Iriset: Long Term Evolution (Lte)

TA5
LONG TERM EVOLUTION (LTE)
इरिसेट IRISET
TA 5
LONG TERM EVOLUTION

(LTE)
MISSION : To deliver knowledge to make the workforce competent

and confident in their field of Working
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The Material Presented in this IRISET Notes is for guidance only. It does not over
rule or alter any of the Provisions contained in Manuals or Railway Board’s
directives
INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF

SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS
SECUNDERABAD - 500 017
Issued in September 2021
Revision History
Notes No. Version Revision details Issued on
TA5 A1 ----- September 2021
Shri. V Srinath,ITX1, Shri. J Vijay Kumar,ITX4,

Drafted By
Shri. Sanjoy Bhattacharjee,ICT2, Shri. K Subhash Chandra Babu,ITX5
Checked By Shri. R Dinesh,PT, Shri. S M Hafeez Ali,APT

Approved By Shri. Susheel Namdeo,SPT
DTP & Drawings by Shri. K Srinivas,JE(D)
No. of Pages 51
Date of Issue September 2021
Version No A1
Incase of any suggestions please write to PT at email address pt@iriset.indianrail.gov.in
© IRISET
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http://www.iriset.indianrailways.gov.in
Table of Contents
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... i
CHAPTER 1: EVOLUTION OF LTE ............................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.0.1 Evolution of LTE................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 3GPP.................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 3GPP Organizational Partners ............................................................................................ 2
1.2 CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION FROM 2G TO 5G ............................................. 2
1.3 THE 3GPP RELEASE SCHEDULE ..................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 The 3GPP Specification ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 LTE vs. 4G ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 LTE - A, LTE - Advanced, 4G+, and LTE+ .......................................................................... 4
1.3.4 Salient features of LTE ........................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Voice over LTE (VoLTE) ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 4G LTE for the IoT (Internet of Things)................................................................................ 4
1.4.2 LTE back-ward compatibility ................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 2: LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE........................................................................ 5
2.0 LTE Network Architecture .................................................................................................... 5
2.0.1 The User Equipment (UE) ................................................................................................... 6
2.0.2 The E-UTRAN (The access network) .................................................................................. 6
2.0.3 The eNodeB (Equivalent of BSS in GSM-R) ....................................................................... 7
2.0.4 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) ......................................................................................... 7
2.0.5 Functional split between the E-UTRAN and the EPC .......................................................... 9
2.1 LTE Roaming Architecture ................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Interfaces in LTE ................................................................................................................ 10
2.3 LTE Numbering & Addressing ........................................................................................... 12
2.3.1 The Network IDs ................................................................................................................ 12
2.3.2 The MME IDs ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.3 The Tracking Area IDs ....................................................................................................... 13
2.3.4 The Cell IDs ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.5 The Mobile Equipment ID .................................................................................................. 13
CHAPTER 3: TECHNOLOGIES USED IN LTE ......................................................................... 14
3.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 14
3.0.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) ....................................................... 14
3.0.2 Key features of OFDM ....................................................................................................... 15
3.0.3 Advantages & Disadvantages of OFDM ............................................................................ 15
3.0.4 Disadvantages of OFDM.................................................................................................... 16
3.1 LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics .................................................................... 17
3.2 LTE OFDM cyclic prefix, CP .............................................................................................. 17
3.2.1 OFDMA in LTE downlink.................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Downlink carriers and resource blocks .............................................................................. 18
3.2.3 SC-FDMA in LTE Uplink .................................................................................................... 18
3.3 LTE MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output ......................................................................... 19
3.3.1 Implementation Techniques used in LTE MIMO ............................................................... 20
3.4 LTE Uplink & Downlink ...................................................................................................... 21
3.4.1 LTE Duplex Schemes ........................................................................................................ 21
3.4.2 LTE TDD / LTE FDD comparison ...................................................................................... 22
3.4.3 Basic difference between FDD and TDD ........................................................................... 22
3.5 LTE Channels .................................................................................................................... 23
3.5.1 LTE physical channels ....................................................................................................... 23
3.5.2 LTE logical channels .......................................................................................................... 24
3.5.3 LTE transport channels ...................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 4: LTE FOR RAILWAYS .......................................................................................... 26
4.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 26
4.1 Communication Requirement of Railways ......................................................................... 26
4.1.1 Critical Communication Applications ................................................................................. 27
4.1.2 Performance Communication Applications ........................................................................ 30
4.1.3 Business Communication Applications .............................................................................. 32
4.1.4 Critical Support Applications .............................................................................................. 32
4.1.5 Business Support Applications .......................................................................................... 33
4.2 Applications of LTE in Railways ......................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Passenger Safety & Service .............................................................................................. 34
4.2.2 Video Security Surveillance ............................................................................................... 34
4.2.3 Internal improved Railway management ........................................................................... 34
4.2.4 Specific Applications of LTE in Indian Railways ................................................................ 35
4.2.5 Spectrum Allocation for IR ................................................................................................ 35
4.3 General Requirements of LTE Solution for Indian Railways ............................................. 35
References ................................................................................................................................. 37
Index ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Abbreviations
Terms Abbreviations
nd
2G 2 Generation
rd
3G 3 Generation
rd
3GPP 3 Generation Partnership Project
th
4G 4 Generation
th
5G 5 Generation
AAA Authentication, Authorization and Accounting
ARIB Association of Radio Industries and Businesses
ARQ Automatic Repeat Request
AS Access Stratum
ATC Automatic Train Control
ATO Automatic Train Operation
ATP Automatic Train Protection
ATIS Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions
BCCH Broadcast Control Channel
BCH Broadcast Channel
BSS Base Station Subsystem
CBTC Communication Based Train Control
CTCS Chinese Train Control System
CC Country Code
CCCH Common Control Channel
CCSA China Communications Standards Association
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CP Cyclic Prefix
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CSG Closed Subscriber Group
DCCH Dedicated Control Channel
DCI Downlink Control Information
DPWCS Distributed Power Wireless Control System
DSD Driver Safety Device
DTCH Dedicated Traffic Channel
ECGI E-UTRAN Cell Global Identifier
ECI The E-UTRAN Cell Identity
i
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
eNodeB Evolved NodeB
EoTT End of Train Telemetry
EPC Evolved Packet Core
EPS Evolved Packet System
ETCS European Train Control System
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
E-UTRAN Evolved Universal Terrestrial Access Network
FDD Frequency Division Duplexing
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing
FRMCS Future Railway Mobile Communication System
GBR Guaranteed Bit Rate
GERAN GSM EDGE Radio Access Network
GPRS General Radio Packet Switching
GSM Global System for Mobile communication
GTP General Packet Radio System (GPRS) Tunneling Protocol
GUMMEI Globally Unique MME Identifier
GUTI Globally Unique Temporary Identity
GW Gateway
HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
HD High Definition
HeNB Home eNodeB
HetNet Heterogeneous network
HLR Home Location Register
HPLMN Home PLMN
HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access
HSR High Speed Rail
HSS Home Subscriber Server
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
HSUPA High Speed Uplink Packet Access
HW Hardware
ID Identity
IDC In Device Co-existence
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ii
IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity
IMS IP Multi Media Subsystem
IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity
IoT Internet of Things
IP Internet Protocol
IR Indian Railways
IRATP Indian Railways Automatic Train Protection
ISI Inter Symbol Interference
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LPWAN Low Powered Wide area Access Network
MAC Medium Access Control
MCC Mobile Country Code
MCCH Multicast Control Channel
MCH Multicast Channel
MIB Master Information Block
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MME Mobility Management Entity
MMEC MME Code
MMEGI MME Group Identity
MNC Mobile Network Code
MS Mobile Station
MT Mobile Termination
MTCH Multicast Traffic Channel
MU Multi User
NAS Non-access stratum
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PBCH Physical Broadcast Channel
PCCH Paging Control Channel
PCEF Policy and Charging Enforcement Function
PCFICH Physical Control Format Indicator Channel
PCH Paging Channel
PCRF Policy Charging and Rule Function
PDCCH Physical Downlink Control Channel
iii
PDN Packet Data Network
PDSCH Physical Downlink Shared Channel
PGW PDN Gateway
PHICH Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel
PIS Passenger Information System
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network
PMCH Physical Multicast Channel
PMI Pre-coding Matrix Indicator
PRACH Physical Random-Access Channel
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PTT Push To Talk
PUCCH Physical Uplink Control Channel
PUSCH Physical Uplink Shared Channel
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QCI QoS Class Identifier
QoS Quality of Service
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
RACH Random Access Channel
RAN Radio Access Network
RBC Radio Block Centre
RF Radio Frequency
RDSO Research Design and Standards Organization
RLC Radio Link Control
SAE System Architecture Evolution
SC-FDMA Single Carrier – Frequency Division Multiple Access
SCH Shared Channel
SDO Standards Development Organization
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
S-GW Serving Gateway
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SIMO Single In Multiple Out
SIP Session Initiation Protocol
SISO Single In Single Out
iv
SMS Short Message Service
TAC Tracking Area Code
TAI Tracking Area Identity
TCAS Train Collision Avoidance System
TDD Time Division Duplexing
TIA Telecom Industries Association
TMSI Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
TPWS Train Protection Warning System
TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
TSDSI Telecom Standards Development Society
TSG Technical Specification Group (of 3GPP)
TTA Telecommunications Technology Association
TTC Telecommunication Technology Committee
UE User Equipment
UHF Ultra High Frequency
UICC Universal Integrated Circuit Card
UL-SCH Uplink Shared Channel
UM Unacknowledged Mode
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
UTRAN Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network
USIM Universal Subscriber Identity Module
UIC International Union of Railways
VoLTE Voice over LTE
V-PLMN Visited PLMN
WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WLTB Wireless Train Backbone
v
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CHAPTER 1: EVOLUTION OF LTE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution. It is a worldwide standard for 4G wireless transmission of
voice and data, the fourth generation of mobile network technology. It was indeed a “long-term
evolution" for mobile networks (based on 3G technologies) in 2008 when it started.
The evolution took many years
1G (First generation) 1980’s Let us talk to each other on mobile phones

2G 1990’s Let us send SMS and travel (roaming)
3G 2000’s Introduced some mobile internet experience
4G 2010’s Brought fast internet experience
5G 2020’s Brings super-fast internet and much more
Table 1.1 Mobile network generations: from 1G to 5G (Source: Thales 2021)
1.0.1 Evolution of LTE
Long Term Evolution (LTE) was started as a project in 2004 by a telecommunication body known
as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). SAE (System Architecture Evolution) is the
corresponding evolution of the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)/3G packet core network
evolution. The term LTE is typically used to represent both LTE and SAE.
LTE evolved from an earlier 3GPP system known as the Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System (UMTS), which in turn evolved from the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM). Even, related specifications were formally known as the evolved UMTS terrestrial radio
access (E-UTRA) and evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network (E-UTRAN). The first
version of LTE was documented in Release 8 of the 3GPP specifications.
The main goal of LTE is to provide a high data rate, low latency and packet-optimized radio
access technology supporting flexible bandwidth deployments. Same time its network architecture
has been designed to support packet-switched traffic with seamless mobility and great quality of
service.
1.1 3GPP
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is an international partnership project of
major SDOs (Standards Development Organizations) of the world, including Telecom
Standards Development Society, India (TSDSI) – the national SDO of India. LTE is a
technology defined by 3GPP. 3GPP develops and maintains global technical specifications to
make sure that network equipment and handset manufacturers can develop products that are
interoperable all over the world. The 7 telecommunications standard development organizations
(or 3GPP’s Organizational Partners) use these specifications to create the standards.
IRISET 1 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

Evolution of LTE
1.1.1 3GPP Organizational Partners
The 3GPP organizational partners or standard development organizations include:
1. ARIB - The Association of Radio Industries and Businesses, Japan

2. ATIS - The Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions, USA
3. CCSA - China Communications Standards Association
4. ETSI - The European Telecommunications Standards Institute
5. TSDSI - Telecommunications Standards Development Society, India
6. TTA - Telecommunications Technology Association, Korea
7. TTC - Telecommunication Technology Committee, Japan
1.2 CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION FROM 2G TO 5G
Figure 1 shows the evolution of technology from GSM/CDMA (2G) to 5G.
Figure 1: Evolution of cellular standards from 2G to 5G
While ETSI specified GSM/EDGE/WCDM and HSPA, TIA specified the CDMA evolution. There
was a multitude of standardization bodies, by Rel. 8 of 3GPP, all of them were converged to
one global standard called "LTE".
1.3 THE 3GPP RELEASE SCHEDULE
3GPP release 8 introduced LTE Technology. All following releases enhanced the technology to
the next level. 3GPP release 8 provides the following feature set for LTE and specifications for
this release was frozen in Dec 2008.

Evolution of LTE
Release
3GPP Rel. Important specifications defined
end date
Release 8 12-03-2009 Introduction of LTE, SAE, OFDMA, MIMO, Dual Cell HSDPA
WiMAX / LTE / UMTS interoperability, Dual Cell HSDPA with

Release 9 25-03-2010
MIMO, Dual Cell HSUPA, LTE HeNB
LTE-Advanced, Backwards compatibility with Release 8 (LTE),

Release 10 08-06-2011
Multi-Cell HSDPA
Heterogeneous networks (HetNet), Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP),
Release 11 06-03-2013 In device Coexistence (IDC), Advanced IP interconnection of
Services.
Enhanced Small Cells operation, Carrier Aggregation (2 uplink
Release 12 13-03-2015
carriers, 3 downlink carriers, FDD/TDD carrier aggregation), MIMO
LTE-U / LTE-LAA, LTE-M, Elevation beam forming /Full Dimension
Release 13 11-03-2016
MIMO
Release 14 06-09-2017 Elements on road to 5G
Release 15 07-06-2019 5G Phase 1 specification
Release 16 03-07-2020 5G Phase 2 specification
Table 1.2 Details of 3GPP releases from Rel.8 to Rel.16 (Source: 3gpp.org)
1.3.1 The 3GPP Specification
The 3GPP specification covers the "GSM" family of cellular telecommunications technologies,
including
 Radio access
 Core network and
 Service capabilities
The 3GPP specification provides a complete system description for mobile telecommunications
and also provides connectivity for non-radio access to the core network and interworking with
non-3GPP networks. The three Technical Specification Groups (TSG) in 3GPP are
1. Radio Access Networks (RAN)
2. Core Network & Terminals (CT)
3. Services & Systems Aspects (SA)
1.3.2 LTE vs. 4G
LTE is the technology behind 4G (the fourth generation of mobile communications - architecture).
Nowadays, all 4G phones utilize LTE technology. It brings high speed to mobile and broadband
data.

Evolution of LTE
1.3.3 LTE - A, LTE - Advanced, 4G+, and LTE+
LTE-A, LTE-Advanced, 4G+, and LTE+ are all acronyms for the same 4G service. It is a faster
version of LTE. In theory, LTE-A data rates are up to 300Mbps. In practice, you can expect
between 40 to 90Mbps. LTE-A is three times faster than LTE.
1.3.4 Salient features of LTE

th
 LTE often called 4 generation LTE or 4G LTE has an all IP flat networking structure. LTE
is used for mobile, fixed and portable broadband access.
 LTE is designed for lower latency (the time it takes for data to travel in the network) and
increased bandwidth - very interesting for the Internet of Things.
 The higher bandwidth enables faster access to content and applications, particularly video
applications that can only be offered today on fixed systems.
 The low latency enables time-sensitive applications like voice services.
 The all - IP architecture enables new converging services based on the IP Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS).
1.4 Voice over LTE (VoLTE)

VoLTE means voice-over LTE. It's an improved version of 4G LTE for voice and video calls. In
essence, you get HD voice and video calls, and it is a great experience overall with better
coverage and battery life increase.
1.4.1 4G LTE for the IoT (Internet of Things)
There are three broad categories within 4G – which is the mainstream to connect industry-
grade IoT devices today.
 The LPWAN, low powered wide area network, has two variants, which are category
M (Machine to Machine) (Cat-M or LTE-M) and category NB-IoT (Cat NB-IoT).
 The mid-range bandwidth is category LTE-1 (LTE Cat 1).
 The high bandwidth applications typically use networks called LTE Advanced (LTE-
A) or LTE Advanced Pro.
1.4.2 LTE back-ward compatibility
To provide the maximum amount of flexibility, LTE is compatible with existing mobile networks.
This encompasses formerly deployed network technology, including GSM, CDMA, W-CDMA
(UMTS), and CDMA2000.

LTE Network Architecture
CHAPTER 2: LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
2.0 LTE Network Architecture

A standard LTE system architecture consists of an Evolved Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System Terrestrial Radio Access Network, more commonly known as E-UTRAN, and the
System Architecture Evolution, also known as SAE. SAE’s main component is the Evolved
Packet Core, also known as an EPC.
The E-UTRAN is comprised of
1. User Equipment (UEs)

2. Evolved Node B base stations (eNodeBs)
3. The Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA)
The EPC is comprised of
1. The Mobility Management Entity (MME)

2. The Serving Gateway (SGW)
3. The Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW)
4. The Home Subscriber Server (HSS)
5. Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)
Fig. 2.1 LTE Network Architecture

2.0.1 The User Equipment (UE)
EU Servers
E-UTRAN EPC PDNs
S1 SGi
Uu
Signals
Traffic
Fig. 2.2 Schematic Diagram of UE connectivity in LTE
The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is identical to the one used by UMTS
and GSM which is a Mobile Equipment (ME). The User equipment is comprised of the following
important modules:
 Mobile Termination (MT): This handles all the communication functions.
 Terminal Equipment (TE): This terminates the data streams.
 Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC): This is also known as the SIM card for LTE
equipment. It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
A USIM stores user-specific data that are very similar to a 3G SIM card. This keeps the
information about the user's phone number, home network identity, and security keys, etc.
2.0.2 The E-UTRAN (The access network)

The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has been
illustrated below.
MME / S-GW MME / S-GW

S1
S1
S1
S1
X2 E-UTRAN
eNB eNB
X2
X2
eNB
Fig. 2.3 evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)

2.0.3 The eNodeB (Equivalent of BSS in GSM-R)
The Evolved Node B (eNodeB) is the base station for LTE radio. eNodeB is the RAN (Radio
Access Network) node in the network architecture that is responsible for radio transmission to
and reception from UEs (User Equipment) in one or more cells.
Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The base station that
is communicating with mobile is known as its serving eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and there are the
following two main functions supported by eNB:
1. The eNB sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analogue and
digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
2. The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them signalling
messages such as handover commands.
Each eNB connects with the EPC using the S1 interface and it can also be connected to nearby
base stations (eNB) by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signalling and packet
forwarding during handover.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been attached to a user to provide cell coverage
within the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG) and can only be
accessed by mobiles with a USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber group.
2.0.4 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
The EPC is a core network of LTE, the architecture of EPC is shown below.
UTRAN
SGSN
GERAN HSS
S3
S6a
S1-MME
MME PCRF
S11 S12
Gx Rx
S10 S4
LTE-Uu
S5 SGi
Operator’s IP
Serving PDN Services
UE E-UTRAN
Gateway Gateway (e.g. IMS, PSS etc.)
S1-U
Fig. 2.4 Evolved Packet Core

Below is a brief description of each of the components shown in the above EPC architecture
1. Serving Gateway (S-GW)
 The gateways (Serving GW and Packet Data Network GW) deal with the user plane.
They transport the IP data traffic between the User Equipment (UE) and the external
networks.
 The Serving GW is the point of interconnect between the radio-side and the EPC. As its
name indicates, this gateway serves the UE by routing the incoming and outgoing IP
packets.
 It is the anchor point for intra-LTE mobility (i.e. in case of handover between eNodeBs)
and between LTE and other 3GPP accesses. It is logically connected to the other
gateway, the PDN GW.
2. Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN-GW)
 The PDN GW is the point of interconnect between the EPC and the external IP networks.
The PDN GW routes packets to and from the PDNs.
 The PDN GW also performs various functions such as IP address / IP prefix allocation or
policy control and charging.
 3GPP specifies these gateways independently but in practice, they may be combined in
a single "box" by network vendors.
3. Mobility Management Entity (MME)
 The MME deals with the control plane. It handles the signaling related to mobility and
security for E-UTRAN access.
 The MME is responsible for the tracking and the paging of UE in idle mode. It is the
termination point of the Non-Access Stratum (NAS).
4. Home Subscriber Server (HSS)
 The HSS (for Home Subscriber Server) is a database that contains user-related and
subscriber-related information.
 It also provides support functions in mobility management, call and session setup, user
authentication, and access authorization
5. Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)
 The Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF), is a combination of the Charging Rules
Function (CRF) and the Policy Decision Function (PDF),
 It ensures the service policy and sends Quality of Service (QoS) information for each
session begun and accounting rule information. These policies are enforced in the eNodeB.

6. Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (PCEF)

 The Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (PCEF) performs policy enforcement and
service data flow detection, allowing data flow through the implemented P-GW.
 It is also responsible for the QoS on IP packets in the P-GW. The PCEF enforces rules
that allow data packets to pass through the gateway.
7. IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem (IMS)

 IMS is an all-IP system designed to assist mobile operators to deliver next-generation
interactive and interoperable services, cost-effectively, over an architecture providing the
flexibility of the Internet.
 These services include voice, pictures, text, and video, or any combination of these with
existing services. IMS has become the core component within 3G, cable TV and next-
generation fixed telecoms networks which deliver Internet Protocol multimedia to mobile
users.
The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8. This has two slightly
different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in the same network, and S8 if they
are in different networks.
2.0.5 Functional split between the E-UTRAN and the EPC
Following diagram shows the functional split between the E-UTRAN and the EPC for an LTE
network:
EPC
E-UTRAN
MME
eNodeB NAS Security
Idle State Mobility Handling

Inter Cell RRM
EPS Bearer Control
RB Control
Connection Mobility Control

S-GW
Radio Admission Control
Mobility Anchoring
eNB Measurement
Configuration & Provision
Dynamic Resource
P-GW
Allocation (Scheduler)
UE IP Address Allocation
Packet Filtering
Internet
Fig. 2.5 Functional split between E-UTRAN and EPC

2.1 LTE Roaming Architecture

A network run by one operator in one country is known as a Public Land Mobile Network
(PLMN) and when a subscribed user uses his operator's PLMN then it is said Home-PLMN but
roaming allows users to move outside their home network and using the resources from other
operator's network. This other network is called Visited-PLMN.
A roaming user is connected to the E-UTRAN, MME, and S-GW of the visited LTE network.
However, LTE/SAE allows the P-GW of either the visited or the home network to be used, as
shown below:
S1-MME
Signals
S6a
MME Traffic
HSS
Home PLMN
E-UTRAN S11
S-GW P-GW SGi Servers

S1-u PDN
S8
S5 Home routed traffic
SGi Servers
Visited PLMN P-GW PDN
Local breakout
Fig. 2.6 Roaming function in LTE Architecture
The home network's P-GW allows the user to access the home operator's services even while
in a visited network. A P-GW in the visited network allows a "local breakout" to the Internet in
the visited network.
The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8. This has two slightly
different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in the same network, and S8 if they
are in different networks. For mobiles that are not roaming, the serving and PDN gateways can
be integrated into a single device, so that the S5/S8 interface vanishes altogether.
2.2 Interfaces in LTE

 Within an LTE network, LTE Interfaces connect the various components to or within the
core.
 Interfaces allow the MME, SGW and PGW to cooperate with other network elements (e.g.
HSS or PCRF).
 Each one of them is built in a standard way described by 3GPP.org

 These LTE interfaces are used within either between eNodeBs and the core, or within the
Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
Following are the popular interfaces in LTE architecture
S1-MME: Reference point for the control plane protocol between E-UTRAN and MME.
S1-U: A reference point between E-UTRAN and Serving GW for the per bearer user plane
tunneling and inter eNodeB path switching during handover.
S3: It enables user and bearer information exchange for inter 3GPP access network
mobility in idle and/or active state.
S4: It provides related control and mobility support between GPRS Core and the 3GPP
Anchor function of Serving GW. In addition, if Direct Tunnel is not established, it provides
the user plane tunneling.
S5: It provides user plane tunneling and tunnel management between Serving GW and
PDN GW. It is used for Serving GW relocation due to UE mobility and if the Serving GW
needs to connect to a non-collocated PDN GW for the required PDN connectivity.
S6: It enables the transfer of subscription and authentication data for authenticating /
authorizing user access to the evolved system (AAA interface) between MME and HSS.
Gx: It provides transfer of (QoS) policy and charging rules from PCRF to Policy and
Charging Enforcement Function (PCEF) in the PDN GW.
S8: Inter-PLMN reference point providing user and control plane between the Serving GW
in the VPLMN and the PDN GW in the HPLMN. S8 is the inter PLMN variant of S5.
S9: It provides transfer of (QoS) policy and charging control information between the Home
PCRF and the Visited PCRF to support the local breakout function.
S10: Reference point between MMEs for MME relocation and MME to MME information
transfer.
S11: A reference point between MME and Serving GW.
S13: It enables the UE identity check procedure between MME and EIR.
SGi: It is the reference point between the PDN GW and the packet data network. The
packet data network may be an operator external public or private packet data network or
an intra-operator packet data network, e.g., for provision of IMS services. This reference
point corresponds to Gi for 3GPP accesses.
Rx: The Rx reference point resides between the Application Function (i.e., IMS, PSS etc.)
and the PCRF.

2.3 LTE Numbering & Addressing

An LTE network area is divided into three different types of geographical areas explained below
S.No. Area and Description
1 The MME pool areas

This is an area through which the mobile can move without a change of serving
MME. Every MME pool area is controlled by one or more MMEs on the network.
2 The S-GW service areas

This is an area served by one or more serving gateways S-GW, through which the
mobile can move without a change of serving gateway.
3 The Tracking areas

The MME pool areas and the S-GW service areas are both made from smaller, non-
overlapping units known as tracking areas (TAs). They are similar to the location and
routing areas from UMTS and GSM and will be used to track the locations of mobiles
that are on standby mode.
Thus, an LTE network will comprise of many MME pool areas, many S-GW service areas, and
lots of tracking areas.
2.3.1 The Network IDs
The network itself will be identified using Public Land Mobile Network Identity (PLMN-ID) which
will have a three-digit mobile country code (MCC) and a two or three-digit mobile network code
(MNC). For example, the Mobile Country Code for the UK is 234, while Vodafone's UK network
uses a Mobile Network Code of 15.
MCC MNC
PLMN - ID
2.3.2 The MME IDs
Each MME has three main identities. An MME code (MMEC) uniquely identifies the MME within
all the pool areas. A group of MMEs is assigned MME Group Identity (MMEGI) which works
along with MMEC to make an MME identifier (MMEI). An MMEI uniquely identifies the MME
within a particular network.
MMEC MMEGI
MMEI
If we combine PLMN-ID with the MMEI then we arrive at a Globally Unique MME Identifier
(GUMMEI), which identifies an MME anywhere in the world:
PLMN-ID MMEI
GUMMEI

2.3.3 The Tracking Area IDs
Each tracking area has two main identities. The tracking area code (TAC) identifies a tracking
area within a particular network and if we combining this with the PLMN-ID then we arrive at a
Globally Unique Tracking Area Identity (TAI).
PLMN-ID TAC
TAI
2.3.4 The Cell IDs
Each cell in the network has three types of identity. The E-UTRAN Cell Identity (ECI)
identifies a cell within a particular network, while the E-UTRAN Cell Global Identifier
(ECGI) identifies a cell anywhere in the world.
The physical cell identity, which is a number from 0 to 503 and, it distinguishes a cell
from its immediate neighbors.
2.3.5 The Mobile Equipment ID
The international mobile equipment identity (IMEI) is a unique identity for the mobile equipment
and the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is a unique identity for the UICC and the
USIM.
The M temporary mobile subscriber identity (M-TMSI) identifies a mobile to its serving MME.
Adding the MME code in M-TMSI results in an S temporary mobile subscriber identity (S-TMSI),
which identifies the mobile within an MME pool area.
MMEC M-TMSI
S-TMSI
Finally, adding the MME group identity and the PLMN identity with S-TMSI results in the
Globally Unique Temporary Identity (GUTI).
PLMN-ID MMEGI S-TMSI

GUTI

Technologies used in LTE
CHAPTER 3: TECHNOLOGIES USED IN LTE
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) forms the basic signal format used within
4G LTE. OFDM is modified to provide the multiple access schemes i.e., OFDMA, orthogonal
frequency division multiple access in the downlink, and SC-FDMA, single-channel orthogonal
frequency division multiple access in the uplink.
Using multiple carriers, each carrying a low data rate, OFDM is ideal for high-speed data
transmission because it provides resilience against narrow band fading that occurs as a result
of reflections and the general propagation properties at these frequencies. Within the basic
LTE OFDM signal format, a variety of modulation formats are used including PSK and QAM.
Higher -order modulation is used to achieve the higher data rates: the modulation order being
determined by the signal quality.
OFDM is a form of signal waveform or modulation that provides some significant advantages for
data links. Accordingly, OFDM is used for many of the latest wide bandwidth and high data rate
wireless systems including Wi-Fi, cellular telecommunications, and many more.
The fact that OFDM uses a large number of carriers, each carrying low bit rate data, means that
it is very resilient to selective fading, interference, and multipath effects, as well as providing a
high degree of spectral efficiency. Early systems using OFDM found the processing required for
the signal format was relatively high, but with advances in technology, OFDM presents few
problems in terms of the processing required.
3.0.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of several closely spaced
modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a carrier, then
sidebands spread out either side. A receiver must be able to receive the whole signal to be able
to successfully demodulate the data. As a result, when signals are transmitted close to one
another they must be spaced so that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there
must be a guard band between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands
from each carrier overlap, they can still be received without the interference that might be
expected because they are orthogonal to each other. This is achieved by having the carrier
spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.
To see how OFDM works, it is necessary to look at the receiver. This acts as a bank of
demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The resulting signal is integrated over the
symbol period to regenerate the data from that carrier. The same demodulator also
demodulates the other carriers. As the carrier spacing is equal to the reciprocal of the symbol
period means that they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their
contribution will sum to zero - in other words, there is no interference contribution.

Carrier 1 Carrier n
Sidebands from
other carriers cancel
on carrier n
frequency
Fig. 3.1 Concept of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that they must be linear.
Any non-linearity will cause interference between the carriers as a result of inter-modulation
distortion. This will introduce unwanted signals that would cause interference and impair the
orthogonality of the transmission.
In terms of the equipment to be used, the high peak to average ratio of multi-carrier systems
such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on the output of the transmitter to be able to
handle the peaks whilst the average power is much lower and this leads to inefficiency. In some
systems the peaks are limited. Although this introduces distortion that results in a higher level of
data errors, the system can rely on the error correction to remove them.
3.0.2 Key features of OFDM
The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following interrelated ways
 Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream
 The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.
 A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread and inter-
symbol interference.
3.0.3 Advantages & Disadvantages of OFDM
Advantages of OFDM
OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of the many
advantages it provides.
 Immunity to selective fading: One of the main advantages of OFDM is that is more
resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems because it divides the
overall channel into multiple narrowband signals that are affected individually as flat fading
sub-channels.

 Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel may be bandwidth limited

and, in this way, will not affect all the sub-channels. This means that not all the data is lost.
 Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers, a significant OFDM

advantage is that it makes efficient use of the available spectrum.
 Resilient to ISI: Another advantage of OFDM is that it is very resilient to inter-symbol and
inter-frame interference. This results from the low data rate on each of the sub-channels.
 Resilient to narrow - band effects: Using adequate channel coding and interleaving it is
possible to recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel and narrow
band interference. Not all the data is lost.
 Simpler channel equalization: One of the issues with CDMA systems was the complexity
of the channel equalization which had to be applied across the whole channel. An advantage
of OFDM is that using multiple sub-channels, the channel equalization becomes much
simpler.
3.0.4 Disadvantages of OFDM
Though OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to its use that need to
be addressed when considering its use.
 High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise-like amplitude variation
and has a relatively high large dynamic range, or peak to average power ratio. This impacts
the RF amplifier efficiency as the amplifiers need to be linear and accommodate the large
amplitude variations and these factors mean the amplifier cannot operate with a high -
efficiency level.
 Sensitive to carrier offset and drift: Another disadvantage of OFDM is that is sensitive to
carrier frequency offset and drift. Single carrier systems are less sensitive.
OFDM has gained a significant presence in the wireless marketplace. The combination of high
data capacity, high spectral efficiency, and its resilience to interference as a result of multi-path
effects means that it is ideal for the high data applications that have become a major factor in
today's communications.
The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e., from
the base station to mobile) and the uplink (i.e., mobile to the base station) as a result of the
different requirements between the two directions and the equipment at either end. However,
OFDM was chosen as the signal bearer format because it is very resilient to interference. Also,
in recent years a considerable level of experience has been gained in its use from the various
forms of broadcasting that use it along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation
format that is very suitable for carrying high data rates - one of the key requirements for LTE.
In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an
additional advantage.

3.1 LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics

One of the key parameters associated with the use of OFDM within LTE is the choice of
bandwidth. The available bandwidth influences a variety of decisions including the number of
carriers that can be accommodated in the OFDM signal and these influences elements
including the symbol length and so forth.
LTE defines several channel bandwidths. Obviously, the greater the bandwidth, greater the
channel capacity.
The channel bandwidths that have been chosen for LTE are
1. 1.4 MHz
2. 3 MHz
3. 5 MHz
4. 10 MHz
5. 15 MHz
6. 20 MHz
In addition to this, the subcarriers spacing is 15 kHz, i.e., the LTE subcarriers are spaced 15
kHz apart from each other. To maintain orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1/15 kHz =
66.7 µs.
3.2 LTE OFDM cyclic prefix, CP

One of the primary reasons for using OFDM as a modulation format within LTE (and many other
wireless systems for that matter) is its resilience to multipath delays and spread. However, it is
still necessary to implement methods of adding resilience to the system. This helps overcome
the inter-symbol interference (ISI) that results from this.
In areas where inter-symbol interference is expected, it can be avoided by inserting a guard

period into the timing at the beginning of each data symbol. It is then possible to copy a section
from the end of the symbol to the beginning. This is known as the cyclic prefix, CP. The receiver
can then sample the waveform at the optimum time and avoid any inter-symbol interference
caused by reflections that are delayed by times up to the length of the cyclic prefix, CP.
The length of the cyclic prefix, CP is important. If it is not long enough then it will not counteract
the multipath reflection delay spread. If it is too long, then it will reduce the data throughput
capacity. For LTE, the standard length of the cyclic prefix has been chosen to be 4.69 µs. This
enables the system to accommodate path variations of up to 1.4 km. With the symbol length in
LTE set to 66.7 µs.
The symbol length is defined by the fact that for OFDM systems, the symbol length is equal to
the reciprocal of the carrier spacing so that orthogonality is achieved. With a carrier spacing of
15 kHz, this gives the symbol length of 66.7 µs.

3.2.1 OFDMA in LTE downlink

The OFDM signal used in LTE comprises a maximum of 2048 different sub-carriers having a
spacing of 15 kHz. Although the mobiles must-have capability to be able to receive all 2048
sub-carriers, not all need to be transmitted by the base station which only needs to be able to
support the transmission of 72 sub-carriers. In this way, all mobiles will be able to talk to any
base station.
Within the OFDM signal it is possible to choose between three types of modulation for the LTE
signal:
1. QPSK (= 4QAM) 2 bits per symbol
2. 16QAM 4 bits per symbol
3. 64QAM 6 bits per symbol
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): QAM is widely used for data transmission as it
enables better levels of spectral efficiency than other forms of modulation. QAM uses two
carriers on the same frequency shifted by 90° which are modulated by two data streams - I or
in- phase and Q - Quadrature elements.
3.2.2 Downlink carriers and resource blocks

In the downlink, the subcarriers are split into resource blocks. This enables the system to be
able to compartmentalize the data across standard numbers of subcarriers.
Resource blocks comprise of 12 subcarriers, regardless of the overall LTE signal bandwidth.
They also cover one slot in the time frame. This means that different LTE signal bandwidths will
have different numbers of resource blocks.
LTE DOWNLINK CARRIERS AND RESOURCE BLOCKS
Channel bandwidth (MHz) 1.4 3 5 10 15 20

Number of resource blocks 6 15 25 50 75 100
3.2.3 SC-FDMA in LTE Uplink

For the LTE uplink, a different concept is used for the access technique. Although still using a
form of OFDMA technology, the implementation is called Single Carrier Frequency Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA).
One of the key parameters that affect all mobiles is that of battery life. Even though battery
performance is improving all the time, it is still necessary to ensure that the mobiles use as little
battery power as possible.
With the RF power amplifier that transmits the radio frequency signal via the antenna to the
base station is the highest power-consuming item within the mobile, it must operate in as
efficient a mode as possible. This can be significantly affected by the form of radio frequency
modulation and signal format.

Signals that have a high peak to average ratio and require linear amplification do not lend
themselves to the use of efficient RF power amplifiers. As a result, it is necessary to employ a
mode of transmission that has as near a constant power level when operating. Unfortunately,
OFDM has a high peak to average ratio.
While this is not a problem for the base station where power is not a particular problem, it is
unacceptable for the mobile. As a result, LTE uses a modulation scheme known as SC-FDMA -
Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiplex which is a hybrid format. This combines the low
peak to average ratio offered by single-carrier systems with the multipath interference resilience
and flexible subcarrier frequency allocation that OFDM provides.
The LTE signal format, modulation, and use of OFDM have enabled LTE to provide reliable
high -speed data communications.
The use of OFDM has enabled LTE to provide reliable link quality even in the presence of
reflections and the adaptive modulation provided the ability to modify the link according to the
prevailing signal Quality.
3.3 LTE MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output

MIMO, Multiple Input Multiple Output is a technology that was introduced into many wireless
communications systems including 4G LTE to improve the signal performance.
Using multiple antennas, LTE MIMO can utilize the multiple path propagation that exists to
provide improvements in signal performance.
LTE MIMO adds complexity to the system, but can provide some significant improvements in
performance and spectral efficiency, and these more than justify its inclusion in the LTE
standard.
MIMO is an antenna technology as it utilizes several antennas to provide performance

improvements.
The basic concept of MIMO utilizes the multipath signal propagation that is present in all
terrestrial communications. Rather than providing interference, these paths can be used to
advantage.
The transmitter and receiver have more than one antenna and using the processing power
available at either end of the link, they can utilize the different paths that exist between the two
entities to provide improvements in data rate of signal to noise.
The use of MIMO technology has been introduced successively over the different releases of
the LTE standards.
MIMO has been a cornerstone of the LTE standard, but initially, in releases 8 and 9 multiple
transmit antennas on the UE were not supported because, in the interest of power reduction,
only a single RF power amplifier was assumed to be available.
It was in Rel. 10 of 3GPP that several new schemes were introduced such as closed loop
spatial multiplexing for SU-MIMO as well as multiple antennas on the UE.

3.3.1 Implementation Techniques used in LTE MIMO
There are several ways in which MIMO is implemented in LTE. These vary according to the
equipment used, the channel function, and the equipment involved in the link.
 Single Antenna: This is the form of wireless transmission used on most basic wireless
links. A single data stream is transmitted on one antenna and received by one or more
antennas. It may also be referred to as SISO: Single In Single Out or SIMO Single In
Multiple Out dependent upon the antennas used. SIMO is also called receive diversity
 Transmit diversity: This form of LTE MIMO scheme utilizes the transmission of the same
information stream from multiple antennas. LTE supports two or four for this technique. The
information is coded differently using Space Frequency Block Codes. This mode provides an
improvement in signal quality at reception and does not improve the data rate. Accordingly,
this form of LTE MIMO is used on the Common Channels as well as the Control and
Broadcast channels
 Open loop spatial multiplexing: This form of MIMO used within the LTE system involves
sending two information streams that can be transmitted over two or more antennas. However,
there is no feedback from the UE although a TRI, Transmit Rank Indicator transmitted from the
UE can be used by the base station to determine the number of spatial layers
 Close loop spatial multiplexing: This form of LTE MIMO is similar to the open-loop
version, but as the name indicates it has feedback incorporated to close the loop. A PMI,
Pre-coding Matrix Indicator is fed back from the UE to the base station. This enables the
transmitter to pre-code the data to optimize the transmission and enable the receiver to
more easily separate the different data streams
 Closed-loop with pre-coding: This is another form of LTE MIMO, but where a single code
word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. This can be sued as a fall-back mode for
closed loop spatial multiplexing and it may also be associated with beam forming as well
 Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO: This form of LTE MIMO enables the system to target
different spatial streams to different users
 Beam-forming & MIMO: This is the most complex of the MIMO modes and it is likely to use
linear arrays that will enable the antenna to focus on a particular area. This will reduce
interference, and increase capacity as the particular UE will have a beam formed in their
particular direction. In this, a single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. A
dedicated reference signal is used for an additional port. The terminal estimates the channel
quality from the common reference signals on the antennas.
As the LTE standards progressed, so the number of antennas being supported increased. For
many mobiles, the use of MIMO just resulted in improvements in signal performance.

3.4 LTE Uplink & Downlink

Normally any cellular communications system must be able to transmit in both directions
simultaneously. This enables conversations to be made, with either end being able to talk and
listen as required. Additionally, when exchanging data, it is necessary to be able to undertake
virtually simultaneous or completely simultaneous communications in both directions.
It is necessary to be able to specify the different directions of transmission so that it is possible

to easily identify in which direction the transmission is being made. There are a variety of
differences between the two links ranging from the amount of data carried to the transmission
format, and the channels implemented. The two links are defined
 Uplink: the transmission from the UE or user equipment to the eNodeB or base station.
 Downlink: the transmission from the eNodeB or base station to the UE or user equipment.
Fig. 3.2 Uplink and Downlink directions
To transmit in both directions, user equipment or base station must have a duplex scheme.
There are two forms of the duplex that are commonly used, namely FDD, frequency division
duplex, and TDD time division duplex.
Both FDD and TDD have their advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly, they may be used
for different applications, or where the bias of the communications is different.
3.4.1 LTE Duplex Schemes
LTE can utilize both FDD - frequency division duplex and TDD - time division duplex, often
referred to as TD-LTE.
Both forms of duplex, FDD and TDD have their advantages and the areas where their
deployment is advantageous.

3.4.2 LTE TDD / LTE FDD comparison
There are a number of the advantages and disadvantages of TDD and FDD LTE that are of
particular interest to mobile or cellular telecommunications operators. These are naturally
reflected in LTE.
FDD deployments provide greater coverage than TDD Mobile devices in a Frequency Division
Duplexing (FDD) system transmit continuously, which enables devices to achieve cell-edge
rates farther from the base station. Mobile devices in a Time Division Duplexing (TDD) system
transmit periodically (e.g., 1/2 or 1/3 of the time compared to FDD); hence, required rates
cannot be achieved at similar distances when compared to FDD. The FDD advantage is
consistent regardless of the radio technology being used. FDD needs fewer base stations than
TDD. Since FDD devices achieve desired cell edge rates at farther distances, the number of
base stations required to achieve a given area of coverage is reduced. In a coverage-limited
system comparison using the same frequency band, the TDD system required 31% more base
stations than FDD when using a 1:1 TDD system and 65% more base stations when using a 2:1
TDD system. Higher frequency bands required even more base stations. FDD incurs lower
costs Capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operating expenditure (OPEX) costs are associated
with each base station. These costs are independent of the type of duplexing technique used
(FDD or TDD). Since FDD requires fewer base stations for the same coverage, it incurs lower
deployment and operating costs. TDD applies to unpaired spectrum while FDD has clear
advantages in coverage and costs; TDD is suitable to be deployed when paired spectrum is not
available. FDD systems also benefit from better economies of scale since the implementation of
TDD systems is limited.
3.4.3 Basic difference between FDD and TDD
FDD is implemented on a paired spectrum where downlink and uplink transmissions are sent on
separate frequencies. This provides a simultaneous exchange of information and reduces
interference between the uplink and downlink. TDD is implemented on an unpaired spectrum,
implying the usage of only one frequency for both downlink and uplink transmissions. It is
suitable for asymmetric transmission demands and in cases where the paired frequency is not
available.
For most normal LTE deployments, the frequency division duplex, FDD is used with paired
spectrum with equal bandwidth in up and downlinks is utilized.
LTE FDD using the paired spectrum was considered to be the migration path for the UMTS 3G
services which typically utilized paired spectrum.
Of the two versions of LTE, the frequency division duplex, FDD version is more widely used
than the time division, TDD version also known as TD-LTE.

3.5 LTE Channels

To provide effective, efficient data transport over the LTE radio interface, data channels are
used: physical, logical & transport.
There are several forms of data that need to be sent over the LTE radio interface. LTE uses a
series of data channels to provide effective management of the data: physical, logical and
transport channels are used.
These LTE channels provide different interfaces into the higher layers of the protocol stack and
in this way, they can provide efficient management of the data.
The physical, logical and transport channels all link to different areas of the stack. By organizing
them in this way, the LTE system is able to route the data to the required area.
There are three categories into which the various data channels may be grouped.
 Physical channels: These are transmission channels that carry user data and control
messages.
 Logical channels: Provide services for the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer within the
LTE protocol structure.
 Transport channels: The physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to
Medium Access Control (MAC) and higher layers.
3.5.1 LTE physical channels
The LTE physical channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates differently.
Channels used in Downlink
Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): This physical channel carries system information for
UEs requiring accessing the network. It only carries what is termed Master Information Block,
MIB, messages. The modulation scheme is always QPSK and the information bits are coded
and rate matched - the bits are then scrambled using a scrambling sequence specific to the cell
to prevent confusion with data from other cells.
The MIB message on the PBCH is mapped onto the central 72 subcarriers or six central
resource blocks regardless of the overall system bandwidth. A PBCH message is repeated
every 40 ms, i.e., one TTI of PBCH includes four radio frames.
The PBCH transmissions have 14 information bits, 10 spare bits, and 16 CRC bits.
Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH): As the name implies the PCFICH
informs the UE about the format of the signal being received. It indicates the number of OFDM
symbols used for the PDCCHs, whether 1, 2, or 3. The information within the PCFICH is
essential because the UE does not have prior information about the size of the control region.

Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH): The main purpose of this physical channel is
to carry mainly scheduling information of different types
Downlink resource scheduling

Uplink power control instructions
Uplink resource grant
Indication for paging or system information
The PDCCH contains a message known as the Downlink Control Information, DCI which carries
the control information for a particular UE or group of UEs.
Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH): As the name implies, this channel is used
to report the Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) status. It carries the HARQ ACK/NACK
signal indicating whether a transport block has been correctly received. The HARQ indicator is
1 bit long - "0" indicates ACK, and "1" indicates NACK
The PHICH is transmitted within the control region of the sub-frame and is typically only
transmitted within the first symbol. If the radio link is poor, then the PHICH is extended to a
number symbols for robustness.
Channels used in Uplink
Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH): The Physical Uplink Control Channel, PUCCH
provides the various control signaling requirements. There are several different PUCCH formats
defined to enable the channel to carry the required information in the most efficient format for
the particular scenario encountered. It includes the ability to carry SRs, Scheduling Requests.
Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH): This physical channel found on the LTE uplink is
the Uplink counterpart of PDSCH.
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH): This uplink physical channel is used for
random access functions. This is the only non-synchronized transmission that the UE can make
within LTE. The downlink and uplink propagation delays are unknown when PRACH is used
and therefore it cannot be synchronized.
The PRACH instance is made up of two sequences: a cyclic prefix and a guard period. The
preamble sequence may be repeated to enable the eNodeB to decode the preamble when link
conditions are poor.
3.5.2 LTE logical channels

The logical channels cover the data carried over the radio interface. The Service Access Point,
SAP between the MAC sub layer and the RLC sub layer provides the logical channel.
Control channels: These LTE control channels carry the control plane information.
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): This control channel provides system information to all
mobile terminals connected to the eNodeB.

Paging Control Channel (PCCH): This control channel is used for paging information when
searching a unit on a network.
Common Control Channel (CCCH): This channel is used for random access information, e.g.,
for actions including setting up a connection.
Multicast Control Channel (MCCH): This control channel is used for Information needed for
multicast reception.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): This control channel is used for carrying user-specific
control information, e.g., for controlling actions including power control, handover, etc.
Traffic channels: These LTE traffic channels carry the user-plane data
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH): This traffic channel is used for the transmission of user data.
Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH): This channel is used for the transmission of multicast data.
3.5.3 LTE transport channels

The LTE transport channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements. Physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to medium access
control (MAC) and higher layers.
Transport channels in Downlink
Broadcast Channel (BCH): The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast Control Channel
(BCCH)
Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH): This transport channel is the main channel for downlink
data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
Paging Channel (PCH): To convey the PCCH

Multicast Channel (MCH): This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH information to set
up multicast transmissions
Transport Channels used in Uplink

Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH): This transport channel is the main channel for uplink data
transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
Random Access Channel (RACH): This is used for random access requirements
The basic concept of data channels is not new and has been used in previous generations of
mobile telecommunications systems. The LTE channels bear many similarities to those of the
previous generations, but the channels are tailored to LTE and building on the functionality.
The LTE channels for data transport enable the system to operate efficiently and effectively by
ensuring that the data is partitioned and also routed to the required destination as easily as
possible.

LTE for Railways
CHAPTER 4: LTE FOR RAILWAYS
4.0 INTRODUCTION
With the rapid development of High-speed Railways (HSR), a reliable broad band
communications system is essential for the operations of HSR, such as train control and safety-
related communications. HSR applications have strict requirements for quality of services (QoS)
measures, such as data rate, transmission delay, and bit error rate (BER). With GSM (Global
System for Mobile communication), The European Union Agency for Railways (ERA) and The
International Union of Railways (UIC) added extra functionality and called it GSM for Rail, GSM-
R.LTE which was initially designed for regular Public Mobile Communications is now being
enhanced for various other domains including Railways. Several new features and support for
features are being introduced into LTE in the later releases from 3GPP.UIC is trying a different
approach with LTE to integrate the required functionalities of the Railways into the regular LTE
standard, thereby not needing to add extra specific functionality for Railways.
The UIC has setup the Future Rail Mobile Communications System (FRMCS) project to prepare
the necessary steps towards the introduction of a successor of GSM-R. The Future Railway
Mobile Communication System-FRMCS has been prepared by UIC to have a Mobile Train
Communication System based on LTE.
4.1 Communication Requirement of Railways

Critical: Applications that are essential for train movements and safety or a legal obligation,
such as emergency communications, shunting, presence, trackside maintenance, ATC, etc.
Performance: Applications that help to improve the performance of the railway operation, such
as train departure, telemetry, etc.
Business: Applications that support the railway business operation in general, such as wireless
internet, etc.
Following are the sub-sections which are in line with the UIC FRMCS document:
 Critical Communication Applications

 Performance Communication Applications
 Business Communication Applications
 Critical Support Applications
 Performance Support Applications
 Business Support Applications

LTE for Railways
4.1.1 Critical Communication Applications
On-train outgoing voice communication from the driver to the controller of the train: The
driver shall be able to initiate a voice communication to any controller that was, is, or will be
responsible for the movement of the train.
On-train incoming voice communication from the controller to a driver: An authorized

controller shall be able to set up a voice communication to a driver.
Multi-train voice communication for drivers including ground user: The driver shall be able
to set up a voice communication with the entitled ground user(s) and/or other drivers. A ground
user shall be able to set up a voice communication with drivers and another entitled ground
user(s). The selection could be based on the location of the train, on the track configuration, etc.
using a functional identity. Voice communication can be bi-directional or uni-directional.
Banking voice communication: Drivers of different locomotives within the same train shall be
able to set up voice communication. During the ongoing voice communication, an entitled
controller can connect to the communication without any action of the driver(s). The driver can
invite an entitled controller to connect to the communication.
Trackside maintenance voice communication: A trackside worker or controller shall be able

to set up a voice communication with other authorized users. Voice communication can be bi-
directional or unidirectional.
Shunting voice communication: A shunting user shall be able to set up an uninterrupted

voice communication with other shunting users and/or with entitled controller(s). The voice
communication could be a user-to-user or multi-user communication. The entitled controller and
other shunting users are addressed by the system automatically (for example, based on
location, operational situation, etc.).
Public emergency call: A user can make a public emergency call.
Ground to ground voice communication: A ground user shall be able to set up voice
communication to another ground user.
Automatic train control communication: The provision of a reliable communication bearer to

support the implementation of radio-based ATC systems. The ATC system shall have a reliable
communication bearer to ensure efficient data transfer between the onboard system and the
ground system. (For example, ETCS L2/L3, CBTC, CTCS), or between a train and other trains
or between a train and other trackside elements. This application provides the communication
bearer for this data.
Automatic train operation communication: The ATO system shall have a reliable
communication bearer in order to ensure efficient data transfer between the on-board unit and
the ground system or between a train and other trains between a train and other trackside
elements. This application provides the communication bearer for this data. The ATO system
components (onboard unit, the ground system or other ATO entities in the trackside) may

LTE for Railways
broadcast information to other ATO system components. This application may include real-time
video between the on-board and the ground system (for example a train mounted front camera)
or between other ATO system components.
Data communication for Possession management: The application shall support the
processes involved in taking possession of an area of railway infrastructure for engineering
purposes (for example for track maintenance).
Trackside maintenance warning system communication: The trackside maintenance

warning system shall be able to initiate data communication to trackside maintenance workers
in the appropriate area.
Remote control of engines communication: It shall be possible to set up data

communication between an engine and a ground based system in order to control the engine.
The remote driver can operate the engine via the ground system.
Monitoring and control of critical infrastructure: It shall be possible to set up data

communication between infrastructure systems and a ground based or train based system can
monitor or control critical infrastructure such as train detection, signals and indicators, movable
infrastructure, level crossing elements, including barrier controls vehicle sensors, lighting
controls and alarms.
Railway emergency communication: An authorized user shall be able to set up a railway

emergency communication to other users within an automatically configured area or group,
which is based upon the originator’s location or characteristics and those users likely to be
affected by the emergency
On-train safety device to ground communication: Based on a critical situation in the train
(for example, triggered by a Driver Safety Device (DSD)), a voice and/or data communication is
automatically set up towards a ground user (controller or ground system).
Public train emergency communication: This application allows any entitled user involved in
train operations to alert, via a voice and/or data communication, the drivers of the concerned
trains of a safety-related incident in the vicinity of railway infrastructure; for example, at a
platform environment or a level crossing: a person falling from a platform or slipping between
train and platform or a car being stuck on a level crossing. An entitled user in this case could be
a member of the public.
The controller of the affected track/line(s) shall also be made aware of the alert and shall be
able to have voice communication with the alert initiator.
Working alone: The system shall be able to monitor the status (location, movements, health,
etc.) of a user working alone. Once the application is active, the application can trigger voice
and/or data communication applications based on the status of the worker.

LTE for Railways
Voice Recording and access to the recorded data: It shall be possible to enable the
recording of, and access to, communication content and the communication-related data to
support analysis.
Data recording and access: It shall be possible to enable the recording of, and access to,
communication content and the communication related data in order to support analysis.
Shunting data communication: A shunting user (e.g. the shunting leader) shall be able to set
up an uninterrupted data communication with other shunting users (e.g. the driver) and/or with
entitled controller(s)/traffic control system. The purpose of this data communication is to issue
request/commands and confirmations related to shunting operation. The entitled controller and
other shunting users are addressed by the system automatically (for example, based on
location, operational situation etc.).
Train integrity monitoring data communication: The train integrity monitoring system shall
have a reliable communication bearer in to ensure safety related data be transferred between
the components monitoring train integrity. The FRMCS system shall provide the communication
bearer for this data exchange.
Public emergency warning: A user can receive a public emergency warning initiated by the
Public Safety Authority.
On-train outgoing voice communication from train staff towards a ground user
The train staff shall be able to initiate a voice communication to any ground user
On-train incoming voice communication from a ground user towards train staff A ground user
shall be able to initiate a voice communication to train staff.
Railway staff emergency communication: An authorized user is able to set up a railway staff
emergency communication to other users within an automatically configured area or group. The
area or group is based upon the originator’s location or characteristics and includes those users
likely to assist the originator with the emergency.
Critical Real time video: This application facilitates the data communication for real time
transmission of video images (“video images” may also refer to images coming from other
sources, e.g. LIDAR and / or RADAR sensors) for critical railway operation. This includes the
control of camera movements and zoom.
Critical Advisory messaging services- safety related: A user shall be able to send and/or
receive critical messages, safety related, like (predefined or any) text or pre-recorded voice
messages to instruct railway staff about the usage of the infrastructure (for example speed
restrictions, overriding of a stopping point). Messages can be exchanged on user-to-user or on
multi-user level.
Virtual Coupling data communication: The Virtual Coupling system shall have a reliable
communication bearer in order to ensure that the safety related data is transferred between the
components making part of the Virtual Coupling system. The FRMCS system provides the
communication bearer for this data exchange.

LTE for Railways
On-train wireless backbone communications: The enabling of a train-wide communication

network requires the provision of a reliable communication bearer to support the implementation
of the Wireless Train Backbone (WLTB). The WLTB shall have a reliable communication in
order to ensure the efficient data transfer between the on-train Wireless Train Backbone nodes
of each rolling stock element in a single train. The FRMCS system provides the communication
bearer for this data exchange.
Train parking protection
An authorized user shall be able to store information about the protection means of a parked
train in a centralized application. The information can be entered manually or be generated by a
sensor.
4.1.2 Performance Communication Applications
Multi-train voice communication for drivers excluding ground user(s):
A driver shall be able to set up a voice communication to all drivers within an automatically
configured area that is based upon the originator’s location.
On-train voice communication: A member of the train staff shall be able to initiate a voice
communication with one or multiple other members of the train staff (of the same train)
Line side telephony: A user shall be able to set up a voice communication to an entitled
controller via line side telephony.
On-train voice communication towards passengers (public address): A user shall be able
to broadcast voice information to all passengers of one or multiple trains. The broadcasted
information could be real-time or pre-recorded.
Station public address: A user shall be able to broadcast vocal information to all passengers
at specific locations such as station concourses and platforms.
The broadcast information could be real-time or pre-recorded.
Communication at stations and depots: The station or depot user shall be able to set up a
voice communication with other user(s).
On-train telemetry communications: It shall be possible to set up data communication

between on-train systems (on the same train or between 2 different trains) or between on-train
systems and a ground based system.
Infrastructure telemetry communications: It shall be possible to set up data communication

between infrastructure systems and/or a ground based system (for example, to support demand
forecasting and response, equipment supervision etc.).
Note: the data communication can be permanent or intermittent.

LTE for Railways
On-train remote equipment control: A ground based system shall be able to initiate a data
communication to relevant on train systems for control purposes.
Monitoring and control of non-critical infrastructure: It shall be possible to set up data

communication between non-critical infrastructure systems and railway staff or a ground based
or an on-board system in order to monitor and control those infrastructure systems remotely.
Non-critical Real time video: This application facilitates the data communication for real time
transmission of video images for non-critical railway operation. This includes the control of
camera movements and zoom.
Wireless on-train data communication for train staff: Train staff shall be able to use
intranet/internet services via a wireless connection in a train.
Wireless data communication for railway staff on platforms
It shall be possible for railway staff or railway systems to use intranet/internet services via a
wireless connection in railway areas (for example platforms, station areas etc.).
Train driver advisory - train performance: A user shall be able to set up data communication
to provide advisory information to the train driver in order to optimize the train journey (for
example Driver Advisory System (DAS), Traffic management (TM) and Power consumption
management).
Train departure data communications: A user shall be able to set up data communications
with other involved users to support the station departure processes.
Messaging services: A user shall be able to send and receive non-critical messages like text,
recorded voice (for example voicemail), data, pictures and Video. Messages can be exchanged
on user-to user or a user-to-multi user level.
Transfer of data: Transfer of recorded data for post-accident/incident analysis (for example,
CCTV, JRU, energy metering data), or any other data that requires to be transferred between
users, for example, data from train staff, time table data.
Record and broadcast of information: A user shall be able to record a voice or video
information that can subsequently be transmitted to selected users based on their identity
and/or location.
Transfer of CCTV archives: A user shall be able to bulk transfer CCTV archives between on-
board systems or between on-board system and a ground system.
Real time video call: A user shall be able to setup a real time video call to other user(s).

LTE for Railways
Augmented reality data communication
● A user shall be able to setup an augmented reality data communication to the ground
system. The ground system overlays information to the video stream presented to the user.
● Once a user is connected to the ground system, the controller is able to view the augmented
reality images visible for the user.
● The controller is able to add information (or guidance) via the ground system in the
augmented reality view which is visible to the user.
4.1.3 Business Communication Applications
Information help point for public: A member of the public shall be able to set up a voice
communication with the responsible ground user or train staff.
Emergency help point for public: A member of the public shall be able to set up an
emergency voice communication that will be automatically routed to the most appropriate
ground user, train staff or driver.
Wireless internet on-train for passengers: It shall be possible for passengers to use internet
services via a wireless connection in a train.
Wireless internet for passengers on platforms:
It shall be possible for passengers to use internet services via a wireless connection in railway
area(s) (for example platforms, station area(s) etc.).
4.1.4 Critical Support Applications
Assured Voice Communication: The Assured Voice Communication application shall provide
a clear indication to the users as soon as an end-to-end voice communication link is broken or
as long as the end-to-end communication link is active.
Multi user talker control
● The system shall be able to limit the number of simultaneous talkers in a multi-user voice
communication.
● An entitled user shall be able to select and de-select user(s) being able to talk in a multi-user
voice communication.
Role management and presence
A user shall be able to register and deregister to one or more functional identity/ies. A user is
able to see which other functional identities are present within a certain context (for example
train, region, communication group, Railway Emergency Communication, etc.). Further it shall
be possible for the user to identify at any time the function / person who is talking (for example
driver, train staff, maintenance staff, platform staff, controller, etc.).

LTE for Railways
This application will be responsible for handling the railway role management of the users
including the identity registration and deregistration processes.
Location services: The system shall be able to store and provide the location of the user(s) or
devices.
Authorization of communication: The system shall be configurable, so that access to voice

and data communications can be controlled through the use of identities.
Authorization of application: The system shall be configurable, so that access to applications

can be controlled through the use of, for example, identity; user; user-to-user; multi-user;
location, etc. The system is able to authorize access to applications.
QoS Class Negotiation: The system shall be able to assign different QoS classes in order to
fulfil the level of communication quality required by the applications.
Safety application key management communication: The applications on board shall be

able to authenticate the source of the messages received as a trusted source, and shall be able
to detect corruption of the messages received.
Assured data communication: The assured data communication application shall provide a
clear indication to the users as soon as an end-to-end data communication link is broken or as
long as the end-to-end communication link is active.
Inviting-a-user messaging: A user can send a message to other user(s) inviting him to join the
ongoing voice communication.
Arbitration: The system shall be able to perform arbitration between communications competing
for the attention of the user.
Performance Support Applications
None applicable
4.1.5 Business Support Applications
Billing information: An entitled user shall be able to obtain information for any type of on-
network communication from the FRMCS system in order to be able to generate bills.
4.2 Applications of LTE in Railways

Installing an Ultra-high-speed LTE based communication corridor along IR network would cater
to the current and future data and voice needs for Train-Ground and Train-Train communication
for improved train operations, passenger safety and passenger security services and remote rail
asset monitoring & management.

LTE for Railways
Fig. 4.1 Tentative Architecture for Applications of LTEin Indian Railways
The applications of LTE can be classified under the following three broad categories
4.2.1 Passenger Safety & Service
● Advanced Signalling systems like European Train Control System (ETCS) Level 2/Train
Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
● Emergency communications from train to control, train to stations and between train to train,
etc.
● Increased carrying capacity (throughput) Advanced signalling systems allow more trains to
run across a given point or segment of the track which effectively increase the carrying
capacity (throughput) of the same fixed civil and electrical infrastructure.
4.2.2 Video Security Surveillance
Live surveillance camera feeds from trains will ensure security of passengers coupled with
video analytics, this can help in prevention and detection of crime, not only in Indian Railways
network but also outside in the peripheral areas.
4.2.3 Internal improved Railway management
 An exclusive Staff communication system built over LTE would enhance co-ordination
among different categories of Railway staff i.e., Operational and Maintenance which would
contribute for overall improvement in the performance.
 With the advent of IoT, remote monitoring of Railway’s assets would be possible to get the
real time updates based on which preventive measures will be taken to improve their
availability.

LTE for Railways
4.2.4 Specific Applications of LTE in Indian Railways

Indian Railway envisages following applications/facilities to start with, which will fuel growth in
data usage on deploying LTE technology:
1. Indian Railway Automatic Train Protection System (IRATP) through Train Collision
Avoidance System (TCAS) which is planned for upgradation to ETCS Level 2 in future or
any other similar systems as specified by Indian Railways.
2. Mission Critical PushToTalk (MC PTT) application
3. Video Surveillance System in locomotives for Level Crossing Gate/Tunnels/Bridges. Onboard
Passenger Information System (PIS) consisting of passenger information display and
passenger announcement system.
4. Internet of Things (IoT) based Asset reliability monitoring.
5. Onboard Video Surveillance System (VSS) for Passenger Security.
6. Broadband Internet on Running Train (Onboard Wi-Fi facility through LTE)
4.2.5 Spectrum Allocation for IR
5 MHz (paired) Spectrum in 700 MHz band (703-748 MHz Uplink & 758-803 MHz Downlink,
also specified as Band 28 in 3GPP/ETSI standards) has been allocated by TRAI to Indian
Railways for implementing above services on LTE.
4.3 General Requirements of LTE Solution for Indian Railways

Draft Technical Advisory Note of RDSO on implementation of LTE in Indian Railways vide
Document No. STT/TAN/LTE/2021, Version 1.0, dated 03.08.2021 stipulates the following
minimum requirements of the LTE solution for IR:
1. The Long Term Evolution (LTE) Technology Solution (Hardware and Software) for Mobile
Train Communication System of Indian Railways shall be compliant to 3GPP/ETSI LTE
Release 16 or later Specification*
2. The LTE shall be upgradable to further 3GPP Specification Releases and Future Rail Mobile
Communication Standard (FRMCS) being developed by UIC.
3. The LTE systems shall be interoperable with other legacy Railway mobile communication
systems such as GSM-R for voice communication in Indian Railways except with equipment
declared as End of life on a global basis.
4. Proposed EPS solution/nodes must be upgradable to support future LTE releases with
additional HW and SW functionality needed without necessitating any change to existing
LTE solution.
5. Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), Distributed Power Wireless Control Systems
(DPWCS)/LOCOTROL and EoTT (End of Train Telemetry) and such other systems developed
and deployed by Indian Railways are presently being installed using UHF communication
system. The LTE shall be compatible and suitable bearer network for all above applications.

LTE for Railways
6. The LTE shall be compatible and suitable bearer network for Indian Railway specific
applications such as Train Protection Warning System (TPWS).
7. It shall also be compatible and suitable bearer network with modern Train Automation &
Protection System like European Train Control System (ETCS)or similar for operation at
desired speed.
8. The LTE shall be compatible and suitable bearer network for ETCS and Indian Railway
Automatic Train Protection System i.e., Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). The
related application software, interface protocols between LTE and Stationery TCAS & Loco
TCAS ATP systems shall be vendor (both LTE and TCAS vendors) agnostic.
9. The system shall be designed to work in 5 MHz (paired) in 700 MHz band (703-748 MHz
Uplink & 758-803 MHz Downlink) recommended for allocation to Indian Railways.
10. LTE shall be able to support both the Time Division Duplex technology (TDD) as well as
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD). The system shall support different carrier bandwidth
(Size) starting with 1.4 MHz up to 20 MHz as per 3GPP specification. The system shall also
support Carrier Aggregation (CA) as per 3GPP/ETSI specification
11. The LTE shall be suitable for Indian Railway Train speeds from 0 - 250 Kmph which should
be upgradable to higher train speeds up to 350 Kmph.
12. The 230 V/ 50 Hz AC nominal Electrical Power Supply available in Indian Railway premises
with suitable stabilization shall be provided for LTE.
13. The LTE systems including EPC, eNodeB and other equipment provided by different OEM‟s
shall be interoperable and shall be seamlessly integrated with each other in such a way that
all the features and services are available in the solution.
14. The LTE Radio Network shall be planned with double radio coverage (100% Coverage
Overlap) where in case of one eNodeB failure; the adjacent eNodeBs will cover the
requirements.
15. Special solutions need to be designed and considered for areas such as Train tunnels,
Bridges, Ghat sections and Mountainous curves etc.
*The Features introduced in LTE Release 16 (TR 21.916) are
a. Enhancement of Ultra-Reliable (UR) Low Latency Communications
b. Support of LAN-type services
c. IoT
d. Advanced V2X support
e. North bound APIs related items
f. Co-existence with Non-3GPP systems
g. Railways and Maritime
h. Mission critical and public warning
i. Conversational services, Streaming and TV
j. 5G Location and Positioning Services
k. User Identities, Authentication, multi-device
l. Network slicing
m. UE radio capability signaling optimization

References
References
1. IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine (High speed Railway Communication from GSM-R to
LTE-R)
2. Chapter 19 of Indian Railways Telecom Manual, 2021
3. Draft Technical Advisory Note of RDSO on implementation of LTE, Document No.

STT/TAN/LTE/2021, Version 1.0, dated 03.08.2021
4. Requirements of Wireless Communications in Indian Railways, Centre of Excellence in

Wireless Technology, IIT Madras (CEWiT) Version v3 May 2018.
5. https://www.3gpp.org/LTE
6. https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/connectivity/4g-lte-long-term-evolution

Index
Index
A E
ECGI, 13
ARIB, 2
ECI, 13
ARQ, 24
edge, 22
ATC, 26, 27
EDGE, 2
ATIS, 2
EIR, 11
ATO, 27
eNodeB, 7, 8, 11, 21, 24, 36
ATP, 36
EoTT, 35
EPC, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 36
B
EPS, 35
BCCH, 24, 25
ETCS, 27, 34, 35, 36
BCH, 25
Broadband, 35
F
Broadcast, 20, 23, 24, 25
fading, 14, 15
BSS, 7
FDD, 3, 16, 21, 22, 36
FDM, 15
C
frame, 16, 18, 24
CBTC, 27
frozen, 2
CCCH, 25
CCSA, 2
G
CDMA, 2, 4, 16
gateway, 8, 9, 12
could, 27, 28, 30
Gi, 11
CTCS, 27
GPRS, 1, 11
GSM, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 26, 35
D
GW, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
DCCH, 25
Gx, 11
DCI, 24
digital, 7
H
distortion, 15
handover, 7, 8, 11, 25
diversity, 20
handset, 1
Downlink, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 35, 36
HARQ, 24
DPWCS, 35
HeNB, 3, 7
DSD, 28
HetNet, 3
DTCH, 25
HPLMN, 11
Duplex, 21, 36
HSDPA, 3
Duplexing, 22
HSPA, 2

Index
HSR, 26 migration, 22
HSS, 5, 8, 10, 11 MIMO, 3, 19, 20
HSUPA, 3 MME, 5, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13
HW, 35 MMEC, 12, 13
MMEGI, 12, 13
I MMEI, 12
ID, 12, 13 MNC, 12
IDC, 3 MT, 6
IMEI, 13 MTCH, 25
IMS, 4, 9, 11 MU, 20
IMSI, 13 multicast, 25
Interfaces, 10 multimedia, 9
Interference, 16 multipath, 14, 17, 19
interleaving, 16 Multiplexing, 14, 15
intranet, 31 Multipoint, 3
IoT, 4, 34, 35, 36

IP, 3, 4, 8, 9 N
IR, 33, 35 narrowband, 15
IRATP, 35 NAS, 8
ISI, 16, 17 node, 7
noise, 16, 19
L
L2, 27 O
L3, 27 OFDMA, 3, 14, 18
LAN, 36 Onboard, 35
LOCOTROL, 35 orthogonal, 14, 15
logical, 23, 24, 25 Orthogonal, 14, 15
LTE, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, overlap, 14
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33,
34, 35, 36 P
packet, 1, 7, 11
M Paging, 25
MAC, 23, 24, 25 PBCH, 23
MC, 35 PCCH, 25
MCC, 12 PCEF, 9, 11
MCCH, 25 PCFICH, 23
MCH, 25 PCH, 25
MHz, 17, 18, 35, 36 PCRF, 5, 8, 10, 11
MIB, 23 PDCCH, 24

Index
PDN, 8, 9, 10, 11 S13, 11

PDSCH, 24 S3, 11
PGW, 5, 10 S4, 11
PHICH, 24 S5, 9, 10, 11
PIS, 35 S8, 9, 10, 11
PLMN, 10, 11, 12, 13 S9, 11
PMI, 20 SA, 3
PRACH, 24 SAE, 1, 3, 5, 10
preamble, 24 SC, 14, 18, 19
protocol, 11, 23 SCH, 25
PSK, 14 scrambling, 23
PTT, 35 SDO, 1
PUCCH, 24 sequence, 23, 24
PUSCH, 24 session, 8
SGW, 5, 10
Q sidebands, 14
QAM, 14, 18 SIM, 6
QPSK, 18, 23 SIMO, 20

SISO, 20
R SMS, 1
spatial, 19, 20
RACH, 25
subcarriers, 15, 17, 18, 23
radio, 1, 3, 7, 8, 18, 22, 23, 24, 27, 36
Subsystem, 4, 9
RAN, 3, 7
surveillance, 34
RDSO, 35
SW, 35
receiver, 14, 17, 19, 20
symbol, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24
reciprocal, 14, 17
reliability, 35
T
rely, 15
remote, 28, 31, 33, 34 TAC, 13
resilience, 14, 16, 17, 19 TAI, 13
RF, 15, 16, 18, 19 TCAS, 34, 35, 36
RLC, 24 TDD, 3, 16, 21, 22, 36
Rx, 11 terminal, 20
throughput, 17, 34
TIA, 2
TM, 31
S
TMSI, 13
S1, 7, 11
TPWS, 36
S10, 11
TSDSI, 1, 2
S11, 11

Index
TSG, 3
TTA, 2
TTC, 2
TTI, 23
Tunnel, 11
tunneling, 11
U
UE, 6, 8, 11, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 36
UHF, 35
UIC, 26, 35
UL, 25
UMTS, 1, 3, 4, 6, 12, 22
Uplink, 18, 21, 24, 25, 35, 36
USIM, 6, 7, 13
UTRAN, 1, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13
V
voice, 1, 4, 9, 14, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35
voicemail, 31
VoLTE, 4
VPLMN, 11
W
WCDM, 2
WiMAX, 3, 16
X
X2, 7

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प्रसिक्षण द्वािा गुणवत्ता QUALITY THROUGH TRAINING
MISSION : TO DELIVER KNOWLEDGE TO MAKE THE WORKFORCE

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REPUTE
VALUES : DISCIPLINE, DEVOTION TO DUTY, INTEGRITY,
COMPETENCE, TEAM WORKING AND SAFE WORKING
For any suggestions mail to pt@iriset.railnet.gov.in
www.iriset.indianrailways.gov.in
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LONG TERM EVOLUTION (LTE)

LONG TERM EVOLUTION

MISSION : To deliver knowledge to make the workforce competent

INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF

Notes No. Version Revision details Issued on

TA5 A1 ----- September 2021

Shri. V Srinath,ITX1, Shri. J Vijay Kumar,ITX4,

Checked By Shri. R Dinesh,PT, Shri. S M Hafeez Ali,APT

DTP & Drawings by Shri. K Srinivas,JE(D)

Date of Issue September 2021

Incase of any suggestions please write to PT at email address pt@iriset.indianrail.gov.in

The evolution took many years

1G (First generation) 1980’s Let us talk to each other on mobile phones

Table 1.1 Mobile network generations: from 1G to 5G (Source: Thales 2021)

1.0.1 Evolution of LTE

IRISET 1 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

1.1.1 3GPP Organizational Partners

The 3GPP organizational partners or standard development organizations include:

1. ARIB - The Association of Radio Industries and Businesses, Japan

7. TTC - Telecommunication Technology Committee, Japan

1.2 CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION FROM 2G TO 5G

Figure 1 shows the evolution of technology from GSM/CDMA (2G) to 5G.

Figure 1: Evolution of cellular standards from 2G to 5G

1.3 THE 3GPP RELEASE SCHEDULE

IRISET 2 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

WiMAX / LTE / UMTS interoperability, Dual Cell HSDPA with

LTE-Advanced, Backwards compatibility with Release 8 (LTE),

Release 15 07-06-2019 5G Phase 1 specification

Release 16 03-07-2020 5G Phase 2 specification

1.3.1 The 3GPP Specification

1.3.2 LTE vs. 4G

IRISET 3 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

1.3.3 LTE - A, LTE - Advanced, 4G+, and LTE+

1.3.4 Salient features of LTE

 The low latency enables time-sensitive applications like voice services.

1.4 Voice over LTE (VoLTE)

1.4.1 4G LTE for the IoT (Internet of Things)

 The mid-range bandwidth is category LTE-1 (LTE Cat 1).

1.4.2 LTE back-ward compatibility

IRISET 4 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

CHAPTER 2: LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

2.0 LTE Network Architecture

The E-UTRAN is comprised of

1. User Equipment (UEs)

The EPC is comprised of

1. The Mobility Management Entity (MME)

Fig. 2.1 LTE Network Architecture

IRISET 5 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

2.0.1 The User Equipment (UE)

Fig. 2.2 Schematic Diagram of UE connectivity in LTE

 Mobile Termination (MT): This handles all the communication functions.

 Terminal Equipment (TE): This terminates the data streams.

2.0.2 The E-UTRAN (The access network)

MME / S-GW MME / S-GW

Fig. 2.3 evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)

IRISET 6 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

2.0.3 The eNodeB (Equivalent of BSS in GSM-R)

2.0.4 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

Fig. 2.4 Evolved Packet Core

IRISET 7 TA5 – Long Term Evolution (LTE)

1. Serving Gateway (S-GW)