UNIT I

ROBOT LOCOMOTION
Introduction to AI and Robotics – robot locomotion – legged mobile robots –
wheeled mobile robots– aerial mobile robots.

1.1 Robotics and Artificial Intelligence

Robotics is a separate entity in Artificial Intelligence that helps study the creation of
intelligent robots or machines. Robotics combines electrical engineering,mechanical engineering
and computer science & engineering as they have mechanical construction, electrical component
and programmed with programming language. Although, Robotics and Artificial Intelligence both
have different objectives andapplications, but most people treat robotics as a subset of Artificial
Intelligence (AI). Robot machines look very similar to humans, and also, they can perform like
humans, if enabled with AI.

In earlier days, robotic applications were very limited, but now they have become smarter
and more efficient by combining with Artificial Intelligence. AI has played a crucial role in the
industrial sector by replacing humans in terms of productivity and quality.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is defined as the branch of Computer Science & Engineering, which
deals with creating intelligent machines that perform like humans. Artificial Intelligence helps to
enable machines to sense, comprehend, act and learn human like activities. There are mainly 4 types
of Artificial Intelligence: reactive machines, limited memory, theory of mind, and self-awareness.

What is a robot?

A robot is a machine that looks like a human, and is capable of performing out of box
actions and replicating certain human movements automatically by means of commands given to it
using programming. Examples: Drug Compounding Robot, Automotive Industry Robots, Order
Picking Robots, Industrial Floor Scrubbers and Sage Automation Gantry Robots, etc.
Components of Robot
Several components construct a robot, these components are as follows:

Actuators: Actuators are the devices that are responsible for moving and controlling a system or
machine. It helps to achieve physical movements by converting energy like electrical, hydraulic and
air, etc. Actuators can create linear as well as rotary motion.
Power Supply: It is an electrical device that supplies electrical power to an electrical load. The
primary function of the power supply is to convert electrical current to power the load.
Electric Motors: These are the devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and
are required for the rotational motion of the machines.
Pneumatic Air Muscles: Air Muscles are soft pneumatic devices that are ideally best fitted for
robotics. They can contract and extend and operate by pressurized air filling a pneumatic bladder.
Whenever air is introduced, it can contract up to 40%.
Muscles wire: These are made up of nickel-titanium alloy called Nitinol and are very thin in shape.
It can also extend and contract when a specific amount of heat andelectric current is supplied
into it. Also, it can be formed and bent into different shapes when it is in its martensitic form. They
can contract by 5% when electrical current passes through them.
Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors: Piezoelectric motors or Piezo motors are the electrical
devices that receive an electric signal and apply a directional force to an opposing ceramic plate. It
helps a robot to move in the desired direction. These are the best suited electrical motors for
industrial robots.
Sensor: They provide the ability like see, hear, touch and movement like humans. Sensors are the
devices or machines which help to detect the events or changes in the environment and send data to
the computer processor. These devices are usuallyequipped with other electronic devices. Similar
to human organs, the electrical sensor also plays a crucial role in Artificial Intelligence & robotics.
AI algorithms control robots by sensing the environment, and it provides real-time information to
computer processors.

Applications of Robotics
• Robotics in defense sectors
• Robotics in Industrial Sector
• Robotics in Entertainment
• Robots in the mining industry

Aspects of Robotics
• The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a
particular task.
• They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
• They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how arobot
does something.
Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program
Here is the difference between the two −
AI Programs Robots

They usually operate in They operate in real physical

computer-stimulated worlds. world.
The input to an AI program is in Inputs to robots is analog signalin
symbols and rules. the form of speech waveform or
images

They need general purpose They need special hardware with

computers to operate on. sensors and effectors.
1.2 ROBOT LOCOMOTION:
Locomotion is the method of moving from one place to another. The mechanism that makes
a robot capable of moving in its environment is called as robot locomotion. Inthe laboratory, there
are research robots that can walk, jump, run, slide, skate, swim, fly and of course roll. Most of these
locomotion mechanisms have been inspired by biological counterparts which is shown below.

There is, however, one exception: the actively powered wheel is a human
invention that achieves extremely high efficiency on flat ground. – bipedal locomotion.
Bipedal locomotion is the movement of an animal on two legs while being in anupright
position regardless of whether they are bipedal to begin with.
Our bipedal walking system can be approximated by a rolling polygon, with sides
equal in length to the span of the step.
As the step size decreases, the polygon approaches a circle or wheel. But nature did not develop a
fully rotating, actively powered joint, which is the technology necessary for wheeled locomotion.

There are many types of locomotion’s:

1. Legged Locomotion: 2. Wheeled Locomotion:

3. Slip/Skid Locomotion: 4. Aerial Robots

Key issues for locomotion
Locomotion is the complement of manipulation. In manipulation, the robot arm is fixed but moves
objects in the workspace by imparting force to them. In locomotion, the environment is fixed and
the robot moves by imparting force to the environment. In bothcases, the scientific basis is the study
of actuators that generate interaction forces, and mechanisms that implement desired kinematic and
dynamic properties. Locomotion and manipulation thus share the same core issues of stability,
contact characteristics and environmental type:
• Stability
- number and geometry of contact points
- center of gravity
- static/dynamic stability
- inclination of terrain
• Characteristics of Contact
- contact point/path size and shape
- angle of contact
- friction
• Type of environment
- structure
- medium (e.g. water, air, soft or hard ground)

1.3 LEGGED MOBILE ROBOTS

Legged locomotion is characterized by a series of point contacts between the
robot and the ground.
• It comes up with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot hasmultiple
legs, then leg coordination is required for locomotion.
• Legged locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating jump, hop,
walk, trot, climb up or down etc.
• It requires more number of motors for accomplish a movement. It is suited for rough as
well as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface makes it consume more operational
power.
• It is little difficult to implement because of stability issues.
 Advantages: include adaptability and Maneuverability (the fact of being easy tomove into
different positions) in rough terrain.
Disadvantages of legged locomotion: include power and mechanical complexity.
Gait:
A gait is a cyclic motion pattern that produces locomotion through a sequence of
foot contacts with the ground. The legs provide support for the body of the robot while
the forces resulting from ground contact propel the robot.
In legged locomotion, the total number of possible gaits (a periodic sequence of lift and
release events for each of the total legs) a robot can travel depends upon the number of its legs.

If a robot has k legs, then the number of possible events N = (2k-1)!

In case of a two-legged robot (k=2), the number of possible events is N = (2k-1)! =(2*2-1)! =
3! = 6.
Hence there are six possible different events −
 Lifting the Left leg
 Releasing the Left leg
 Lifting the Right leg
 Releasing the Right leg
 Lifting both the legs together
 Releasing both the legs together
In case of K=4 legs, (2*4-1)! = 7! =7*6*5*4*3*2*1= 5040 possible events are there.
In case of k=6 legs, (2*6-1)! =11! =11*10*9*8*7*6*5*4*3*2*1=39916800 possibleevents.
Hence the complexity of robots is directly proportional to the number of legs.
A legged robot is well suited for rough terrain; it is able to climb steps, to cross gaps which
are as large as its stride and to walk on extremely rough terrain where, due to ground irregularities,
the use of wheels would not be feasible.

Degrees of freedom in robotics

The term degrees of freedom in robotics is widely used to define the motion capabilities of
robots, including androids (humanoid robots). In this context, the term generally refers to the
number of joints or axes of motion on the robot.
 To make a legged robot mobile, each leg must have at least two degrees of freedom(DOF). For
each DOF one joint is needed, which is usually powered by one servo (a servo is a precise and powerful
way of converting rotational motion into linear motion). Because of this a four legged robot needs at
least eight servos to travel around.

Figure shows the energy consumption of different locomotion concepts. It strikes that the
power consumption of legged locomotion is nearly two orders of magnitude more inefficient than of
wheeled locomotion on hard, flat surface (e.g. railway wheel on steel). One reason for this is that
wheeled locomotion requires in general fewer motors than legged locomotion.
Power consumption of several locomotion mechanisms

When the surface becomes soft wheeled locomotion offers some inefficiency, due to increasing
rolling friction more motor power is required to move. As shown in figure, legged locomotion is more
power efficient on soft ground than wheeled locomotion, because legged locomotion consists only of
point contacts with the ground and the leg is moved through the air. This means that only a single set
of point contacts is required, so the qualityof the ground does not matter, as long as the robot is
able to handle the ground. Butexactly the single set of point contacts offers one of the most complex
problem in legged locomotion, the stability problem.
Leg configurations and stability:
Arrangement of the legs of various animals.
• Insects
–6 or more legs
• Mammals and reptiles
–4 legs
• Some mammals (Humans)
–2 legs
• Humans can jump in one leg
–complex active control to maintain balance

In general, adding degrees of freedom to a robot leg increases the Maneuverability of the
robot, both augmenting the range of terrains on which it can travel and the ability of the robot to travel
with a variety of gaits. The primary disadvantages of additional joints and actuators are, of course,
energy, control, and mass. Additional actuators require energy and control, and they also add to leg
mass, further increasing power and load requirements on existing actuators.

Two gaits with four legs

Because this robot has fewer than six legs, static walking is not generally possible
 UNIT I ROBOT LOCOMOTION

Examples of legged robot locomotion:

(i) One leg:
Minimize the number of legs
–Mass
–Legs coordination
Legged robots can cross a gap
–Easier when they have less legs
–Jump and running

The major challenge in creating a single-legged robot is balance. For a robot withone leg,
static walking is not only impossible but static stability when stationary is also impossible. The robot
must actively balance itself by either changing its center of gravity or by imparting corrective forces.
Thus, the successful single-legged robot must be dynamically stable.
(ii) Two legs (biped)
Two legged robots have been shown to:
–run,
–jump,
–travel up and down stairways,
–and even do aerial tricks such as somersaults
An important feature of bipedal robots is their anthropomorphic shape. They can be built to have
the same approximate dimensions as humans, and this makes them excellent vehicles for research
in human-robot interaction.
WABIAN is a robot built at Waseda University Japan and it is designed to emulate human
motion, and is even designed to dance like a human.
WABIAN

SONY ABIBO
(iii) Four legs (quadruped)
• Standing is passively stable
• Walking is challenging because to remain stable the robot’s center of gravity mustbe actively
shifted during the gait.
Sony recently invested several million dollars to develop a four-legged robotcalled
AIBO.
To create this robot, Sony produced both a new robot operating system that is near
real-time and new geared servomotors that are of sufficiently high torque to support the robot,
yet back drivable for safety. In addition to developing custom motors and software, Sony incorporated
a color vision system that enables AIBO to chase a brightly colored ball. The robot is able to
function for at most one hour before requiring recharging.
Early sales of the robot have been very strong, with more than 60,000 units sold in the
first year. Nevertheless, the number of motors and the technology investment behind this robot dog
resulted in a very high price of approximately $1500.
Four-legged robots have the potential to serve as effective artifacts for research in
human-robot interaction.
Humans can treat the Sony robot, for example, as a pet and might develop an emotional
relationship similar to that between man and dog. Furthermore, Sony has designed AIBO’s walking
style and general behavior to emulate learning and maturation, resulting in dynamic behavior over
time that is more interesting for the owner who can track the changing behavior.
(iv) Six legs (hexapod)
Six-legged configurations have been extremely popular in mobile robotics because of their
static stability during walking, thus reducing the control complexity. In most cases, each leg has
three degrees of freedom, including hip flexion, knee flexion, and hip abduction.
.
 Genghis is a commercially available hobby robot that has six legs, each of which has two
degrees of freedom provided by hobby servos. Such a robot, which consists onlyof hip flexion and
hip abduction, has less Manoeuvrability in rough terrain but performs quite well on flat ground.
Because it consists of a straightforward arrangement of servomotors and straight legs, such robots
can be readily built by a robot hobbyist.

Insects, which are arguably the most successful locomoting creatures on earth,
excel at traversing all forms of terrain with six legs, even upside down.
Currently, the gap between the capabilities of six-legged insects and artificial six- legged
robots is still quite large. Interestingly, this is not due to a lack of sufficient numbers of degrees of
freedom on the robots. Rather, insects combine a small numberof active degrees of freedom with
passives structures, such as microscopic barbs and textured pads, that increase the gripping strength
of each leg significantly.
Robotic research into such passive tip structures has only recently begun. For example, a
research group is attempting to re-create the complete mechanical function of the cockroach leg.

1.4 WHEELED MOBILE ROBOTS:

Wheeled Mobile Robots are

• relatively simple mechanical implementation

• balance is not (usually) a problem
• all wheels are in ground contact
• Other problems:
–traction and stability,
–Manoeuvrability, and
–control
Wheeled Locomotion:

(i) Wheel Design:

The four basic wheel types:

• (a) Standard wheel: two degrees of freedom; rotation around the (motorized) wheel
axle and the contact point.

• (b) Castor wheel or steering wheel: two degrees of freedom; rotation around an offset steering
joint. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZzZbPf3xks

• (c) Swedish wheel: three degrees of freedom; rotation around the (motorized) wheelaxle, around
the rollers, and around the contact point. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=noqBUEgyQ8A

• (d) Ball or spherical wheel: realization technically difficult.

(ii) Wheel Geometry:

The choice of wheel types for a mobile robot is strongly linked to the choice of wheel arrangement,
or wheel geometry. The mobile robot designer must consider these two issues simultaneously when
designing the locomoting mechanism of a wheeled robot. Why does wheel type and wheel geometry
matter?

Three fundamental characteristics of a robot are governed by these choices:

Manoeuvrability, controllability and stability.
Mobile robots are designed for applications in a wide variety of situations. Automobiles allshare
similar wheel configurations because there is one region in the design space that maximizes
Manoeuvrability, controllability and stability for their standard environment:the paved roadway.
However, there is no single wheel configuration that maximizes thesequalities for the variety of
environments faced by different mobile robots.

Wheel configurations for rolling vehicles:

The number of variations in the table above is quite large. However, there are important trends
and groupings that can aid in comprehending the advantages and disadvantages of each
configuration. Below, we identify some of the key trade-offs in terms of the three issues we
identified earlier: stability, Manoeuvrability and controllability
(i) Stability:

As mentioned before the minimum number of wheels required for static stabilityis two. A
robot with a two wheeled differential drive can achieve stability if the center of mass is below the
wheel axle or if there is a third point of contact striking the floor. But these are some special cases;
under normal circumstances a wheeled robot needs at least three wheels with ground contact to
achieve static stability, additionally the center of gravity has to be completely within the support
polygon, formed by the three wheels with ground contact
(ii) manoeuvrability:
Manoeuvrability is a very important issue for a wheeled robot to solve its tasks. When a
robot is able to move in any direction of the ground plane (x,y) it is omnidirectional. This level of
movement requires usually actively powered wheels thatcan move in more than one direction like
Swedish or spherical wheels. In contrast the Ackermann steering configuration, which is used by
cars, is not omnidirectional.
Vehicles using this configuration have usually turning radius which are larger than the
vehicle itself, furthermore it is not able to move sideways (that means in axis direction), such a
movement requires several parking manoeuvres consisting of repeated changes in wheel direction
and forward and backward movement. This steering methodis very popular in hobby robotics,
because it is relatively cheap to use a remote control race car kit as a robot platform which supports
mobility
(iii) Controllability:
The advantage of omnidirectional designs is the high manoeuvrability of therobot,
but this advantage makes it more difficult to control the robot. For example, drivinga robot which
uses four powered Swedish wheels, like the Carnige Mellon Uranus robot, straight forward, all
wheels must be driven with exactly the same speed, to move in a perfectly straight line. Even little
errors in the speed of the wheels will cause mistakes in the desired travel path of the robot.
At this point the benefit of Ackermann steering appears, because controlling suchvehicles is much
easier.
Driving straight forward means just locking the steerable wheels and driving the motorized wheels.
 These are connected by an axis, so the speed of the drive wheels is always the
same by actuating just one motor.
After these considerations it can be said that there is in general an inverse correlation
between controllability and manoeuvrability. If the vehicle is easy to control then it is less
manoeuvrable; if it is high manoeuvrable, controlling is more difficult.

1.5 AERIAL MOBILE ROBOTS:

Aerial mobile robots, also known as drones or UAVs, are flying vehicles designed to
operate without a human pilot on board. Drones come in various types, including multirotor
(quadcopters, hexacopters), fixed-wing, single-rotor helicopters, and hybrid designs. Their sizes
range from small toy drones to large industrial and military UAVs.
Components and Features:
• Drones are equipped with propulsion systems (electric motors, gas engines) and areoften
powered by rechargeable batteries.
• They have flight control systems, including gyroscopes, accelerometers, and GPS forstable
flight and navigation.
• Onboard sensors such as cameras, LiDAR, thermal imaging, and radar provide data for
navigation, obstacle avoidance, and data collection.
Applications:
Drones have numerous applications, including aerial photography, videography, surveillance,
mapping, agriculture, search and rescue, delivery, infrastructure inspection, and scientific research.

Autonomous Capabilities:

Advanced drones are equipped with autonomous flight modes and intelligent navigation systems
that allow them to follow waypoints, orbit points of interest, and even perform complex flight paths.

Payloads and Sensors:

Different payloads and sensors can be attached to drones, such as high-resolution cameras,
multispectral sensors, LiDAR, gas detectors, and more, depending on the application.

Examples of aerial robots:

Aerial robots range from standard multicopter vehicles/drones, to autonomous

helicopters, and fixed-wing or hybrid devices.

Aerial robots, also known as drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), can be
categorized into two main types based on their design and flight capabilities:
Fixed-Wing Drones:

• Fixed-wing drones have a design similar to traditional airplanes, with wings that
generate lift and allow them to achieve sustained and efficient flight.

• They require a runway or hand launch for takeoff and usually land using a controlleddescent
or landing gear.

• Fixed-wing drones are well-suited for covering large distances, conducting aerialsurveys,
mapping, and performing long-duration flights.

• They tend to have longer flight times compared to multirotor drones due to them
aerodynamic efficiency.

Multirotor Drones:

• Multirotor drones, including quadcopters and hexacopters, have multiple rotors that
provide vertical lift and control.

• These drones are capable of hovering in place, making them ideal for tasks that require stable
aerial positioning, such as aerial photography, surveillance, and inspections.

• Multirotor drones are highly maneuverable and can perform intricate flight patterns, including
rotation and quick changes in direction.

• They are often used in scenarios where vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) are essential, and
they don't require a runway.
 PART - A Questions
1. Define Locomotion Mechanism.
A mobile robot needs locomotion mechanisms that enable it to move unbounded throughout its
environment. But there are a large variety of possible ways to move, andso the selection of a robot’s
approach to locomotion is an important aspect of mobile robot design. In the laboratory, there are
research robots that can walk, jump, run, slide, skate, swim, fly and of course roll.

2. What are the Key issues for locomotion?

Locomotion and manipulation thus share the same core issues of stability, contact
characteristics and environmental types.

3. Define mobile robot localization.

• Perception- the robot must interpret its sensors to extract meaningful data;
• Localization- the robot must determine its position in the environment;
• Cognition- the robot must decide how to act to achieve its goals; and
• Motion control- the robot must modulate its motor outputs to achieve the desired
trajectory.

4. What is robot?
Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment. Robots are aimed at
manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking, moving, modifying the physical properties of
object, destroying it, or to have an effect thereby freeing manpower from doing repetitive functions
without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted.

5. What are the types of Robot Locomotion?

Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment.
There are various types of locomotion
1. Legged
2. Wheeled
3. Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
4. Tracked slip/skid
6. What are robots with legs called?
Legged robots are composed of a central body (also called trunk or torso) with legs attached
to it. Most common are monopods, bipeds (e.g., humanoids), quadrupeds, and hexapods, with one,
two, four, and six legs, respectively. Less common are robots with three, five, seven, or more legs.

7. What are the advantages of legged mobile robots?

Legged robots can navigate on any kind of surface which is inaccessible for wheeled robots,
wheeled robots are designed to work on prepared surfaces like smooth surfaces, roads, rails, etc,
Legged robots can jump or step over obstacles, whereaswheels need to travel over it or take a
different path

8. What is an example of a legged robot locomotion?

The MIT cheetah cub is an electrically powered quadruped robot with passive compliant legs capable
of self-stabilizing in large range of speeds. The Tekken II is a smallquadruped designed to walk on
irregular terrains adaptively.

9. What is wheeled mobile robots?

Wheeled robots are robots that navigate around the ground using motorized wheels to propel
themselves. This design is simpler than using treads or legs and by using wheels they are easier to
design, build, and program for movement in flat, not-so- rugged terrain.

10. What is an example of a wheeled robot?

Roombas are two-wheeled vacuum cleaners that automatically move around cleaning upa room,
They use a contact sensor in the front and an infrared sensor on its top,Segways are self-
balancing dicycle electric vehicles, Ghost Rider was the only two- wheeled robot entered for the
Darpa Grand 2005 Challenge
11. What are the applications of wheeled mobile robots?
These are the main applications of autonomous mobile robots:
• Distribution Centers.
• Cleaning and Disinfection.
• Autonomous Security Robots (ASRs)
• Hospitals and Healthcare.
• Hospitality.
• Grocery Stores.
• Last Mile Delivery.
12. What are the advantages of wheeled mobile robots?
Using wheels is simpler than using legs or tracks, and it's certainly easier to design, build
and program when the robot is traveling on flat, unrugged terrain. Compared to other locomotion
systems, wheels are considerably less expensive and their control requires less complexity.

13. What are the classification of wheeled mobile robots?

Wheeled mobile robots may be classified in two major categories, omnidirec- tional and
nonholonomic.

14. Why two wheeled robots were more beneficial?

Comparing with ordinary four-wheel robot, two wheeled robots have manyadvantages like
cost reduction, size reduction, find its increased application like rockets, military transportation etc.
But the instability associated with this make the design and modeling so much complex.

15. What is the difference between legged and wheeled robots?

Two-legged robots are versatile and can navigate over uneven terrain, but are moreprone to
tipping over and can be challenging to control. Robots with wheels are stable and efficient, but may
not be as versatile as two-legged robots.
16. What is aerial mobile robots?
Aerial robots, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones, which fly
through the air. Land or home robots, or unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), that navigate on dry
land or within houses. Underwater robots, or autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), that can
direct themselves and travel through water.

17. What are the examples of aerial robots?

Aerial robots range from standard multicopter vehicles/drones, to autonomous helicopters,
and fixed-wing or hybrid devices.

18. What are the applications of aerial robots?

Also an aerial robot is helpful to detect the bombs and can also attack the opposition military
forces. Aerial robot can also be used to detect the injuries and can be helpful in providing the first
aid. Accidental or natural disasters like earthquake, floods, tsunami, creates havoc for the areas.

19. What is meant by aerial robotics?

An aerial robot is a system capable of sustained flight with no direct human control and able
to. perform a specific task.

20. Is a drone an aerial device?

The words Drone and UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) mean the same thing, and can be used
interchangeably. Both are aerial devices that can fly with a human remotelycontrolling them, or in
the most advanced cases, fly themselves without any human intervention, such as the fixed wing
drone below, named for it's straight side wings that don't move.
 Part-B Questions

Q. Questions CO K Level
No. Level
1 Explain robot locomotion and its types?. CO1 K1

2 Explain about legged mobile robots with neat

CO1 K1
diagrams.
3 What is wheeled mobile robots? Explain in detail. CO1 K1

4 Explain how aerial mobile robots works with neat

CO1 K1
illustration