and convection) leads to rapid mixing of the fluid. Therefore, boiling heat transfer has
played an important role in industrial heat transfer processes such as macroscopic heat transfer
exchangers in nuclear and fossil power plants, and in microscopic heat transfer devices such as heat
pipes and micro channels for cooling electronic chips.The use of boiling is limited by a condition
called critical heat flux, which is also called a boiling crisis or departure from nucleate boiling. The
most serious problem is that boiling limitation can be directly related to the physical burnout of the
materials of a heated surface due to the suddenly inefficient heat transfer through a vapor film
formed across the surface resulting from the replacement of liquid by vapor adjacent to the heated
surface.When a solid surface, which is at a temperature higher and has a saturation temperature
higher than that of liquid, is put into the liquid, it is usual for a part of a liquid to change the phase.
This change of phase is called as “boiling”.

Normally pool boiling curves can be divided in three different parts or regions.

1. Natural Convection Region.

2. Nucleate Boiling Region.
3. Film Boiling Region.

The region of natural convection occurs at low temperature difference. Heat transfer from heated
surface to the liquid in its vicinity cause the liquid to be superheated. As the temperature difference
(TW -TS)is increased nucleate boiling starts. In this region it is observed that bubbles starts to form at
certain locations at heated surface. Region which consists of two parts, in the first part the bubbles
formed are very few in number, they are generally condensed in the liquid and do not reach the free
surface. In the second part, the rate of bubble formation as well as locations where they are formed
increases, many of the bubbles now rise on the way to the free surface. Finally in the third region,
the formation of bubbles is so high, they start to collide and blanket the surface with vapor film.

Apparatus

It consists of a cylindrical glass container mounted on sturdy bas. The glass cylinder consists of test
heater and bulk heater. The test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected through Dimmerstat while
bulk heater is directly connected. The test heaters ‘voltage and current can be measured by
voltmeter and ammeter provided on the control panel. The apparatus is designed to see nucleate
boiling i.e critical heat flux. The critical heat point occurs at a point when the wire melts. The
formation of bubbles can be observed with the help of lens provided. The bulk temperature of water
can be measured with thermometer provided on top of the unit. Separate switches are used for test
heater and bulk heater.

Specifications

1. Basic Set Up having

a) Cylindrical Glass container o Size : 100mm ht., 200mm OD.
b) Stand for mounting the glass cylinder.
c) Support base for fixing the stand.
d) Immersion type bulk heater – 1 No. fitted to the Bakelite plate.
e) Test heater – Nichrome wire type.

2. Control Panel consisting of:

a) Dimmerstat – Open type, capacity 0-10 Amps.
b) Digital Voltmeter – 0-200 volts.
c) Digital Ammeter – 0-10 Amps.
d) On/Off Switch.

3. Glass Thermometer Range : 0-1000C

Procedure

1. Fix Nichrome wire between two studs provided on the Bakelite plate.
2. Add clean water in the glass cylinder so that both the heater and bulk heater can be submerged
in water and be clearly seen.
3. Switch ‘ON’ bulk heater switch to obtain required temperature of water and then switch OFF the
bulk heater.
4. Now switch ‘ON’ the test heater switch and go on gradually increasing the Dimmerstat knob to
give the heat input. At one point Nichrome wire melts. This point is called “Critical Heat Flux”
point. When this point is reached the ammeter will show ‘ZERO’ reading. So carefully observe
and note the ammeter reading before reaching the ‘ZERO’ position. During this process voltage
remains constant.
5. Switch ‘OFF’ test heater switch and bring the dimmer knob to ‘ZERO’ position.
6. Repeat the procedure for different bulk temperature.
7. Complete the Observation Table as given below.

Precautions

1. Ensure that dimmerstat is in ‘ZERO’ position before starting the experiment.

2. Tight the Nichrome wire properly between the studs.
3. Fill the clean water in the glass cylinder.
4. When wire melts immediately switch ‘OFF’ the temp heater and bring dimmer to ‘ZERO’ position.
5. Do not exceed the water temperature beyond 95oC
6. After completing the experiment empty the cylinder and wire it with clean cloth and keep it dry.
This will help in keeping the cylinder clean and water mark/spot free.
7. Handle carefully the glass cylinder while performing the experiment and cleaning it.
8. Dimmerstat knob is to gradually rotated to increase the heat input.

OBSERVATION TABLE

S. No Bulk Temperature Voltage ‘v’ Current ‘I’ Critical Heat Flux

of Water
o
C Volts Amps ‘Q’

CALCULATIONS

1. Diameter of test wire ‘d’ : 0.2 x 10-3 m.

2. Length of the test heater ‘l’ : 0.1 m.

a) Surface area of wire ‘A’ = 𝜋 × 𝑑 × 𝑙

= …… m2

b) Heat Input ‘q’ = V × I

 = …… watts

𝑄
c) Heat Flux ‘Q’ = 𝐴
…… w/ m2

Plot the graph of bulk mean temperature Vs Critical Heat Flux.

Conclusion: from calculations

“It is observed that the critical heat flux decreases as we increase the water temperature in the
glass bowl.”

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS

1. Diameter of test wire ‘d’ : 0.2 x 10-3 m.

2. Length of the test heater ‘l’ : 0.1 m.

OBSERVATION TABLE

S. No Bulk Temperature Voltage ‘V’ Current ‘I’ Critical Heat Flux

of Water
o
C Volts Amps ‘Q’
01 48 64.3 6.83 7.06 x 106
02 66 46.3 6.96 5.15 x 106
03 92 28.7 5.20 2.37 x 106

Specimen calculations for reading no.3

a. Surface area of wire ‘A’ = 𝜋 × 𝑑 × 𝑙

= 𝜋 × 0.2 × 10−3 × 0.1

= 6.25 x 10-5 …… m2

b. Heat Input ‘q’ = V × I

= 28.7 × 5.2

= 149.24 …… watts

𝑄
c. Heat Flux ‘Q’ =
𝐴

149.24
=
6.25 x 10−5
 = 2.37 x 106 …… w/ m2

Conclusion:

“It is observed that the critical heat flux decreases as the water temperature in the glass bowl
increases.”
 EXPERIMENT NO. 14
Characteristics of heat pipe

Aim: To compare the performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other geometrically pipes
of copper and stainless steel.
Introduction:

The Heat Pipe is a device which transfers heat by boiling a fluid at one end and condensing it on
other end of a pipe. The evaporation and condensation processes are responsible for the nearly
isothermal working of the heat pipe. The condensed liquid is transferred back to boiling area by the
capillary action through a wick structure in the heat pipe. This use of capillary action for pumping
the liquid back is the unique characteristic of the heat pipe.

Description of the Apparatus:

The Apparatus is mounted on a table. It consists of a heat pipe, a stainless steel tube and a
copper pipe of identical physical properties such as diameters and lengths.
Heat pipe is made up of stainless steel pipe. A stainless steel wire mesh of suitable mesh size
is inserted in this pipe. Circumferential layers of this mesh have been used. Calculated quantity of
distilled water as working fluid is introduced in the heat pipe after cleaning the pipe and mesh with
hydrochloric acid, acetone and distilled water, making perfect vacuum as far as possible. The pipe is
sealed after filling distilled water.
A stainless steel pipe and copper pipe are taken from comparison. The lengths of the three
members are kept equal. Band type heaters are used and mounted on the heating sections. The
surface temperatures along the lengths of pipe are measured by Copper – Constantan
thermocouples while temperature of water in the condenser tank is measured by thermocouple No.
16.
Specifications:

1. O.D. of stainless steel pipe : 32mm

2. O.D. of heat pipe : 32 mm (Material : Stainless Steel.)
3. O.D. of copper pipe : 32mm Dia.
4. Length of the pipes : 400mm.
5. Condenser tank : 140mm x 100mm x 100mm.
6. Condenser tank capacity : 0.7 Ltr. of water (approx.)
7. Dimmerstat : 4 Amps, 230 VAC, Open type, wire wound.
8. Heater : Band Heater, 400 watt, 230 VAC.
 9. Temperature Indicator : 0 – 3000 C. with cold junction
compensation.
10. Digital Voltmeter : 0-200 volts.
11. Digital Ammeter : 0-5 Amp.
12. Thermocouple Distribution : Heat Pipe - T1 to T5
Copper Pipe - T6 to T10
S.S. Pipe - T11 to T15
Water Bath of all tanks - T16

Procedure:

1. Before using the demonstrator the heat pipe is evacuated and about 50cc of distilled water
is filled in it.
2. The three condenser tanks are filled with equal amount of water so that the pipe is
submerged completely in water.
3. The power button is switched – ON and the input to all the three heaters are adjusted wit
the help of a dimmerstat
4. The input to the heaters is checked with the help of selector switch, Voltmeter and
Ammeter.
5. An initial heating period of about 15 minutes is allowed for starting up of the demonstrator.
6. The temperature readings along lengths of the pipes and also of the water in the tanks are
noted for every interval of 10 minutes.
7. This procedure is followed for about 60 minutes to study the working of heat pipe
demonstrator.

Precautions:

1. The heat pipe is already filled and tightened properly. Do not disturb the valve knob position
or do not loosen it otherwise readings will not be satisfactory and the vacuum may break.
2. Operate gently the selector switch of the temperature indicator from 1 to 16
3. Stir the water in the condenser tank before taking readings with Thermocouple wire.
4. Do not exceed the input to the heater beyond 140 watts.
Observation Table:

Unit Time after start Temperature at thermocouple Locations, 0 C

(min.)
1 2 3 4 5

Heat 10
Pipe
20

30

6 7 8 9 10

Cu Pipe 10

20

30

11 12 13 14 15

S.S. 10
Pipe
20

30

Table for Condenser Tank – T16

T16 Unit The interval in minutes

10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperat Heat Pipe

ure of
water in Cu Pipe
Condense S.S. Pipe
r Tank 0 C

Result:
The results are tabulated in the tabular column.

Graph:

Temperature distribution along the length of three pipes at different time intervals is
plotted.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 15
TWO PHASE HEAT TRANSFER UNIT

AIM:

 To visualize the process of nucleate and film boiling on the heater and condensation in the

form of droplets of R11 Refrigerant on the water-cooling coils.

 The experiments can be conducted for different heat inputs.

DESCRIPTION

This unit consists of a strong cylinder containing R11 Refrigerant as the fluid. A water-cooled

coil in the upper part of the Cylinder condenses the vapour and droplets of the Refrigerant

will be seen on the coil. The condenser cooling water rate can be measured and also

controlled, by the Rotameter and ball valve. A separate control panel with necessary

instrumentations and dimmerstat is provided.

The heat input is measured with the help of digital Ammeter and Voltmeter. With the help of

dimmerstat one vary the heat input.

SPECIFICATIONS

1. Boiling/Condensation cylinder : 300mm x 100mm O.D.(approx.) fitted with sealed end

caps.
2. Liquid used in the Cylinder : R11 Refrigerant.

3. Heater : Cartridge Type – Capacity : 400watt.

4. Rotameter to measure condenser water flow rate 0 to 100 LPH water.

( Acrylic Body)

5. Control Panel with following instruments and controls.

a) Digital Voltmeter – 0 – 200 VAC.

b) Digital Ammeter – 0 – 2 Amps AC.

c) Digital Temperature Indicator with Cr/Al type thermocouples with selector

switch.

d) Dimmerstat – 0 – 2 Amps. Open Type.

 e) DP Switch – 16 Amps.

SERVICE REQUIRED

 Single Phase 15 Amp. 230 V electric supply.

 Floor space area 1.0m x 1.5m (approx.) Table area.

 Overhead constant water supply at flow.

PROCEDURE :

01. It is a table type Unit with Control Panel fitted vertically facing front side.
02. Connect water pipe to the tap and adjust the water flow rate on the Rotameter.
03. Switch the mains and give some heat input to the heater with the help of Dimmerstat.
04. Allow the R11 Refrigerant to heat.
05. After some time the bubbles formation of the R11 refrigerant will start in the cylinder.
06. As the temperature of the liquid refrigerant increases, the condensation process will
be observed on the copper cooling coil in the form of droplets.
07. Wait for about 15 to 20 minutes and then note down the readings in the
observation table.
08. Repeat the above procedure for different heat inputs. Do not increase the Heat
Input above 120 watts.
09. Bring the dimmerstat knob to zero position, after completing the experiments.
10. Stop the water supply after 15 minutes, as condenser tube will be cooled.

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Pressure Reading :

Sr. No. Flow Voltage Current Temperature

Rate – volts – Amps
In Degree Centigrade.

‘LPH’ ‘V’ ‘I’ T1 T2 T3 T4

01.

02.

03.
 T1 = Heater Wall Surface Temperature.

T2 = R11 Refrigerant Temperature.

T3 = Water Inlet Temperature.

T4 = Water Outlet Temperature.

Calculations :

1)Surface Area of Heater ‘A’ = pxDxL .. m2

Where D = Dia. of Brass Cap on the Heater = 35mm.

L = Length of the Heater = 120mm.

2)Heat Input (q) = V x I .. watts.

3)Heat Flux = q/A .. w/m2

4)Heat Rejection = m x Cp x ( T4 – T3 )

Where m = mass flow rate of water - kg/sec.

Cp = Specific Heat of Water – 4180 J/kg.0C.

Conclusion :

01. It is observed that Condensation on Coil starts when the Bubble formation

occurs at the heater surface. Droplets of condensate is falling continuously.

02. Boiling of refrigerant is seen on the surface of the Heater.

Precautions:

01. Use Selector switch / knob gently.

02. Do not disturb the end caps provided to the cylinder by unscrewing the nuts of the
studs.
03. Do not increase heat input above 120 watts.
04. Gently opearte the ball valve.
05. Do not touch or sprinkle cool water on the glass cylinder while testing work is
going on. This may damage the glass cylinder.
06. Do Not exceed the Glass Cylinder Temperature above 700C.
 Conclusion :

01. It is observed that Condensation on Coil starts when the Bubble formation

occurs at the heater surface. Droplets of condensate are falling continuously.

02. Boiling of refrigerant is seen on the surface of the Heater.