Trinity University of Asia - St.

Luke’s College of Nursing Batch 2026 - Luminaris

MC_103: MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

LECTURE 01: VIRUSES & PRIONS
AY 2022-2023 | MID-YEAR SEMESTER |Prof.Daisy R.Sucaldito| Adapted from: Book/Lecture PPT

OUTLINE

I. Main topic
II. Main Topic
III. Main topic
IV. Main topic
A. Sub topic
B. Sub topic
V. Main topic
A. Sub
1. Sub sub topic

LEARNING OUTCOMES
● Differentiate viruses from to other forms of
microorganisms
● To discuss viruses according to the ff. Aspects:
○ Structure
○ Classification
○ Isolation, Cultivation, and Identification
○ Mechanism of multiplication SLIDE 4
● Identify and define prions and other noncellular
infectious agents

MAIN TOPIC
● Description

SUB TOPIC
● Description

SUB TOPIC
● Description

TOPIC TOPIC

SLIDE 5

Slide 2-6 (Doliente, Angelica) DONE

*For slide 3-6, will add nalang more information after the
discussion ^^ thank you

SLIDE 3

SLIDE 6

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 OVERVIEW OF VIRUSES

EARLY VIRUS DISCOVERIES

Slide 12-16 (Delgado, Stef Vlad) DONE

IMPORTANT FINDINGS ABOUT THE UNIQUE
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

Slide 7-11 (DIMAANO,HEART): DONE 1. 1890s

● Dimitri Ivanovski and Martinus
Beijerinck showed that a disease in
tobacco plants was caused by a virus:
tobacco mosaic virus

2. 1897
● Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch
discovered an animal virus that causes
foot-and mouth disease in cattle.
○ These researchers found that
when infectious fluids from
hosts were passed through
porcelain filters designed to
trap bacteria, the fluid
passing through remained
infectious.
● This result proved that an infection
could be caused by a fluid containing
agents smaller than bacteria.
● They called the agent a filterable
virus.

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 FILTERABLE VIRUS
● Infectious fluids were passed
through porcelain filters
designed to trap bacteria.
● The cell-free filtered fluid
remained infectious.
● This proved that an agent
smaller than bacteria was the
cause of disease.

VIRUSES ON THE BIOLOGICAL

SPECTRUM
● Viruses can infect every type of cell:
○ Bacteria
○ Algae
○ Fungi
○ Protozoa
○ Plants
○ Animals

UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES

● Infectious particles
○ Rather than organisms
● Active or inactive
○ Rather than alive or dead
● Obligate intracellular parasites
● Cannot multiply unless they invade a specific host
cell.
● Must instruct the genetic and metabolic
machinery of the host cell to make and release
new viruses.

PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES

● Are not cells

● Are obligate intracellular parasites of bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, algae,plants, and animals
● Do not independently fulfill the characteristics
of life
● Are inactive macromolecules outside the
host cell and active only inside host cells
● Have basic structure of protein shell
(capsid) surrounding nucleic acid core
● Are everywhere in nature and have had major
impact on development of biological life
● Are often ultramicroscopic in size, ranging
from 20 nm to 1,000 nm (diameter)
● Can have either DNA or RNA but not both
● Can have double-stranded DNA,
single-stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA,
or double-stranded RNA
● Carry molecules on their surface that
determine specificity for attachment to host Slides 22 - 26 (DEL CASTILLO) DONE
cell
● Multiply by taking control of host cell’s genetic
material and regulating the synthesis and
assembly of new viruses
● Usually lack enzymes for most metabolic
processes
● Usually lack machinery for making
proteins

Slide 17-21 (De Castro)

THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES
● VIRAL SIZE RANGE
○ Smaller than the average bacterium.
○ Electron microscopes are required to
detect them.
○ Parvoviruses: 0.02 µm in diameter
○ Mimiviruses: 450 µm in length - larger
than some small bacteria

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 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES

VIRUSES BEAR NO RESEMBLANCE TO CELLS

● Lack protein-synthesizing machinery
● Need only those parts required to invade and
control a host cell

VIRAL COMPONENTS
● CAPSID
○ Shell surrounding the nucleic acid
○ NUCLEOCAPSID: capsid and nucleic acid
together
● ENVELOPE
○ Not found in all viruses THE VIRAL CAPSID: THE PROTECTIVE OUTER
○ Usually, a modified piece of the host cell SHELL
membrane ● CAPSOMERES
● SPIKES ○ Identical protein subunits that
○ Found on both naked and enveloped spontaneously self-assemble to form the
viruses capsid.
● HELICAL CAPSID
○ Project from either the nucleocapsid or
○ Rod-shaped Capsomeres that form a
envelope continuous helix around the nucleic acid.
○ Allow viruses to dock with their host ● ICOSAHEDRAL CAPSID
cells ○ Three-dimensional, 20-sided figure with
SLIDE 27-31 (CHUA, RUSSELL) DONE 12 evenly spaced corners.
OTHER VIRUS TERMS
● NAKED VIRUSES SLIDE 32-36 (CRUZ, KATH) DONE
○ Consists only of a Nucleocapsid. HELICAL NUCLEOCAPSIDS
● VIRION ● The simple helical capsids have rod-shaped
○ A FULLY FORMED virus that is able to capsomeres that bond together to form a series of
establish infection in a host. hollow discs resembling a bracelet. During the

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 formation of the nucleocapsid, these discs link with TABLE 6.3 ICOSAHEDRAL CAPSIDS
other discs to form a continuous helix into which the ● Naked - Adenovirus is an example of a naked
nucleic acid strand is coiled. icosahedral virus. In the photo you can clearly see
the spikes, some of which have broken off.

● Enveloped - Two very common viruses, hepatitis B

virus (left) and the herpes simplex virus (right),
possess enveloped icosahedrons.

TABLE 6.2 HELICAL CAPSIDS

● Naked - The nucleocapsids of naked helical virus
are very rigid and tightly wound into a
cylinder-shaped package. An example is the
tobacco mosaic virus, which attacks tobacco leaves NONENVELOPED AND ENVELOPED VIRUSES
(right).

● Enveloped - Enveloped helical nucleocapsids are

more flexible and tend to be arranged as a looser THE VIRAL CAPSID
helix within the envelope. This type of morphology ● Complex capsids
is found in several enveloped human viruses, ● Found in bacteriophage, the viruses that infect
including influenza, measles, and rabies. bacteria.
● Have multiple types of proteins.
● Take shapes that are not symmetrical.

ICOSAHEDRAL CAPSIDS
● These capsids form an icosahedron—a
three-dimensional, 20-sided figure with 12 evenly
spaced corners.
● The arrangements of the capsomeres vary from
one virus to another. Some viruses construct the
capsid from a single type of capsomere, while
others may contain several types of capsomeres.
There are major variations in the number of
capsomeres; for example, a poliovirus has 32, and
an adenovirus has 252 capsomeres.

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 THE VIRAL ENVELOPE ● REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: synthesizes DNA
● Composed of the membrane system of the host. from RNA
○ Cell membrane or nuclear membrane
○ Regular membrane proteins are replaced Slides 42-46 (CONCEPCION, TRIXIE)- DONE
with viral proteins
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF
● Spikes - protruding glycoproteins essential for VIRUSES
attachment to the host cell
Informal Classification System
Slides 37 - 41 (CRUZ, CIARA) - DONE ● Animal, plant, or bacterial viruses
● Enveloped or naked
NUCLEIC ACIDS: AT THE CORE OF A VIRUS ● DNA or RNA viruses
● GENOME ● Helical or icosahedral
○ The full complement of DNA and RNA
carried by a cell Criteria of a Formal Classification System
- Viruses contain either DNA or RNA but not ● Structure
both. ● Chemical composition
○ The number of viral genes is small ● Similarities in genetic makeup
compared to that of a cell Virus orders:
○ Possess only the genes necessary to • Suffix -virales
invade host cells and redirect their activity Virus families:
● POSITIVE-SENSE RNA • Suffix-viridae
○ Single-stranded RNA genomes ready for Virus genera:
immediate translation into proteins. • Suffix -virus
● NEGATIVE-SENSE RNA
○ RNA genomes that need to be converted EXAMPLES FROM THE NINE ORDERS OF VIRUSES
into the proper form to be made into
proteins

VIRAL NUCLEIC ACID

● DNA VIRUSES - Examples

IMPORTANT HUMAN VIRUSES FAMILIES, GENERA,

COMMON NAMES, AND TYPES OF DISEASES - DNA
VIRUSES

● RNA VIRUSES - Examples

IMPORTANT HUMAN VIRUS FAMILIES,GENERA,

COMMON NAMES, AND TYPES OF DISEASES - RNA
VIRUSES (PART 1)

OTHER SUBSTANCES IN THE VIRUS PARTICLE

- Enzymes for specific operations within the host cell:
● POLYMERASES: synthesize DNA and RNA
● REPLICASES: copy RNA

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 Slides 52 - 56 (Claveria) DONE
GENERAL FEATURES IN THE MULTIPLICATION
CYCLE OF RNA ANIMAL VIRUSES

IMPORTANT HUMAN VIRUS FAMILIES,GENERA,

COMMON NAMES, AND TYPES OF DISEASES - RNA
VIRUSES (PART 2)

GENERAL FEATURES IN THE MULTIPLICATION

CYCLE OF DNA ANIMAL VIRUSES

Slides 47-51 (DE CHAVEZ,ALLI)- DONE

IMPORTANT HUMAN VIRUS FAMILIES,GENERA,
COMMON NAMES, AND TYPES OF DISEASES - RNA
VIRUSES (PART 3)

ADSORPTION
● Invasion begins when the virus encounters a
susceptible host and adsorbs specifically to
receptor sites on the cell membrane
● Adsorb: to attach (like a virus)
● Absorb: to soak in (like a paper towel)

TAXONOMY HOST RANGE

● A virus can invade its host cell only through making
an exact fit with a specific host molecule
● Restricted host range: hepatitis B only infects liver
cells of humans
● Moderately restrictive host range: poliovirus
infects intestinal and nerve cells of primates
● Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release ● Broad host range: rabies virus infects various cells
● EC 53, Online, July 2021 of all mammals
● Email ratification March 2022 (MSL#37)
● 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 PENETRATION AND UNCOATING OF ANIMAL
classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, 233 families, 168 VIRUSES
subfamilies,2606 genera, 84 sub genera,10434 ● Endocytosis - entire virus is engulfed by the cell
species and enclosed in a vacuole or vesicle
● Uncoating - enzymes in the vacuole dissolve the
MODES OF VIRAL MULTIPLICATION envelope and capsid, releasing the virus into he
cytoplasm
Multiplication Cycles in Animal Viruses
General phases in the life cycle of animal viruses:
● Adsorption
● Penetration
● Uncoating
● Synthesis
● Assembly
● Release from the host cell

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 TECHNIQUES IN CULTIVATING AND IDENTIFYING
ANIMAL VIRUS
In vivo methods: viral cultivation in lab animals or
embryonic bird tissues.
In vitro methods: viral cultivation in cell or tissue culture.

Primary Purposes of Viral Cultivation:

● Isolate and identify viruses in clinical specimens.
● Prepare viruses for vaccines.
● Do detailed research on viral structure,
multiplication cycles, genetics, and effects on host
Slide 57-61 (DONAIRE, Gianna) DONE cells.
SYNTHESIS : REPLICATION AND PROTEIN Slide 62-66
PRODUCTION
Viral nucleic acid takes control over the host’s synthetic and Using live animal inoculation
metabolic machinery. Specially bred strains of animals used for animal cultivation
● Mechanism varies depending on whether the virus of viruses:
is a DNA or RNA virus ● White mice
● RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm. ● Rats
● DNA viruses replicate in the nucleus. ● Hamsters
● Guinea pigs
● rabbits
Injections sites for viral exposure;
● Brain
● Blood
● Muscle
● Body cavity
● Skin
● Footpads

Using Bird Embryos

Benefits of using bird embryos:
● Embryonic development occurs in a protective shell
● Intact & self-supporting unit with its own sterile
environment & nourishment
● Furnishes several embryonic tissues that support
RELEASE OF MATURE VIRUSES viral multiplication
-Enveloped viruses are liberated by budding or exocytosis.
● Nucleocapsid binds to the membrane. Using Cell (Tissue) Culture Techniques
● A small pouch is formed. Cell culture or tissue culture : in vitro virus cultivation
● Pinching off of the pouch releases the virus with its systems
envelope. ● A simple & effective way to grow populations of
● Viruses are shed gradually without destruction of isolated animal cells in sterile dishes or bottles
the cell. ● Most viruses are propagated through cell culture
● Much of a virologist’s work involves developing &
maintaining cultures

Primary Cell Cultures

● Freshly isolated animal tissue is placed in a growth
medium
● Cells undergo mitotic division, producing a
monolayer on the surface
● Retain the characteristics of the original tissue from
which they were derived

Continuous Cell Cultures

● Have altered chromosome numbers
● Grow rapidly
● Show changes in morphology
● Can be continuously subcultured if they are given
fresh nutrient media

Detecting Viral Growth in Culture

Degeneration & lysis of infected cells

Plaques
- Clear, well-defined patches in the cell sheet
- Macroscopic manifestations of cytopathic effects
- Develops when viruses released from an infected
cell radiate out to surrounding cells & infect them
- Infection spreads gradually & symmetrically from
the original point of infection

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 Independent Study:

Impossible to measure the number of viral infections

worldwide

Most common cause of acute infections that do not result in

hospitalization:
- Colds, chickenpox, influenza, herpes, warts
Some have high mortality rates:
- Rabies, ebola
Other viral infections lead to long-term debility:
- Polio, neonatal rubella
Slides 77 - 81 (cornillez, joe) : DONE
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)
Slide 72-76 (De Villa) DONE ● Afflicts the central nervous system (CNS) of
DESIGNING THERAPIES AGAINST VIRUSES humans
● Viruses mutate at a rapid rate ● Causes gradual degeneration & death
● Difficult to design therapies against viruses ● Transmissible by an unknown mechanism
● Scientists focus on developing vaccines against ● Several animals are victims of similar diseases:
viruses due to few available antiviral drugs and - Scrapie : sheep, mink, elk
ineffective antibiotics. - Bovine spongiform encephalopathy : cow
● INTERFERON (IFN) (“mad cow disease”)
○ Naturally occurring human cell product.
○ Used with some success in preventing and Prion Infection
treating viral infections. ● Exact mode of infection is unknown
● Protein composition of prions has revolutionized
ideas of what can constitute an infectious agent
● Questions about how prions replicate given that
they have no nucleic acid

Satellite Viruses
● Dependent on other viruses for replication
● Adeno-associated virus (AAV)
- Originally thought that it could only
replicate in cells infected with the
adenovirus
- Now found to infect cells infected with
other viruses or that have had their DNA
disrupted through other means
PRIONS AND OTHER NON CELLULAR INFECTIOUS
AGENTS Viroids
● Virus-like agent that parasitizes plants
OTHER NON CELLULAR INFECTIOUS AGENTS ● About one-tenth the size of an average virus
● SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHIES ● Composed only of naked strands of RNA - lack a
○ Implicated in chronic,persistent disease in capsid or other type of coating
humans and animals. ● Significant pathogens in economically important
○ Brain tissue removed from affected plants : tomatoes, potatoes, cucumbers, citrus
animals resembles a sponge. trees, & chrysanthemums
● PRIONS
○ Common feature of spongiform
encephalopathies.
○ Distinct protein fibrils deposited in brain
tissue of affected animals.

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