RADIOBIOLOGY SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATION
LESSON2-3: RADPHYSICS
CONCEPTS OF RADIATION
Matter - anything that occupies space and has
form or shape.
Mass - quantity of matter contained in any
physical object.
Weight - force exerted by a body under the
influence of gravity.
ENERGY - Ability to do work
- The law of conservation of energy states
that energy may be transformed from one
form to another, but it cannot be created
or destroyed.
➔ POTENTIAL- is the ability to do work by
virtue of position.
➔ KINETIC- the energy of motion: it is
possessed by all matter in motion: a
moving automobile, a turning windmill
wheel, a falling guillotine blade.
➔ CHEMICAL- is the energy released by a
chemical reaction.
➔ ELECTRICAL- is represents the work
that can be done when an electron
moves through an electric potential
difference (voltage)
➔ THERMAL (HEAT)- is the energy of
motion at the molecular level.
➔ NUCLEAR- is the energy that is
contained within the nucleus of an atom
WHAT IS RADIATION?
- Energy emitted and transferred through
matter.
IONIZING RADIATION
- Capable of removing an orbital electron
from an atom with which it interacts.
● NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION
● MAN-MADE RADIATION
DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS
- Amazing features about the discovery
of x-rays:
1. Quite by accident
2. Fewer than a dozen contemporaries of
Roentgen had previously observed
x-radiation, but none of these other
physicist had recognized its significant
or investigated it.
3. Followed his discovery with such
scientific vigor that within little more
than a month he had ascribed to
x-radiation nearly all the properties
recognized today.
BASIC RADIATION PROTECTION
➔ FILTRATION- usually aluminum,
inserted into x-ray tube housing so that
low energy x rays emitted by the tube
are absorbed before they can reach the
patient.
➔ COLLIMATION-restricts the useful beam
to that part of the body requiring
examination and thereby spares
adjacent tissue from unnecessary
exposure.
➔ INTENSIFYING SCREENS (IS)- reduce
the exposure of the patient to x-rays by
more than 95% compared with
examinations without IS.
➔ PROTECTIVE APPAREL-lead aprons
and gloves
➔ GONADAL SHIELDING
➔ PROTECTIVE BARRIERS
RADIOLOGIC UNITS
Air Kerma
- Radiation exposure or intensity
- measured in C/kg or Roentgen(R)
- amount of charge (electrons) liberated
per kilogram of Ai(Ionization)
 -
1R = 2.58x10*-4 C/Kg

Absorbed Dose
- measured in Gray (Gy) or Rad
- amount of energy deposited/ absorbed
per kilogram of tissue
1Gy = 1 Joule/Kg Example:
100 Rad = 1 Joule/Kg ● What is
1Rad = .01 Gy- the
velocity of a ball that travels 60 m in 4s?
Dose Equivalent ● After an impact involving a
- measured in Sieverts (Sv) or Rem non-functioning satellite, a paint chip
leaves the surface of the satellite at a
- Express the quantity of radiation
speed of 96 m/s. After 17 seconds, how
received by radiatioworkers.
far has the chip landed?
1Sv = 1 Joule/Kg
Answer: d=vt
100 Rem = 1 Joule/Kg
● How long will your trip take (in hours) if
1Sv = .01 Rem you travel 350 km at an average speed
Activity of 80 km/hr?
- Unit of radioactivity Answer: t=d/v
- unit of the quantity of radioactive
material and not the radiation emitted NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
that material
1Ci = 3.7x10*10 Bq
1. LAW OF INERTIA- a body will remain at
rest or continue moving with a constant
velocity in a straight line unless acted
Special Quantities of Radiologic Science and on by an external force.
Their Units
FUNDAMENTAL OF PHYSICS

VELOCITY
- Sometimes called “speed”
- Measure of how fast something is going,
the rate of change of its position with
time.
Velocity=d/t
- Where d represents the distance, and t
is time 2. LAW OF FORCE - push or pull on an
object
- states that the force applied to
move an object is equal to the
mass of the object times the
acceleration.
F=ma
- Where m is mass and a is
acceleration
Example: - ↑Velocity ↑Momentum
Find the force on a 55kg mass accelerated at
14m/s2. WORK
Answer: - Force applied times the distance over
F = ma which it is applied.
= (55kg)(14m/s2) Work = Fd
- Units of work are the joule (J) in SI and
SI unit of force is the NEWTON (N). In the CGS the erg in CGS.
system the unit is the dyne (1N = 103 dyne)
Example: Find the work done in lifting a suitcase
3. To every action there is an equal and opposite weighing 90N to a height of 3m.
reaction.
Answer:
WEIGHT Work = Fd
- Is a force on a body caused by the =(90 N)(3 m)
downward pull of gravity on it. =270J
- Weight of an object is equal to the
product of its mass and the acceleration
POWER
of gravity
- Rate of doing work
Wt = mg
- The SI unit of power is the joule/second
- Unit of weight are the same as those for (J/s), which is called the watt (W). The
force: newtons and dynes. In the British British unit of power is the horsepower
system is measured in pounds. (hp).
1hp = 746 W
Example 1000W =1kW
A student has a mass of 75kg. What is his P = Work/t
weight on earth? On the moon?

Example:
EARTH: gravity=9.8m/s2 , MOON:
gravity=1.6m/s2
A technologist lifts a 0.8 kg x-ray film cassette
from the floor to the top of a 2m table with an
EARTH: gravity=9.8m/s2 accelaration of 3m/s2 . What is the power
Wt = mg exerted if it takes 1.2 s?
=75kg(9.8m/s2 )
First find F.
MOON: gravity=1.6m/s2 F=ma
Wt = mg =(0.8kg)(3m/s2)
=75kg(1.6m/s2 ) =2.4N

MOMENTUM Next find work:

- The product of the mass of an object Work = Fd
and its velocity, represented by p. =(2.4N)(2m)
p = mv =(4.8J)
- The greater the velocity of an object,
the more momentum the object
Now P can be determined:
possesses.
 P= Work/t
= 4.8J/1.2s
=4W
The Atom
ATOM
- They thought all matter was composed
of 4 subtances: earth, water, air and fire,
modified by four basic essences: wet,
dry, hot and cold.
JOHN DALTON
- English Chemist
- According to Dalton, an element was
composed of identical atoms that
reacted the same way in chemical
reactions.
- For example, all oxygen atoms were
alike. They looked alike, they were
constructed alike, and they reacted
alike. However, very different from
atoms of any other element.
- Physical combination of one type of
atom with another was visualized as
being an “hook and eye affair”.
J.J THOMSON
- English Physicist
- He described the atom as something
like “plum and pudding”, where the plum
represented negative electric charges
(electrons-corpuscles), and the pudding
was a shapeless mass of uniform
positive electrification.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
- 1911 British Physicist
- He disproved Thomson’s model of atom.
- Introduced nuclear model, w/c
described the atom as containing a
small, dense, positively charged center
surrounded by a negative cloud of
randomly located electrons. He called
the center of the atom “nucleus”.
NIEL’S BOHR
- 1913, Danish Physicist
- Improved Rutherford’s description of
the atom.
- Bohr’s model was a “miniature solar
system” in w/c the electrons revolved
about the nucleus in prescribed orbits
or energy levels.
X-ray Interaction with Matter
FIVE X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER
● Classical Scattering
● Compton Effect
● Photoelectric Effect
● Pair Production
● Photodisintegration
Low energy xrays- interact with the whole atom
Moderate- interact with the electrons
High Energy- interact with the nuclei
CLASSICAL SCATTERING
- Energies below 10 keV
- Sometimes called Coherent or
Thompson scattering
- Incident photon interacts with a target
atom, causing it to become excited. The
target atom immediately releases this
excess energy as a secondary or
scattered photon with wavelength equal
( λ = λ’) to that of the incident atom and
therefore equal energy.
- Change in direction of the x-ray without
a change in its energy.
- No energy transfer and therefore no
ionization.
COMPTON EFFECT
- Occurs between moderate energy xrays
and outer shell electrons.
- It results in ionization of the target
atom, change in photon direction, and
reduction of photon energy.
- The wavelength of the scattered xray is
greater than that of the incident xray.
- Such radiation is the source of most of
the occupational radiation exposure
that radiologic technologist receive.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
 - Interactions with inner shell electrons of
target atoms, so that x-ray is not
scattered but totally absorbed.
- The incident photon disappears, and the
K-shell electron, now called a
photoelectron, is ejected from the atom.
- Characteristic x-rays are produced
following a photoelectric interaction in a
manner similar described earlier.
- The ejection of a K-shell photoelectron
by the incident x-ray results in a
vacancy in the K shell, and corrected by
an outer shell e, dropping into vacancy,
accompanied by the emission of x-ray.
- These characteristic xrays are also
secondary radiation/scattered radiation,
and contribute nothing of diagnostic
value.

PAIR PRODUCTION
- Occurs with xrays that have energies
greater than 1.02 MeV.
- The photon interacts with the nuclear
force field, and two electrons that have
opposite electrostatic charges are
created, one positively charged
(positron), and one negatively charged.

PHOTODISINTEGRATION
- Energies above 10 MeV, can escape
interaction with electrons and the
nuclear electrostatic field and be
absorbed directly by the nucleus.
- When this happens, the nucleus is
raised to an excited state and
instantaneously emits a nucleon or
other nuclear fragment.
 RADIOBIOLOGY
LESSON3-4: HUMAN BIOLOGY

Radiobiology
- The study of the effects of ionizing
radiation on biologic tissue.
- Diagnosis
- Therapy

Human Radiation Response

- The effect of x-rays on humans is the
result of interactions at the atomic level.

― If the radiation response increases in severity

with increasing radiation dose, it is called a
deterministic effect and occurs within days after
the radiation exposure.‖ ―if the incidence of the
radiation response increases with increasing
radiation dose, it is called a stochastic effect and
is not observed for months or years.

Atomic Composition of the Body

Molecular Composition of the Body

CELL THEORY
- In 1665, Robert Hooke. ‘’biological
building blocks’’
- In 1673, Anton van Leeuwenhoek. ‘’living
cells’’
- In 1838, Schneider and Schwann
showed conclusively that in all plants
and animals, cells are the basic
functional units.
- In 1953 Watson and Crick description of
the molecular structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Human Genome Projection.
PROTEINS
- Approximately 15% of the molecular
composition of the body
- Long-chain macromolecules that
consist of a linear sequence of amino
acids connected by peptide bonds
- Twenty-two amino acids are used in
protein synthesis
- The linear sequence, or arrangement, of
these amino acids determines the
precise function of the protein molecule.

MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- Five principal types of molecules are
found in the body
- Four of these molecules—proteins, lipids
(fats), carbohydrates (sugars and
starches), and nucleic acids—are
macromolecules

WATER
- The most abundant molecule in the
body, and it is the simplest.
- It consists of two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen (H2O) and
constitutes approximately 80% of - The generalized formula for a protein is
human substance. CnHnOnNnTn, where the subscript ―n
- water molecules exist both in the free refers to the number of atoms of each
state and in the bound state, that is, element in the molecule; T represents
bound to other molecules. trace elements.
- shape - 50% of the mass of a protein molecule
is carbon,
Homeostasis - the concept of the relative - 20% oxygen,
constancy of the internal environment of the - 17% nitrogen,
human body
- 7% hydrogen,
Catabolism - Breaking down into smaller units
- 6% other elements
of macromolecules
PROTEINS
Anabolism - the production of large molecules
Enzymes -are molecules that are necessary in
from small
small quantities to allow a biochemical reaction
to continue even though they do not directly
enter into the reaction.

Hormones -are molecules that exercise

regulatory control over some body functions,
such as growth and development.
Antibodies -constitute a primary defense
mechanism of the body against infection and
disease.
Lipids
- organic macromolecules composed
solely of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- represented by the general formula,
CnHnOn
- lipids are composed of two types of
smaller molecules:
◦ glycerol and ◦ fatty acid.
- are concentrated just under the skin
and serve as a thermal insulator from
the environment.
- serve as fuel for the body by providing
energy stores.
CARBOHYDRATES
- first considered to be watered, or
hydrated, carbons,
- Carbohydrates are called saccharides,
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides
◦ Chemical formula for glucose, a
simple sugar, is C₆H₁₂O₆
◦ Polysaccharides are large and
include plant starches and animal
glycogen
- Located principally in the cytoplasm
- Forms in the nucleus.
Two types of RNA
messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
- These molecules are involved in the
growth and development of the cell
through a number of biochemical
pathways, most notably, protein
synthesis
Nitrogenous base: an organic base that
contains nitrogen;
Purine: a nitrogenous base that has a double-
ring structure; one of two general categories of
nitrogenous bases found in DNA & RNA; either
adenine or guanine
Pyrimidine: a nitrogenous base that has a
single- ring structure; one of the two general
categories of nitrogenous bases found in DNA&
RNA; thymine, cytosine or uracil
Base-Pairing Rules: the rules stating that
cytosine pairs w/ guanine & adenine pairs w/
thymine in DNA & adenine pairs w/ uracil in
RNA

NUCLEIC ACID
- deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)
- Ribonucleic Acid
- Located principally in the nucleus of the
cell acid (RNA)
DNA serves as the command or control molecule
for cell function

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
- DNA serves as the command or control
molecule for cell function
- DNA contains all the hereditary
information that represents a cell and,
of course, if the cell is a germ cell, all the
hereditary information of the whole Double Helix: shape of a DNA molecule formed
individual. when two twisted DNA strands are coiled into a
―DNA is the radiation-sensitive target molecule. springlike structure & held together by
hydrogen bonds b/t the bases
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
HUMAN CELLS Two types of Cells
1. Somatic Cells
The two major structures of the cell are; 2. Genetic Cells
- nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Nucleolus Meiosis
- Most of the RNA is contained in a - Genetic material can change during the
rounded structure. division process of genetic cells.
Cytoplasm
- makes up the bulk of the cell and TYPES OF CELLS
contains great quantities of all
molecular components except DNA.
Endoplasmic reticulum
- is a channel or a series of channels that
allows the nucleus to communicate with
the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria
- large bean structure.
- engine of the cell.
Ribosomes
- are the site of protein synthesis.

Lysosomes
- contain enzymes capable of digesting
cellular fragments and sometimes the TISSUES AND ORGANS
cell itself.
- help to control intracellular
contaminants.

CELL PROLIFERATION

Cell proliferation
- is the act of a single cell or group of
cells to reproduce and multiply in
number.
 RADIOBIOLOGY As the LET of radiation increases, the ability to
produce biologic also increases.
LESSON5(1): Fundamental Principles of
Radiobiology

Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau

- 1906, 2 French Scientist Bergonie and
Tribondeau
- The law states that the radiosensitivity
of living tissue varies with maturation
and metabolism of the tissue being
irradiated
Note:
- The standard radiation, by convention,
is orthovoltage x-radiation in the range
of 200 to 250 kVp.
- (This type of x-ray beam was used for
many years in radiation oncology and in
essentially all early radiobiologic
research)
- Diagnostic x-rays have an RBE of 1.
- LOWER RBE(less that 1)
- HIGHER RBE (greater than 1)

Linear Energy Transfer and Relative Biologic

Physical Factors that affects Radiosensitivity Effectiveness of Various Radiation Doses

1. Linear Energy Transfer

2. Relative Biologic Effectiveness
3. Protraction and Fractionation

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

- a measure of the rate at which energy is
transferred from ionizing radiation to
soft tissue
- Another method of expressing radiation
quality and determining the value of the
radiation weighting factor (WR) used in
radiation protection
Example:
- Expressed in units of kiloelectron volt of
- When mice are irradiated with
energy transferred per micrometer of
250-kVp…
track length in soft tissue (keV/μm).
- 3.1

As LET increases:
- ionization occurs frequently TWO WAYS OF LENGTHENING THE TIME OF
- Increases the ability to produce biologic IRRADIATION
damage
- increases the probability of interaction
PROTRACTION
with the target molecule
- The dose is delivered continuously but
at a lower dose rate.
Relative Biologic Effectiveness

FRACTIONATION
- The dose is delivered at the same dose
in equal portions at regular intervals.
NOTE:
Biological Factors that affect Radiosensitivity
1) Oxygen Enhancement Ratio (OER)
2) Age
3) Recovery
4) Chemical Agents
5) Hormesis
Oxygen Enhancement Ratio
- Ratio of the dose necessary to produce
a given effect under anoxic conditions
to the dose necessary to produce the
same effect under aerobic conditions
Exercise 2
When experimental mouse mammary
carcinomas are clamped and irradiated under
hypoxic conditions, the tumor control dose is
106 Gyt. When these tumors are not clamped
and are irradiated under aerobic conditions, the
tumor control dose is 40.5 Gyt. What is the OER
for this system
2.6
OXYGEN-ENHANCEMENT RATIO (OER)
OXYGEN EFFECT
- Tissue is more sensitive to radiation
when irradiated in the oxygenated or
aerobic state than when irradiated
under anoxic (without oxygen) &
hypoxic (low oxygen) condition
OXYGEN-ENHANCEMENT RATIO (OER)
HYPERBARIC/HIGH PRESSURE OXYGEN
- It has been used in radiation oncology
Age
- The age of a biologic structure affects
its radiosensitivity.
- Humans are most sensitive before birth.
- After birth, sensitivity decreases until
maturity, at which time humans are
most resistant to radiation effects.
- In old age, humans again become
somewhat more radiosensitive
Recovery
- If the radiation dose is not sufficient to
kill the cell before its next division
(interphase death), then given sufficient
time, the cell will recover from the
sublethal radiation damage it has
sustained.
 - This intracellular recovery is
attributable to a repair mechanism
inherent in the biochemistry of the cell.
- Some types of cells have greater
capacity than others for repair of
sublethal damage.

Note:
- If a tissue or organ receives a sufficient
radiation dose, it responds by shrinking.
- Interphase Death: occurs when the cell
dies before replicating

Chemical Agents
1) Radiosensitizers
2) Radioprotectors

Radiosensitizers
- Agents that enhance the effect of
radiation
Ex. halogenated pyrimidines, methotrexate,
actinomycin D, hydroxyurea, and vitamin K

Radioprotectors
- Radioprotective compounds include
molecules that contain a sulfhydryl
group (sulfur and hydrogen bound
together), such as cysteine and
cysteamine.

Hormesis
- The biologic responses to low exposures
to toxins or other stressors
- “Regardless of radiation hormesis, we
continue to practice ALARA (“as low
reasonably achievable”) vigorously as a
known safe approach to radiation
management.
 Nonlinear: Threshold and Nonthreshold

RADIOBIOLOGY
LESSON5(2): Fundamental Principles of
Radiobiology

RADIATION DOSE-RESPONSE
RELATIONSHIPS

Radiation dose response relationships

- A radiation dose-response relationship
is a mathematical relationship between
various radiation dose levels and Note:
magnitude of the observed response
"Skin effects resulting from high-dose fluoroscopy
follow a sigmoid-type dose response relationship.’’

Characteristics of Radiation dose-response

rel.
- Linear threshold
- Non-linear threshold

“Either threshold or non threshold”

Linear: Threshold and Nonthreshold

 RADIOBIOLOGY
LESSON7-8: MOLECULAR RADIOBIOLOGY
DIRECT VS INDIRECT EFFECTS
DIRECT
- If the initial ionizing event occurs on the
target molecule (DNA)
INDIRECT
- If the initial ionizing event occurs on a
distant, noncritical molecule
- The energy is transferred to the target
molecule
IRRADIATION OF MACROMOLECULES
IN VITRO
- Irradiation of macromolecules outside
the body or outside the cell
- Considerable radiation dose is required
to produce a measurable effect
IN VIVO
- Irradiation of macromolecules within the
living cell
- More sensitive in their natural state
IRRADIATION OF MACROMOLECULES IN
VITRO
1. Main-chain Scission
2. Cross-linking
3. Point lesion
Main-chain scission
- Main-chain scission is the breakage of
the backbone of the long-chain
macromolecule.
- Measurement of Viscosity determines
the degree of main-chain scission
CROSS LINKING
- Process of side spurs created by
irradiation & attached to a neighboring
macromolecules or to another segment
of the same molecule
- Effect: increases the viscosity of the
macromolecular solution
Point Lesion
- Any change that results in the
impairment or loss of function at the
point of a single chemical bond
- Not detectable
At low radiation doses, point lesions are
considered to be the cellular radiation damage
that results in the stochastic radiation effects
observed at the whole-body level
FREE RADICALS
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
- Poisonous to the cell & therefore acts as
a toxic agent
- Formed by combination of two OH*
(OH*+OH*=H2O2)
- Formed by combination of two
Hydroperoxyl radicals
(HO*2+HO*2= H2O2+O2)
Hydroperoxyl Radical (HO*2)
- The principal damaging product of
radiolysis of water
- Formed by combination of H* and
oxygen (O2)
(H*+O2= HO*2)
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON DNA
- DNA is the most important molecule in
the human body.
- CELL DEATH
- MALIGNANT DISEASE
- GENETIC EFFECT
 RADIOBIOLOGY CELL SURVIVAL KINETICS
LESSON9-10: CELLULAR RADIOBIOLOGY

TARGET THEORY
- ‘’For the cell to die after radiation
exposure its target molecule must be
inactivated’’
HIT- occurs when radiation interaction occurs with
target

TWO MODELS OF CELL SURVIVAL

● SINGLE-TARGET, SINGLE-HIT MODEL
● MULTI-TARGET, SINGLE-HIT MODEL

SINGLE-TARGET, SINGLE-HIT MODEL

- Applies to biologic targets
- Enzymes, viruses, bacteria
RELATIONSHIP OF LET, OER AND TARGET
THEORY
D37
➔ LOW LET, ABSENCE OF OXYGEN - When the radiation dose reaches a level
➔ LOW LET, PRESENCE OF OXYGEN sufficient to kill 63% of the cells (37%
➔ HIGH LET, DIRECT EFFECT, ABSENCE survival)
OF OXYGEN - A measure of the radiosensitivity of the
➔ HIGH LET, INDIRECT EFFECT, cell
PRESENCE OF OXYGEN - Low D37: highly radiosensitive
- High D37: highly radioresistant
TAKENOTE!!! LET

- At Very High LET: cell survival kinetics

follows the single-target, single- hit
model
- At Low LET: cell survival kinetics
follows the multi-target, single-hit
model

MULTI-TARGET, SINGLE-HIT MODEL

- Applies to more complicated biologic
targets
- Human cells
- It represents a threshold

Do
- This is constantly related to
radiosensitivity of the cell.

➔ Larger Do - it indicates radioresistant

cell.
➔ Small Do - this indicate radiosensitive
cell.

Dq
- This is related to the cell ability to
recover from sublethal damage.
- This is used to measure the capacity to
accumulate sublethal damage and the
ability to recover from the damage.

CELL CYCLE EFFECTS

- The average time from one mitosis to
another
- Human Cells: approximately 24 hrs
- Neurons: hundreds of hrs
 RADIOBIOLOGY
LESSON10-11: DETERMINISTIC EFFECT
Acute Radiation Syndrome
Central Nervous System Death
- Death requires radiation doses in excess
of 50 Gyt (5000 rad) and results in
death within hours.
Hematological and Gastrointestinal Death
- Hematologic death and GI death follow
lower exposures and require a longer
time for death to occur.
Hematologic Syndrome
- Radiation doses in the range of
approximately 2 to 10 Gyt (200–1000
rad) produce the hematologic
syndrome. The patient initially
experiences mild symptoms of the
prodromal syndrome, which appear in a
matter of a few hours and may persist
for several days.
Gastrointestinal Syndrome
- Radiation doses of approximately 10 to
50 Gyt (1000–5000 rad) result in the GI
syndrome.
- The manifest illness period
begins with a second wave of
nausea and vomiting followed
by diarrhea. The victim
experiences a loss of appetite
(anorexia) and may become
lethargic. The diarrhea persists
and becomes more severe,
leading to loose and then
watery and bloody stools.
Supportive therapy cannot
prevent the rapid progression of
symptoms that ultimately leads
to death within 4 to 10 days of
exposure.
Central Nervous System Syndrome
- After a radiation dose in excess of
approximately 50 Gyt (5000 rad) is
received, a series of signs and
symptoms occur that lead to death
within a matter of hours to days. First,
severe nausea and vomiting begins,
usually within a few minutes of
exposure.
Acute Radiation Lethality
Two periods are associated with acute
radiation lethality
1. Prodromal Period
2. Latent Period
Prodromal Period
- At radiation doses above approximately
1 Gyt (100 rad) delivered to the total
body, signs and symptoms of radiation
sickness may appear within minutes to
hours. The symptoms of early radiation
sickness most often take the form of
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and a
reduction in the white blood cells of the
peripheral blood (leukopenia).
Latent Period
- After the period of initial radiation
sickness, a period of apparent
well-being occurs, which is called the
latent period. The latent period extends
from hours or less (at doses in excess of
50 Gyt) to weeks (at doses from 1 to 5
Gyt).
- The latent period is sometimes
mistakenly thought to indicate an early
 recovery from a moderate radiation - Acute radiation lethality is measured
dose. It may be misleading, however, quantitatively by the LD50/60, which is
because it gives no indication of the approximately 3.5 Gyt (350 rad) for
extensive radiation response yet to humans. With clinical support, humans
follow. can tolerate much higher doses; the
- The latent period that follows can maximum is reported to be 8.5 Gyt
extend as long as 4 weeks and is (850 rad)
characterized by a general feeling of
wellness. There are no obvious signs of
illness, although the number of cells in
the peripheral blood declines during
this time.

Manifest Illness
- The dose necessary to produce a given
syndrome and the mean survival time
are the principal quantitative measures
of human radiation lethality
- The period of manifest illness is
characterized by possible vomiting, mild
diarrhea, malaise, lethargy, and fever.
Each of the types of blood cells follows
a rather characteristic pattern of cell
depletion. If the dose is not lethal,
recovery begins in 2 to 4 weeks, but as
long as 6 months may be required for
full recovery.
Mean Survival Time
LD50/60 - As the whole-body radiation dose
- LD50/60 If experimental animals are increases, the average time between
irradiated with varying doses of exposure and death decreases. This
radiation—for example, 1 to 10 Gyt (100– time is known as the mean survival time.
1000 rad)—the plot of the percentage.
- The LD50/60 is the dose of radiation to
the whole body that causes 50% of
irradiated subjects to die within 60 days.
LOCAL TISSUE DAMAGE
- When only part of the body is irradiated,
in contrast to whole-body irradiation, a
higher dose is required to produce a
response. Every organ and tissue of the
body can be affected by partial-body
irradiation.
- Atrophy is the shrinkage of an organ or
tissue caused by cell death.
Effects on the Skin
- The tissue with which we have had the
most experience is the skin. Normal skin
consists of three layers: an outer layer
(the epidermis), an intermediate layer of
connective tissue (the dermis), and a
subcutaneous layer of fat and
connective tissue
- Damage to basal cells results in the
earliest manifestation of radiation injury
to the skin.
Erythema
- These skin effects follow a nonlinear,
threshold dose-response relationship.
- Small doses of x-radiation do not cause
erythema.
- Extremely high doses of x-radiation
cause erythema in all persons so
irradiated.
- Analysis of persons irradiated
therapeutically with superficial x-rays
has shown that the skin erythema dose
required to affect 50% of those
irradiated (SED50) is about 5 Gyt (500
rad).
- Another response of the skin to
radiation exposure is epilation, or loss of
hair
- Moist desquamation desquamation
Summarizes the potential effects of high-dose
fluoroscopy
Effects on the Gonads
- Human gonads are critically important
target organs. As an example of local
tissue effects, they are particularly
sensitive to radiation. Responses to
doses as low as 100 mGyt have been
observed. Because these organs
produce the germ cells that control
fertility and heredity, their response to
radiation has been studied extensively.
➔ Gametogenesis
- Germ cells are produced by
both ovaries and testes, but
they develop from the stem cell
phase to the mature cell phase
at different rates and at
different times.
Progression of germ cells from the stem cell
phase to the mature cell.
examination included total cell counts
and a white blood cell (leukocyte)
differential count. Most institutions had
a radiation safety regulation such that, if
the leukocytes were depressed by
greater than 25% of normal level, the
employee was given time off or was
assigned to non- radiation activities
until the count returned to normal.

Hemopoietic System

hemopoietic
● bone marrow
● circulating blood
WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN THE OVARIES ● lymphoid tissue.
WERE IRRADIATED?
Lymphoid tissues
1. lymph nodes
2. Spleen
3. thymus.

Pluripotential stem cell

- All cells of the hemopoietic system
apparently develop from a single type of
stem cell.
Lyphocytes, Granulocytes, Thrombocytes and
Erythrocytes
Response of Ovaries and Testes

Radiation Effects
● Granulocytes
- Rapid rise in # followed by rapid
decrease & slower decrease
- Recovery takes 2 months

HEMATOLOGIC EFFECTS
- If you were a radiologic technologist in
practice during the 1920s and the
1930s, you might have visited the
hematology laboratory once a week for
a routine blood examination. Before the
introduction of personnel radiation
monitors, periodic blood examination
was the only monitoring performed on
x-ray and radium workers. This
● Thrombocytes
- Decrease in platelets occurs
slowly due to longer time for
precursor cell to reach maturity.
- Minimum level – 30 days &
recovery – 2 months
● Erythrocytes
- Less sensitive than other blood
cells
- very long lifetime in peripheral
blood.
- Total recovery may take 6
months to a year.
CYTOGENETIC EFFECTS Single-Hit Chromosome Aberrations
- Radiation-induced chromosome - A chromosome hit produces a visible
aberrations follows Nonthreshold rel. derangement of the chromosome
- High doses of radiation cause - represents severe damage to the DNA
chromosome aberrations. 1. Chromatid deletion
- Unable to see chromosomal aberrations 2. Isochromatids
under a dose as low aas 100 mGyt. (10 3. Chromatid fragments
rad)

Cytogenic is the study of the genetic of cells

particularly cell chromosomes

Single-hit Chromosome Aberrations

Normal Karyotype
- The human chromosome consists of
many long strings of DNA mixed with a Multi-Hit Chromosome Aberrations
protein and folded back on itself many
times
- For certain types of cytogenetic
analysis of chromosomes, photographs
are taken and enlarged so that each
chromosome can be cut out like a paper
doll and paired with its sister into a
chromosome map, which is called a
karyotype
THE HUMAN GENOME
- After approximately 10 years of
scientific investigation, in the year
2000, the human genome was mapped.
This was a worldwide project involving
many different laboratories. Humans
have about 35,000 genes distributed
along the DNA of the 46 chromosomes.
Many human health effects have now
been associated with aberrations
identified for specific genes and
researchers are finding ways to correct
these genetic defects or replace them. A
wonderful example is brca1 and brca2,
located on chromosomes 17 and 13,
respectively, that are associated with
breast cancer. It is now possible to
perform molecular genetic counseling
and advise patients of their risk for
breast cancer, other cancers, and other
health risks. It is hoped that we will soon
be able to identify radiation-induced
aberrations and alert patients and
radiation workers to possible future risk
 RADIOBIOLOGY RADIATION INCIDENTS
LESSON13-14: STOCHASTIC EFFECTS

STOCHASTIC EFFECT
- No threshold
- Probability of the effect increases with
increasing dose
- Latency
- The stochastic dose-response
relationship is linear.
● Nuclear Bomb Incident (Atomic
Bombing
○ Biological effect: Acute
Radiation Effect - Prodromal
Period

EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES
- Studies of large numbers of people
exposed to a toxic substance require
considerable statistical analyses.
- Epidemiologic studies of people
exposed to radiation are difficult
because; ● Chernobyl Incident
(1) the dose usually is not known ○ 30 people were affected
but is presumed to be low, and ○ 28 were dead
(2) the frequency of response is
very low.

● The Goiania Incident

○ Brazil
○ 270 people affected
○ 90 were affected largely in
comes of biological affects
 ➔ 1960’s- several hundred cases were
reported.
- Radiation induced cataracts occur in the
posterior pole of the lens.
- Radiosensitivity of the eyes is age
dependent.
- High LET radiation have high RBE for
the production of cataracts.
- 10 Gyt (1000 rad), cataracts develop in
nearly 100% of those who are irradiated.
- Threshold after an acute x-ray exposure
is approximately 2 Gyt (200 rad).
● Three Mile Island Incident - The threshold after fractionated
○ 8 mSv were release exposure is probably in excess of in
○ No biological response excess of 10 Gyt (1000 rad).
- Occupational exposures to the lens of
the eye are too low to require protective
LOCAL TISSUE EFFECTS lens shields for radiologic technologists.
- In computed tomography, the lens dose
can be 50 mGyt (5 rad).

LIFE-SPAN SHORTENING
● At worst, humans can expect a reduced
life span of approximately 10 days for
every 10 mGyt.
○ Whereas the average life
shortening caused by
occupational accidents
amounts to 74 days, for
CHROMOSOMES radiation workers, life is
- Irradiation of blood-forming organs can shortened by only 12 days.
produce hematologic depression as a ‘’Radiologic technology is a safe occupation’’.
deterministic response or leukemia as a
stochastic response.
- Chromosome damage in the circulating
lymphocytes can be produced as both a
deterministic and a stochastic response.
- Individuals accidentally exposed with
high radiation doses continue to show
chromosome abnormalities for 20 years
after the exposure.

CATARACTS
➔ 1932- Cyclotron used to accelerate
charged particle to very high energies
➔ By 1940 nearly every university physics
department had one and was engaged
in high energy experiments.
➔ 1949- first cataract reported
 LEUKEMIA
RADIATION INDUCED MALIGNANCY
Atomic bomb
● Nearly 100,000 died from the blast and
early effects.
● Another 100,000 received a high dose
but survived.
● The remainder received less than 10
rad.
Cancer
● Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission
(ABCC)
● received high doses.
Thyroid cancer
- Radiation-induced leukemia follows a
linear, nonthreshold dose-response
relationship.
- Radiation-induced leukemia is
considered to have a latent period of 4
to 7 years and an at-risk period of
approximately 20 years.
● Studies from early American radiologist;
○ They served as a radiologist and
radiation oncologist without the
benefit of modern radiation
protection.
○ Most radiologist received doses
100 rad/year.
○ There is no evidence of
radiation induced leukemia in
radiologic technologists
○ 1940’s – 1050’s in Great Britain,
patients with ankylosing
spondylitis were treated with
radiation to cure the disease.
○ 20 years until patient cured
started dying from leukemia.
● spinal bone marrow had
received 100-4000 rad.
● relative risk from the
study was 10:1
- radiation-induced leukemia also can be
reported for radiation-induced cancer.
- has been shown to develop in three
groups of patients whose thyroid glands
were irradiated in childhood.
1. Ann Arbor series and the
Rochester series
- They treated shortly
after birth for enlarged
thymus with up to 500
rad.
2. 21 children natives of Rongelap
Atoll in 1954.
- These children received
radiation doses about
12 Gyt (1200 rad)
Bone Cancer
- Two population groups have contributed
an enormous quantity of data showing
that radiation can cause bone cancer.
1. radium watch-dial painters.
- 72 bone cancers in about 800
workers have been observed in
50 years.
- Relative risk was 122:1
2. Patients treated with radium for arthritis
and tuberculosis.
Breast Cancer
- Additional studies have produced
results suggesting that
radiation-induced breast cancer
developed in patients treated with
x-rays for acute postpartum mastitis.
- The dose to patients ranged from 0.75
to 10 Gyt (75 to 1000 rad).
- The relative risk factor in this population
was approximately 3:1.)
Tuberculosis
- was for many years treated by isolation
in a sanitarium. During the patient’s
stay, one mode of therapy was to induce
a pneumothorax in the affected lung;
this was done under
non–image-intensified fluoroscopy.
Many patients received multiple
treatments and up to several hundred
fluoroscopic examinations
Lung Cancer
- Early in the 20th century, it was
observed that approximately 50% of
workers in the Bohemian pitchblende
mines of Germany died of lung cancer.
- American uranium miners active in the
Colorado plateau in the 1950s and
1960s
- Early 1960s, when approximately 5000
miners were active in nearly 500
underground mines and 150 open-pit
mines.
- 4000 uranium miners have been
observed and they have received
estimated doses to lung tissue as high
as 30 Gyt (3000 rad)
- The relative risk was approximately 8:1.
Liver Cancer
- Thorium dioxide (ThO2) in a colloidal
suspension known as Thorotrast.
- Radiation that was emitted produced a
dose in the ratio of approximately
100:10:1 of alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation, respectively.
Skin Cancer
- skin cancer usually begins with the
development of radiodermatitis.
- Significant data is available on patients
treated with orthovoltage (200-300
kVp), and superficial x-rays (50-150
kVp)
- Latent period is about 5-10 years.
- The relative risk for exposure range of
500 to 2000 rad, the relative risk was
4:1
- For exposure of 4000 rad to 6000 rad
the relative risk is 14:1
 RADIOBIOLOGY
LESSON15: STOCHASTIC EFFECTS
STOCHASTIC EFFECTS
Nuclear Reactor Incidents
1. Three Mile Island incident in 1979.
- Approximately 2,000,000 people
resided within an 80-km (50-mile)
radius.
- approximately 330,000 cancer deaths
in these persons. During the total period
of the radiation incident, the average
dose to persons living within a 160-km
(100-mile) radius was 15 μGyt (1.5
mrad); to those within the 80-km
(50-mile) radius, it was 80 μGyt (8
mrad).
- The Fukushima nuclear disaster of
March 2011 was the result of a
magnitude 9.0 earthquake and tsunami.
Unlike Three Mile Island and Chernobyl,
Fukushima involved six reactors. All of
the reactors suffered damage and
reactors 1, 2, and 3 contributed to high
radiation exposures and radioactive
fallout over a sizeable population. All
were boiling water reactors, but several
containment vessels were breached.
Average Annual Risk of Death
RADIATION AND PREGNANCY
➔ Effects on Fertility
- Those that are available
indicate that, even when
radiation is delivered at the rate
of 1 Sv per year, no noticeable
depression in fertility is noted
- Low-dose, chronic irradiation
does not impair fertility.
➔ Irradiation in Utero
- The embryo is a rapidly
developing cell system, it is
particularly sensitive to
radiation.
- 2 weeks of fertilization, the
most pronounced effect of a
high radiation dose is prenatal
death
- The first 2 weeks of pregnancy
may be of least concern
because the response is
all-or-nothing.
- Radiation exposure in utero
does retard the growth and
development of the newborn
- The relative risk of childhood
leukemia after irradiation in
utero is 1.5.
➔ Major Organogenesis
- 2nd through the 12th week
- skeletal and organ
abnormalities can be induced
- A dose of 100 mGyt (10 rad)
during organogenesis
Relative Risk of Childhood Leukemia After
Irradiation in Utero by Trimester
 Summary of Effects

- The effects of low-dose, long-term

irradiation in utero can include the
following: prenatal death, neonatal
death, congenital abnormalities,
malignancy, impaired growth, genetic
effects, and mental retardation.
- However, these abnormalities are based
on doses greater than 1 Gyt, with
minimum reported doses in animal
experiments at approximately 100
mGyt.
- No evidence at the human or animal
level indicates that the levels of
radiation exposure currently
experienced occupationally or
medically are responsible for any such
effects on fetal growth or development.
MAAM
AYA
CUTIE