Mech3427 Notes

Dr.
C K Chan
Email: ckchanhku@hku.hk
1
Wisdom quote
2
st
Arrangement (1 semester)
Dr. C K Chan (2 weeks)
1) Design overview
2) Material Selection
Dr. Y H Chen (Course coordinator: 7 weeks)
1) Belt & Chain Transmission
2) Gearing
3) Bearings & Shaft Design
4) Clutches and Brakes
5) Springs
6) Joining Methods
7) Jigs & Fixtures
8) Manurfacture & NC Machining
3
Assessment
Assignment (20%)
Test (20%)
Project (60%)
• 5~6 students per group
4
nd
Arrangement (2 semester)
5
6
What is design? fmetion
Integration of observation/ideas/knowledge
7
What is design?
outlook
Generate alternatives.
8
What is design?
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9
What is engineering design?
FEA/CFD Value
analysis analysis
10
11
12
13
What is design?
14
What is design?
15
What is design?
How do product designers create multiple
concepts to consider?
1) Originate
2) Fusion
3) Heurist
16
What is design?
Design Is About Creativity
C ea i i i j connec ing
things when you ask creative
people how they did something,
they feel a little guilty because
he didn eall do i he j
a ome hing
17
What is design?
F om S e e Job ema k on c ea i i
What are your comments about creativity?
Keywords: See (know), Connect (integrate) &
Common sense
18
What is design?
Thinking during observation
19
How?
Amazing Examples Of Creative Design.
20
How?
21
How?
Pizza Scissors
22
Design process
Self-initiated
23
Client based
24
Design process
Types of design
Original design
Adaptive or developmental:
Start from an existing
product. The motive for
redesigning it may be to
enhance performance, to
reduce cost, or to adapt it to
changing market conditions.
Variant design involves a
change of scale or dimension
or detailing without a
change of function or the
method of achieving it.
25
Prototype
Visual prototype - conveys the
overall shape and size of the
product but does not usually
prove the function of the idea.
Proof of concept prototype. -

demonstrates the main
functionality of the idea by
making use of ‘off the shelf
components and is unlikely to
look like the final product.
26
Prototype
Presentation prototype. -
combines the functionality
of the product with the
overall appearance with
production grade
materials will be used.
Pre-Production prototype.
- fully considering mass
production manufacturing
methods and production.
27
28
Objective?
Step 1: Client requirement?
Size?
Functionality?
Performance?
Cost?
29
Other example: Vacuum Cleaner
4 5
8 6
3
7
1
7
1
0
1
6
1
1
4
5
1
9
1 1
2 1 1
2 3
Functionality?
Component Manufacturing Methods?
Assembly sequence & methods?
30
Other example: Vacuum Cleaner
Prototype
31
Other example: Design of a Robot
Z
CAD modeling
FEA, e.g. stress/strain,
CFD, thermo. X Y
Kinetic analysis
Kinematic analysis 6 5
Assembly process
4
3
2
1
32
More Complicated Design ?
Industrial Design
Engineering Design
Machine Element
Design
Functionality?
Of what? Engine,
steering, suspension, or
acceleration, etc? 33
Example: exhaust pipe muffler?
Step 2: Background research
Exhaust System Configurations
34
Example: exhaust pipe muffler?
Current mechanisms
35
Exhaust pipe muffler?
Available Styles
36
Available style
37
Available style
38
Step 3: Specification
39
Step 3: Specification
40
Step 4: System analysis- Break down a big
system into subsystem.
41
Step 4: System analysis- Break down a big
system into subsystem.
Input? Muffler Output?
Noise
Perforated
Inlet? absorbing Outlet
pipe
material
42
Step 4: System analysis- Study the
alternatives of subsystem.
Muffer
Noise
Perforated
Inlet? absorbing Outlet
pipe
material
Adaptive Fixed Mechanism? Design? Fiber glass Cotton Single Twin
43
Step 5: Integrate subsystems alternatives
into conceptual designs.
44
Step 6: Prototype: CAD models & FEA
45
Step 7: Prototype
46
Step 8: Test, evaluate & modification
47
Step 9: Present product to client
Step 10: Change according to client
feedback
48
Step 11: Manufacturing concerns:
Component materials
Component Manufacturing method?
Assembly sequence & methods?
Step 12: Final design
49
50
Mechanical Design
Mechanical design is everywhere;
Mechanical design is often
combined with electric and
electronic components:
mechatronics.
Design: 3M&E
Man (woman)
Method
Material
Environment
51
Journey of discovery
Where are these power drills
used for ?
52
Wha o in e e ing abo a o e d ill I go
lots of good stuff in it - electric motors, gears,
bearings, couplings, etc
53
Roller Chains
54
The Photo of a Typical Farm Tractor
Design concerns
Cheap, Slow, Unpaved road, Load?
Etc.
55
Why a speed reducer is needed?
T ac o engine o e a e a e high eed and
the wheels of the tractor rotate more slowly;
The engine torque output is smaller and the
wheel tracking needs a much higher torque.
56
Function of the speed reducer
To receive power from the
ac o engine h o gh a
rotating shaft;
To transmit the power
through machine elements
that reduce the rotational
speed to a desired value;
To deliver the power at the
lower speed to an output
shaft that ultimately drives
the wheels of the tractor.
57
Speed Reducer Design
Belt Drive ?
Rope ?
Chain ?
Gear ?
Can we make a decision

now ?
58
Sample Design Specifications
The reducer must transmit 12kw
The input is from 2 two-cylinder
gasoline engine with rotational speed
of 2000rpm;
The output delivers the power at a
rotational speed in the range of 290-
300 rpm;
A mechanical efficiency of greater
than 95% is desirable;
59
Sample Design Specifications
The minimum output torque of the reducer
should be 350N.m;
The input and output shaft must be in-line;
The reducer must be installed in a space of
500x500x600mm;
Design life of 10 years;
Production quantity of ( ? );
Operating environment?
60
Layout
Suppose you choose gear transmission, what is
the gear layout ? Which one gives you in-line
input & output shafts?
61
Gear box speed reducer
Gears:
Number of teeth?
Pitch of teeth?
Diameters ? face
width ? Materials? Etc
Shafts: Material?
Geometry?
Heat treatment? Etc.
62
Gear box speed reducer
Bearings: Load on
bearings?
Size of Bearings?
Housing:
Material, outlook,
manufacturing ? Etc.
63
A gear box design with exploded view
64
Exterior View of the Gear Box
65
Exploded View of the Gear Box with
detail part list
66
A Sample of Detailed Part Drawing
67
• Class discussion: Uncork device
68
Recommended Solution Procedures
Known: State briefly what is known;
Find: State clearly what are to be determined;
Schematic of Given data, components or systems;
Decisions: individual choice; selection;
Assumption: State what assumptions are made:
theories and reality mismatch;
Analysis: Apply your knowledge to determine
unknowns. Check if your results are reasonable or
not;
Comments: Discuss result briefly.
69
References
Juvinall R.C. & Marshek K M F ndamen al of
Machine Com onen De ign John Wile Son
1991.
Mo R L Machine Elemen in Mechanical
De ign h Edi ion P en ice Hall
Shigley J.E. & Mischke C R Mechanical
Enginee ing De ign McG a Hill
70
Class exercise
Try to do a background study on a Coffee maker and write a
specification for it with your own favor.
Break down the design into different subsystem.
Point out the major consideration and how it can be success in the
commercial market.
<5 pages, submission deadline: By the end of next week.
71
Unsatisfactory Developing Satisfactory Exemplary
Outline the Know nothing Classify the Classify the Differentiate
design process about the design design process design process different design
process with details. process.
Analyze a system Cannot break Achieve one level Achieve two level Achieve two level
down a system break down. break down. break down with
into subsystem. suggestions.
Work out the List zero points. Specification of Complete Complete
specification. the whole system specification of specifications of
but not complete. the whole system. the whole & sub-
system
Point out the List zero points. Only one concern 2~4 concerns >= 4 concerns
design concerns with detail
for a mechanical evidence.
system.
72
73
Design & Manufacturing
Dr. C K Chan
MECH3427 Chapter 02
Engineering
公司
material
標誌
1
Materials form the orld hile o r heart forms
o r life
2
Introduction
公司
標誌
3
Design problems, almost always, are open-
ended. No niq e or correct sol tion, b t
some will clearly be better than others.
So the first tool a designer needs is an open
mind: the willingness to consider all
possibilities, but how?
4
5
What are the major concerns in material
selection?
Fmction
Matial
shape
Pres
6
Functionality vs material selection, any example?
Helmet for motorcycle
wntilation Light and
strong
Transparent
shoek
abserptzn
Fihe
Gmfrtahle7
7
eyssedasfmction.ae
ns.traintsobjeetiuesawdfreevariablesfiudeheseneeued
matriaktatdothejobbestekwinatematerialsthetc.am
ot dthe job
researchtnefamilyhistryo
ftp.raukdaudi.dies ,
8
Example:
Car engine
selection
9
Study material
properties
公司
標誌
10
Material Supporting
Translation Screening Ranking
properties information
11
What kinds of material properties should be
considered during material selection in product
design?
Mechanicalpropehs
eg Strengtn
_ 、
user
-
ˋ _-
gpranmu
intractòn
eg
transpareng
12
Stiff, elastic, deformable but subject to fatigue &
Metals corrosion
Improve by alloying, heat treatment, cool working
Polymers Subject to creep, sensitive to temperature

Resist corrosion, can be reinforced by fiber
Elastomers Lo Yo ng s mod li hich increase ith temperat re

Have enormous elastic extension.
Ceramics Hard but brittle, no ductility

Not sensitive to temperature, resist corrosion & abrasion
Glasses Hard, brittle

Vulnerable to stress concentrations
Hybrids Tailor made, light, stiff, and strong, and can be tough.
Expensive
13
Example of
materials for
different classes.
14
15
16
17
18
Flow of material information
19
20
21
Refer to Appendix I for other material properties:
1) Modulus of rupture
2) Endurance limit
3) Fracture toughness
4) Loss tangent
5) Wear rate
6) Heat capacity
7) Thermal conductivity
8) Thermal expansion
9) Resistivity
10)Dielectric constant
11)Dielectric loss
22
Picture, sample and questionnaire
23
24
25
Material Meaning of strength
Metals and Yield strength
polymers
Ceramics Modulus of rupture 陶瓷器
Elastomers Tensile tear strength
Composites Tensile failure strength
An important use of the chart is in materials

selection for lightweight strength-limited design.
26
Material Property
Charts
公司
標誌
27
28
o_o 。
些 "
50 0 0
i.
29
Which class of metallic alloy is the lightest?
Which the heaviest? Which the stiffest? Which
the least stiff?
30
Refer to Appendix for other material charts:
1) Young modulus - density
2) Strength density
3) Specific modulus specific strength
4) Fracture toughness modulus
5) Loss coefficient Modulus
6) Thermal Conductivity Electrical Resistivity
7) Thermal Conductivity Diffusivity
8) Thermal Expansion Thermal Conductivity
9) Expansion Modulus
10) Maximum service temperature
11) Coefficient of friction
12) Wear rate Hardness
13) Price per unit weight/Volumn
14) Modulus Relative cost/volumn 31
Translation of
design requirement
公司
標誌
32
Role of translation Material
properties
Translation
Screening
Ranking
Supporting
information
33
What kind of variations may be involved in
translation?
Uariationof sizeaglengtndiamete
Seennalarea
geometry
variàlion
of Mehanicd
Mahal Gical
uture
34
Design requirements are translated to
constraints and objectives.
o
1) Single variation (One free variable)
Find required Search
Identify
material material
variation
properties chart
2) Multiple variations (Free variables)=
Construct
material index Search material
Identify
from required chart with the
variations
properties & index
geometry
35
Examine the design requirements to identify
the constraints that they impose on material
choice, i.e. identify the material attributes.
36
Using design requirements, analyze 4 items:
1) Function: What does the component do?
2) Objective: What is to be maximized or
minimized?
3) Constraints: What nonnegotiable
conditions must be met? What negotiable
but desirable conditions must be met?
4) Free variations: Which design variations
are free? Which can be modified? Which
are desirable?
37
However, in many cases, performance is
sometimes limited a combination of properties.
The property or property-group that
maximizes performance for a given design is
called its material index.
a) Constraints set property limits.
b) Objectives define material indices.
38
We can generalize the performance P (e.g.
weight/mass/cost) of the element as
𝑃 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑠
After re-grouping of variables, we can achieve:
Material
index
Since most material charts are in logarithmic scale, a

logarithmic conversion is needed by the end.
The loading on a component can generally be
decomposed into some combination of axial
tension, bending, torsion, and compression.
Almost always, one mode dominates.
So common is this that the functional name
given to the components describes the way it is
loaded:
1) Ties carry tensile loads
2) Beams carry bending moments
3) Shafts carry torques
4) Columns carry compressive axial load.
① 菅野既fmetn ,
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propeo 30 瞰你咩
Materials above line are candidates for
the corresponding material indices.
Materials above line are candidates for
the corresponding material indices.
A schematic E ρ chart
showing a grid of lines for
the material index M =
E1/3/ρ.
A selection based on the index
M = E1/3/ρ > 2 (GPa)1/3 (Mg/m3)
together with the property
limit
E > 50 GPa. The materials
contained in the search region
become the candidates for the
next stage
of the selection process.
Summary
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Cases study:
Single Free variable
公司
標誌
48
Visor for helmet
49
A material is required for the visor of a safety
helmet to provide maximum facial protection.
50
To allow clear vision the visor
must be optically transparent.
To protect the face from the
front, from the sides, and from
below it must be doubly curved,
requiring that the material can be
molded.
We thus have two constraints:
transparency and ability to be
molded.
51
Fracture of the visor would
expose the face to damage;
maximizing safety therefore
translates into maximizing
resistance to fracture.
The material property that
measures resistance to fracture
is the fracture toughness, K1c.
The objective is therefore to
maximize K1c.
52
Solution:
Function Visor for face protection
Constraints a) Transparent
b) Curve shape
c) All dimensions are
specified
Objective Maximize fracture toughness,
K1c.
Free variation Choice of material
53
Material Supporting
54
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polycarbonate (PC)
Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
Others (Polyamide, ABS & SAN,
Polyethylene, TPU)
55
Soda glass or soda-lime glass
Colored glass
Plate glass
Safety glass
Laminated glass
Optical glass
Pyrex glass
Photo-chromatic glass
Lead crystal glass
Toughened glass
Fusion glass
Etched glass
Float glass
Stained glass
Beveled glass
Figured glass
Cast glass
Frameless doors
Tinted glass
56
57
A search for transparent materials that can be
molded delivers the following list. The first
four are thermoplastics; the last two, glasses.
Material Average Fracture
Toughness K1c MPa.m1/2
Polycarbonate (PC) 3.4
Cellulose acetate (CA) 1.7
Polymethyl methacrylate 1.2
(acrylic, PMMA)
Polystyrene (PS) 0.9
Soda-lime glass 0.6
Borosilicate glass 0.6 58
Material Supporting
59
What are its strengths and weaknesses?
Does it have a good reputation?
What, in a word, is its credit rating?
Material Current usage from internet
Polycarbonate Safety shields and goggles; lenses; light fittings;
safety helmets; laminated sheet for bullet-proof
glazing.
Cellulose Spectacle frames; lenses; goggles; tool handles;
Acetate covers for television screens; decorative trim,
steering wheels for cars.
PMMA, Lenses of all types; cockpit canopies and aircraft
Plexiglas windows; containers; tool handles; safety
spectacles; lighting, automotive taillights.
60
All three materials have a history of use for
goggles and protective screening.
Polycarbonate has a history of use for
protective helmets. We select this material,
confident that with its high fracture toughness
it is the best choice.
61
The final choice between
competing candidates will
often depend on local
conditions: in-house
expertise or equipment, the
availability of local suppliers,
and so forth.
In this case, performance is
sometimes limited by a single
property, the fracture
toughness.
62
Select an appropriate material for a heat sink
of memory clips. Hints: The heat sink now
becomes a critical component, limiting further
development of the electronics. How can its
performance be maximized?
Answer: aluminum nitride, AlN, or alumina, Al2O3. 63

Solution:
Analysis: To prevent electrical coupling and stray
capacitance between chip and heat sink, the heat sink
must be a good electrical insulator, meaning a resistivity,
e > 10 cm. But to drain heat away from the chip as
19
fast as possible, it must also have the highest possible

thermal conductivity, . (or a minimum value specified by
the engineer for heat dissipation requirement)
每散熱夠快
64
Solution:
Function Heat sink
Constraints a) Good electrical insulator
with resistivity, e > 1019
cm
b) All dimensions are
specified
Objective Maximize thermal
conductivity,
Free variation Choice of material
65
Solution:
The procedure, then, is to screen on resistivity,
then rank on conductivity. The steps can be
implemented using the - e chart.
Draw a vertical line at e = 1019, then pick
off the materials that lie above this line, and have
the highest . The result is aluminum nitride, AlN,
or alumina, Al2O3.
By the end, support information should be found
about the material for final decision.
66
67
Cases study:
Multiple Free variables
公司
標誌
68
Consider a push rod of SUV Liftgate as an
example, Whatarethefreewnable ?
Analysis
For transport systems, fuel consumption
should be minimized. A lighter system
consume less fuel. So a good starting point is
minimum weight design
Translation
Function Support a tension load

Objective Minimize mass m
Constraints a) Length L specified (geometric
constraint) 負重。
b) Carry axial tensile load F Fsphed

without failure (functional
constraint)
Free a) Cross-section area A
variations b) Choice of material
oucriticalfste.es
Objective function is 𝑚 𝐴𝐿
Constraint function is failure strength
𝐹∗ 𝐹∗
→𝐴
𝐴 ⼀⼀
F* is allowable loading given by the

designer/customers/safety regulation.
Eliminating A (free variable) between these two
equations gives
𝐹∗
𝑚 𝐿 →𝑚 𝐹∗ 𝐿
Functional Geometric Material

constraint constraint properties
We can define as the material index which
should be minimized. To facilitate the searching
process, we can express it in an invert manner.
𝑀
Maximize
As stiffness is related to the strength closely, we
consider the stiffness instead of strength, we get
𝐸
𝑀
The material index involves E and , so we check
the E - graph.
We suppose that the design imposes limits on these of
Eߙ>10 GPa and <1,100 kg/m3
At this stage, keep as many options

open as possible.
How to optimize selection?
Consider material indice
𝐸
𝐶
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐸 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶
With reference to the simple line equation
𝑚 𝑐
Hence, the material indices E/ can be
plotted onto the figure as a line with slope 1.
To ma imi e E/ , e mo e p the line and
check which material can be the appropriate
candidates.
Integrate material cost into the material
indices for the push rod.
Answer: 𝑀
Solution:
When the objective is to minimize cost rather
than mass, the indices change again. If the
material price is Cm $/kg,
𝐶 𝑚𝐶 𝐴𝐿𝐶
𝑀
𝐶
If we consider the stiffness instead of
strength, we get
𝐸 Maximize
𝑀
𝐶
Find the material indices for a table top panel as
shown below. Consider the thickness as the free
variable, why?
/
Answer: 𝑀
Solution
Analysis
A panel is a flat slab, like a table top. Its
length L and width b are specified but its
thickness is free. It is loaded in bending by a
central load F. The stiffness constraint
requires that it must not deflect more than .
The objective is to achieve this with minimum
mass, m.
Solution: Translation
Function Panel
Objective Minimize mass m of the panel
Constraints a) Bending stiffness S* specified
(functional constraint)
b) Length L and width b specified
(geometric constraints)
Free a) Panel thickness h

variables b) Choice of material
Objective function is 𝑚 𝐴𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
Its bending stiffness S supposed to be at
least S*:
∗
𝐶 𝐸𝐼 1 𝑆
𝑆 𝑆∗ →
𝐿 𝐿 𝐶 𝐸𝐼
Where C1 is a constant that depends only on
the distribution of the loads. The second
moment of area, I, for a rectangular section is
𝑏ℎ 1 12𝑆 ∗ 1
𝐼 ;∴
12 𝐿 𝐶 𝐸𝑏 ℎ
Eliminating h (free variable) between these
two equation gives
∗ /
12𝑆
𝑚 𝑏𝐿
𝐶𝑏 𝐸 /

That is, we need to maximize the material
/
indices 𝑀
Find the material indices for a beam as
shown below.
/
Answer: 𝑀
Solution
Analysis
Consider two methods:
a) First, we identify the optimum materials for
a light, stiff beam of a prescribed simple
shape (a square section)
b) Second, we explore how much lighter it
could be made for the same stiffness by
using a more efficient shape.
Solution: Translation
Function Beam
Objective Minimize mass m of the beam
Constraints a) Length L is specified (geometric constraint)
b) Section shape square (geometric
constraint)
c) Beam must support bending load F
without deflecting too much, meaning that
bending stiffness S is specified as S*
(functional constraint)
Free a) Cross-section area A
variables b) Choice of material
The second
moment of area
Objective function is 𝑚 𝐴𝐿 𝑏 𝐿
Its bending stiffness S must be at least S*:
∗
𝐶 𝐸𝐼 1 𝑆
𝑆 𝑆∗ →
𝐿 𝐿 𝐶 𝐸𝐼
Where C2 is a constant that depends only on
the distribution of the loads. The second
moment of area, I, for a square section is
𝑏 𝐴
𝐼
12 12
Eliminating b (free variable) between these
two equations gives
𝑚 𝑏 𝐿
𝑚 12𝐼 / 𝐿
∗ /
𝑆 𝐿
𝑚 12 𝐿
𝐶 𝐸
∗ /
12𝑆 𝐿
𝑚 𝐿 /
𝐶 𝐸
Eliminating b (free variable) between these
two equation gives
∗ /
12𝑆 𝐿
𝑚 𝐿
𝐶 𝐸 /

That is, we need to maximize the material
/
index 𝑀
Try to repeat the above material selection
process with other section shape.
For single free variable:
Evaluate Select
Translate Solve each Select
performance performance
design constraint candidates
of each based on
requirements individually accordingly.
candidate. most limiting
Function, From From History Cost?

Objective, hand- material Market
Constraints, book chart available?
Free variables
For multiple free variables:
a) Requires utility function to map multiple
metrics to common performance measures
Identify
Evaluate Select
Translate Define List out material Select
performance performance
design performance constraint index from candidates
of each based on
requirements function formula performance accordingly.
candidate. most limiting
function
Function, Weight/ From Calculation From History Cost?

Objective, cost? hand- Material Market
Constraints, book chart available?
Free variables
Summary
1) Translate design requirements: Function, Objective, Constraints,
Free variables
2) Develop an equation for the objective in terms of the functional
requirements, the geometry, and the material properties (objective
function).
3) List the constraints formula (no yield, no fracture, no buckling, etc)
and develop an equation for them if necessary.
4) Identify the free (unspecified) variables other than the material.
5) Substitute the free variables from the constraint equations into the
objective function.
6) Group the variables into three groups: functional requirements F,
geometry G, and material properties M;
7) Read off the material index, expressed as a quantity M that
optimizes the performance metric P. M is the criterion of excellence.
Design & Manufacturing
Dr. C K Chan
MECH3427 Appendix
Material
公司
charts and tables
標誌
1
Material properties
公司
標誌
2
The modulus of rupture (MOR) is the surface
Material properties
stress at failure in bending. It is equal to, or
slightly larger than, the failure stress in
tension.
3
Material
Cyclic loadingproperties
4
Material
The fracture toughness, K1c , measures properties
the resistance to
the propagation of a crack.
5
The lo angen mea re Material properties
he frac ional energ
dissipated in a stress-strain cycle.
6
Wear is the loss of material from surfaces when they
Material properties
slide. The wear resistance is measured by the Archard
wear constant, KA
A is the area of the slider
surface
P is the normal force pressing
it onto the other surface.
7
The heat capacity the energyMaterial
to raise properties
the temperature
of 1 kg of material by 1°C.
8
The hermal cond c i i mea re he fl of hea
Material
driven by a temperature gradient dT/dX.properties
9
The linear- hermal e pan ion coefficien mea re he change
Material properties
in length, per unit length, when the sample is heated.
10
Electrical resistivity, e, is measured as the potential gradient,
Material properties
V/L, divided by the current density, i/A. It is related to resistance,
R, by e = AR/L.
11
Dielectric constant: a measure of the ability of an insulator
to polarize.
Material properties
12
Material properties
Dielectric loss, describe dielectric heating
13
Material charts &
tables
公司
標誌
14
Optical material
15
Optical material
16
Optical material
17
Optical material
Transmission of 10
mm thick fused
silica, BK7, and
crown glass
windows.
18
Optical material
Transmittance of IR optical materials.
19
Optical material
Transmittance of UV-IR materials.
20
Optical material
Transmittance of VIS-NIR materials.
21
Material bar chart
22
Material bar chart
23
Material bar chart
24
Material bar chart
25
Material bar chart
thermal conductivity
26
Material bar chart
27
Material bar chart
28
Material bar chart
29
Material bar chart
30
Material bar chart
31
Material bar chart
32
Material bar chart
33
Material bar chart
34
Material bar chart
35
Material bar chart
36
Material bar chart
37
Material bar chart
The Process Material

matrix.
A given process can shape,
or join, or finish some
materials but not others.
The matrix shows the links
between material and
process classes. A red dot
indicates that the pair are
compatible. Processes that
cannot shape the material of
choice are non-starters.
The upper section of the
matrix describes shaping
processes. The two
sections at the bottom cover
joining and finishing.
38
The Process Shape matrix.
Shape matrix
Shape is the most difficult attribute to
characterize. Many processes involve
rotation or translation of a tool or of the
workpiece, directing our thinking
towards axial symmetry, translational
symmetry, uniformity of section and
such like. Turning creates
axisymmetric (or circular) shapes;
extrusion, drawing and rolling make
prismatic shapes, both circular and
non-circular. Sheet-forming processes
make flat shapes (stamping) or dished
shapes (drawing). Certain processes
can make 3-dimensional shapes, and
among these some can make hollow
shapes whereas others cannot.
The process-shape matrix displays
the links between the two. If the
process cannot make the desired
shape, it may be possible to combine it
with a secondary process to give a
process-chain that adds the additional
features: casting followed by
machining is an obvious example.
Information about material
compatibility is included at the extreme
left.
39
Shape matrix
The Process Mass-range chart.

The bar-chart shows the typical mass-
range of components that each
processes can make. It is one of four,
allowing application of constraints on
size (measured by mass), section
thickness, tolerance and surface
roughness. Large components can be
built up by joining smaller ones. For
this reason the ranges associated with
joining are shown in the lower part of
the figure. In applying a constraint on
mass, we seek single shaping
processes or shaping-joining
combinations capable of making it,
rejecting those that cannot.
40
Shape matrix
The Process Section thickness chart.
The bar-chart on the right allows
selection to meet constraints on
section thickness. Surface tension
and heatflow limit the minimum section
of gravity cast shapes. The range can
be extended by applying a pressure or
by pre-heating the mold, but there
remain definite lower limits for the
section thickness. Limits on rolling
and forging-pressures set a lower limit
on thickness achievable by
deformation processing. Powder-
forming methods are more limited in
the section thicknesses they can
create, but they can be used for
ceramics and very hard metals that
cannot be shaped in other ways. The
section thicknesses obtained by
polymer-forming methods injection
molding, pressing, blow-molding, etc
depend on the viscosity of the polymer;
fillers increase viscosity, further limiting
the thinness of sections. Special
techniques, which include electro-
forming, plasma-spraying and various
vapour deposition methods, allow
very slender shapes.
41
Shape matrix
The Process Tolerance chart.

No process can shape a part exactly
to a specified dimension. Some
de ia ion from a de ired
dimension x is permitted; it is
referred to as the tolerance, T, and
is specified as 𝑥 100 0.1𝑚𝑚,
or as 𝑥 50 0.01
0.001 mm. This bar
chart allows selection to achieve a
given tolerance.
The inclusion of finishing processes
allows simple process chains to be
explored
42
Shape matrix
The Process Surface roughness

chart.
The surface roughness R, is
measured by the root-mean square
amplitude of the irregularities on the
surface. It is specified as R<100 µm
(the rough surface of a sand casting)
or R < 0.01µm (a highly polished
surface). The bar chart on the right
allows selection to achieve a given
surface roughness.
The inclusion of finishing processes
allows simple process chains to be
explored.
43
Shape matrix
The Process Economic batch-size

chart.
Process cost depends on a large
number of independent variables.
The influence of many of the inputs
to the cost of a process are captured
by a single attribute: the economic
batch size. A process with an
economic batch size with the range
B1 B2 is one that is found by
experience to be competitive in cost
when the output lies in that range.
44
Constants and conversion
45
Shape matrix
46
Shape matrix
47
Shape matrix
48
Shape matrix
49
Plastics
公司
標誌
50
Material bar chart
51
Material bar chart
52
Material bar chart
53
Material bar chart
54
Material indices
公司
標誌
55
Material indices
Material indices
Material indices
Material indices
Material indices
Material indices
Material indices
MECH3427 Design &
Manufacture
Dr. Y.H. Chen

Room: HW7-29
Tel.: 3917-7910
Email: yhchen@hku.hk
Design for X (fun, self-satisfaction,

society, innovation, money,
environment, etc).
Prototyping Workshop: 3D printers.

(at home/office/factory)
Design in Mechanical and
Civil Engineering ?
Major difference: Static vs Dynamic
Smart people are dynamic
Common: Stress, safety factor.
Engineering Units for dynamics:
Velocity(m/s), acceleration(m/s2),
moment of inertia(Kg.m2), Work (J),
Fatigue Strength (Pa, cycle time), etc.
Major Materials?
Metal, plastics, cement
Standard Parts?
inter-changeability, low cost.
Innovation?
up to you. Learn from previous stories.
P hi g ge he . Y ha e
K he hi g fi .
Major Course Content
Not much about design: basic
component selection based on
application parameters. The
components are the basic bricks for
more complicated systems (know the
things in mechanical design).
Belt & Chain
Gearing
Bearings
Shaft design
Clutches and Brakes
Joining methods
Manufacture (If time allows)
Project (Every Tuesday)
Major components
Belts and Chains
Gears
Bearing
Shaft
gm.tn
Clutch GBrake
Belt and Chain Drives
Motor cycle:
0 Why?
Belt/chain?
Cars:
Belt drive. Why
enweafhighspeed
Bike:
Chain drive ?
Why? lowsped
Flexible power transmission machine

components
What is the output of an engine
Belt or Chain Drive here ?
Replace Chain
drive with a belt
drive (some early
cars used chain
drive). Why?
Beltdire
•Cost;
•Noise; 𧂮 ,
•Shock load.
•Durability
Belt properties have been improved

To replace the chain.
Chain/Belt Drive for Motorcycles?
Chain properties have been improved

To replace the belt
Pro's for Chains
*Chains have more strength for higher Horse
Power applications.
*Broken chains can be fixed with a new master
三
link.
*Drive ratio (larger than belt transmission
ratio) is easily changed with sprocket size
combinations.
Master link:
allow quick connect and
disconnect of chains
Con's for Chains

*A chain failure (broken) can be catastrophic,
*A chain has considerably more inertial mass
*Chains are heavy
*Chains require regular maintenance
*Chains require lubrication
*Chains are noise
E
Pro's for Belts
* Belts rarely do damage to the vehicle
when they fail (slippage).
* Belts have long service life
* Belts require very little maintenance
* Belts have a lower cost
* Belts transfer power more efficiently than
chains
* Belts operate quietly and smoothly
Con's for Belts

•Less strength than a chain;
•Difficult to change speed;
•Limited speed transmission ratio;
•Difficult to repair on the side of the road
Concerns for your project
If Chain Drive is chosen:
All chain drive data tables can be used

because data tables start from the
minimum rotational velocity of 5/10 rpm.
If Belt Drive is chosen:
All belt drive data tables may not be used

because data tables start from the
minimum rotational velocity of 100
rpm(your calculated pulley speed might
be less than 100rpm).
For high speed For slow speed

General guide lines
Belts/chains are in seamless
loop seamless loop
Basic Belt Types

flat
round
V/wedge
belt
Timing
(teethed)
Belt
Belts/chains are in seamless
loop
V 䀝 Most belts have high
strength cords,
made from natural
fibers, synthetic
strands, or steel,
embedded in a firm
rubber compound.
Normally, an outer
fabric cover is added
to the surface for
good belt durability.
There may be different belt

geometry.
One common point: soft material and

easily bendable (or expendable)
Timing Belts
The e Ti i g Bel efe
⼟
belt with teeth. This type of belts
has no problem of slippage.
The velocity transmission ratio is
predictable. If not, replace the
belts
Belts/chains are in
seamless loop
Belts can not carry large load
but chain drives can
Normally roller chain
Sprocket
䵯
Metal,
lubrication is
necessary
How to make
the metal
flexible?
Is it noisy?
Prime Mover of Machines:
Motor
愳
A stand-alone part
What are the output of a motor ?
What is the major specs of a motor ?

RPM, power, torque, etc
Bel d i e ed i da ca
V-belts or
timing belts?
tīming
r
V-belts or
timing belts?
Which is
better ?
Belt and Chain drives
Major types of flexible power
transmission,
Long distance
0
←
Speed reduction,
Special features of belt drives

Special features of chain drives
Design procedure of belt drive

Design procedure of chain
drive.
Belt or Chain Drives ?
P=T x Power
Motor-bike High n
Bike: Low n Less than 1000rpm
* Shafts widely separated
* Belt or chain tension? Center distance
adjustable/other means.
* Belt drives are used for higher rotational
speed
* Chain drives are applied at lower
rotational speed.
Relative locations of power
transmission Modules
Motor or
Engine
n
Gear
Box
Belt
Drive
Chain
Drive
Driven
Machine
Modular Design and

Modular Systems
Why do we need a belt drive?
Motor or Engine
n
Belt
Drive
Gear
Box
1. Vibration damping
2. Prevent Overload
3. Long distance load transmission
4. Low cost
5. Easy to install
6. Low noise level
7. No need for lubrication
⼀
8. Speed reduction
A Large Variety of Belt Types
Flat Belt Round Belt o

V-belt
Multi-strand Timing Double sided

V-belt Belt timing belt
pulley
Groove on
pulley
Thidass
Pulley groove dimensions

Wedge belt is a type of V-belt with a higher
load capacity. Known as narrow V-belt.
Flat or V-belt (wedge) belt?
Flat belt has one contact surface,

V-belt has two contact surfaces
Flat & V-Belt Characteristics
No lubrication required
Minimal maintenance
Damp shock loading
Quiet, smooth operation
Fairly inexpensive
Readily available
No rusting
Slippage can occur – speed
ratios vary
Slippage provides protection
for overloading
Some environments harm
belts
Timing Belt Drives
A correctly designed and installed timing belt

drive should operate successfully for between
8000 and 12000 hrs and have an operating
efficiency of about 98%.
V-belt drive: 95% - 98%

Chain Drive: 96% - 98%
V-Belt Characteristics
250
For pitch diameter Speed Ratio = 2.5
100mm and 250mm 庇
250
Beltdrive →
peed
100 Reduction
Driven
Speed-
R Down
1750
0
rpm 700
rpm
Driving 100
Speed
N
-Up
4375
250 Speed Ratio = 0.4 rpm
Timing-Belt Characteristics
Speed ratio of time belt depends on the number of
teeth on each pulley
Speed Ratio = 75/30=2.5
Driven
Speed-
Down
30
75
Number of teeth?
Driving
Speed
N
-Up
30
75 Speed Ratio = 30/75=0.4
Idler Pulley Arrangement
Purpose of idlers?
Driver
Driver
Idler Driver Idler

Driven
Idler
Driven
Driver Driven
Idler
Decreased Arc contact
Driver
Increased Arc contact
(better layouts)
Wrap angle θA, θB
-
Purposes:
1. Increase tensions (Belts must be tight)
_
2. Increase wrap angle .
Belt Drive Variations
Driven
Driver Driven
Driver
Reverse drive
Driven
Driver
Driven
Crossed reverse drive
Driven
Driver
Driven Variable
Speed drive
Driver
Driver
Perpendicular Shafts Clutch drive
Why Initial Tension in Belt Drive
Slack belts: changeable center

distance, or movable idler
Bike chain slips off ?
Identify Tight and loose/slack
sides of belt drives
When Static, two sides are equally tight

Driver Driven
n
;
When in rotation, one side is tight, and the
other loose/slack. The belt tension on each
side can be quite different. 5 times
difference is very common.
Identify the driving pulley: mark a point on
the belt. Coming into contact: tight
Leaving contact: slack.
Initial Tension in Belt Drive
Howtochange
Two Popular
Methods:
1. Change center
Distance;
2. Add Idler
Where to Add Idlers
Two Places:
化
1. Outside (recommended) 壍
Tiene
near the driving pulley/sprocket
on slack side.
1. Inside: near the driven

pulley/sprocket
One motor, multiple outputs
Driving
pulley
How to connect the belt and

pulleys?
Identify driving pulley and
idlers (tensioners)
Tensioners: normally outside
belts, push the belt to have a
larger wrap angle with
neighboring pulleys
Driving pulley: with relatively
large wrap angle, normally
connected with motor, engine,
etc.
Using belt drive for linear
motion: Design of a lift?
Counter-
weight
Have belt drives been used for

human or cargo lift design? Why Yes,
or Why not?
linearvelodtg
Angle of contact (wrap angle)

and its effects
hen 2 pulleys have the same diameters, the

peed ratio is 1, and wrap angle is 1800)
nnnnnn
Thruwrhhhrnrtt
V-Belt Design
Commercial catalogs provide

design steps and power ratings
for belt drives. Consult the
actual belt suppliers when
designing.
The following example shows the

typical belt design process.
n.ie
☐
帶制被帶劫
Any other diameters?

器1 =
2
.
zlkw
2880rpm
0
o
2440rpm
lqo
nnilztni 125 rpmidedfng
=
futn
mn
說 → 在兆 2 揾最接近
_ atualdesìgn ,
_
_
From 420mm to 408.8mm
i
When should
you interpolate?
Why?
Why?
Longer belt
experiences less time
vrnn Lehhn Lnrrn
motor 2880 rpm ,

pump
240orpm
!
"
"" ""
感
⼆司
2880 2400
⼩Diauetr ⼤Diauetn
We should have 4 grooves (only 2 are shown in the drawing)

Sample Pulley Designs
lowspenghaǚ
uuatf
A typical Driving Pulley
wu
nhighspnn
lowq
Driuing
A typical Driven Pulley
cutvoid
redua
weiqht
V-Belt Design Summary
Center distance must be adjustable if
possible.
If fixed center distance is required,
idler pulleys should be used.
If center distance is not given, the
recommended range is
-_-
D < Center distance < 3(d+D)
D: the diameter of the larger pulley,
d: the diameter of the smaller pulley.
The angle of wrap should be greater
than 1200, in other words, the speed
reduction ratio is not big.
Two pulley shafts should be parallel
if possible.
-0
240 !
0 !
I
'"
Belt Table 5
o
o O
over 90
17
o
1.25 spod
otlato
o
O_o 25kW
,
○
lintrpolatn
weg.co
←
和
o o
Chain Drive Examples
Pitch
Sprocket- Chain
a small and a large
Chain Drive Characteristics
Positive drive – no slippage

Maintain constant speed ratios
Carry heavy loads
Long life
Operate in hostile environments
Usually limited to slow speeds
Standard Roller Chain,
and assembly sequence
和 ""
Sprockets
_
Force in chain drive
Force in Chain Drives
1. Identify driving sprocket;

2. Identify direction of rotation;
3. Identify tight side;
4. Only tight side carries load
Speed ratio = Ndriven/Ndriving
(the same for teethed belt transmissions)
Chain Drive Design
Guidelines
The Min. number of teeth in a sprocket
should be 17 unless the drive is
operating at a very low speed, say
under 100rpm;
The max. speed ratio should be 7.
The center line distance should be 30 to
50 chain pitches;
Center distance be adjustable.
Tight side on top.
Pitch
Chain Drive Design
Similar procedures to belt design
Determine:
a) Chain Pitch,
b) Number of Teeth in both
sprockets,
c) Chain length in multiple of chain
pitch
Refer to teaching notes for an

example. Commercial catalogs
from suppliers may offer slightly
different design procedures.
A Sample Chain Drive Design Procedure
1) From Table 1, determine the service
factor which is applicable to your
drive;
2) Design power: multiply the nominal
power by the service factor;
3) Chain pitch: From Fig.1, using speed
of faster shaft and design power,
select a recommended chain pitch;
4) Speed Ratio: Divide the speed of faster
shaft by the speed of the slower shaft
to obtain the speed ratio;
5) Sprocket sizes: use Table 4 to select
the nearest;
6) Power rating: Use Table 3 to find the
power rating;
7) Chain Length:
A Sample Chain Drive Design Procedure
7) Chain Length:L
L=(2C)/P + (T+t)/2 + (KP)/C
L: length of chain in pitches

C: Centre distance in mm;
P: Pitch of chain in mm;
T: Number of teeth in the large sprocket
t: Number of teeth in the small sprocket;
K: Factor from Table 2.
Assignment (No Need to submit)
1) Give two examples of belt or chain
drive applications, using diagrams to
illustrate the applications.
2) Design a V-belt drive for a 55kW diesel
engine which runs at 1200rpm driving
a piston compressor running at
760rpm. The centre distance is to be
approximately 1600mm and the duty is
20hrs/day. The engine shaft and
compressor shaft are 70mm and 85mm
respectively.
* Why shaft diameters are given here?

Geometric
design?
Pulley bore diameters are dependent on

shaft diameters and suggested max
diameters of pulleys.
Gear Transmission
Gear Transmission
Mercedes-Benz Gear
Transmission System
Gear Transmission
Bdtlchaiu)
tath
fhomparedto
1. Rigid; hardmaterial
2. Heavy Load;
3. Compact (short centre dist.)
-
4. Large speed reduction ratio;
5. Accurate;
6. High efficiency;
7. Need lubrication for metal gears;
8. Noisy (especially when not properly installed).
Types of Gears
Spur Gear
☐
Helical
Gear
Bevel
Gear
Worm-
gear
Focus on
Spur Gear
Type of gear transmissions
Helical gears
0
毗
-
Rack and Pinion:
Spur gears Rotary->Linear
Bevel gears
Rotary -> Rotary
Rotary -> Linear
Parallel shafts
Worm gears Angular shafts
Spur Gears
Shaft center line & teeth profile: parallel
Gear and Pinion, Rack and Pinion

Gear
celosmaller
Pinion
Gear
Rack
Gear Box
ged
Input and output
shaft, which is
stronger?
2nd stage
1st stage
0 Pio
Gear and pinionSman
owmow F
Two stage reduction
4 Three stage reduction
犫
1
What’s IN, what’s OUT ? EÜ

T ,ω ,T
in in
tniow
out out
Spur Gears
Teeth surface parallel to center-line

Gears showing blank & hub design
(connecting with a shaft)
No hub design
Objectives
Spur gear geometry and nomenclature

Gear Materials and Manufacture
Simple Gear Train and Gear Train Ratio/Velocity
ratio
Forces on gear teeth
Stresses in gear teeth
Design of gear based on bending stress
Design of gear based on contact (Hertz) stress
Spur gear design procedures
Gear Transmission
*Transmit rotary motion;
unnrennnn
Sometimes linear, rack&pinion

*Differences from Belt & Chain
Drives?
short easy
*Center distance, assembly?
Accuracy? nign
Rigid or rigid?
* Flexible
* Velocity Ratio?
Friction Gear and Belt Drive
Friction gear Belt or rope drive

Worn out -limited load capacity only-
Force action line:

F
TWO base circles
Ideally: only A gap: no What tooth profiles

rolling motion force be allow contact only alone
transmitted the force action line?
Friction Gear and Belt Drive
←
Force action line:
TWO base circles
What gear tooth profiles allow rolling contact only alone

the force action line? Why do we want a fixed force
action line?
Involute line
tngntline.li
你𠾵 Curve normal is
always tangent to
the base circle
Gear Tooth Face Profile

Engineers discovered that involute tooth profile always
allows rolling teeth contact alone the force action line.
Involute line generation
orbit.in
此
v01
r.ve 轉歇
S ④
Roll the ruler against

a circular disk (called
base circle). The loci
of S is involute curve.
Gear pressure line
Gear teeth contact always occurs alone force action line (line of action):
The normal line of the involute curve at the contact point, tangent to
both base circles.
Pressure Angle
aóc
The force action line is
always tangent to the two
base circles.
Φ Pressure angle Φ:
The angle between the

tangent line of the two
pitch circles that passes
through the pitch point
and the force action line.
Pressure Angle: big or small
smallerteeth
smdler Foratransmitted
Small pressure angle: small space for gear teeth. Tooth
size is small. Thus more teeth can be made.
Large pressure angle: large space for gear teeth.
☐ Tooth size is big. Less teeth can be made.
Why small pressure
angle?
Smaller teeth, better Φ Φ
load transmission FcosΦ, F
FcosΦ
more teeth pair in F
meshing, weaker teeth.
Why large pressure angle?

Larger teeth, higher strength.
For small pressure angle:
More teeth, smaller teeth,
bigger FcosΦ (better
torque transmission), FcosΦ Φ
weaker teeth;
For large pressure angle:
Less teeth, bigger teeth
Smaller FcosΦ (poor
torque transmission),
Stronger teeth. Standard pressure angles Φ:
14.50, 200, 250.
。 Default 200.
Forces on Gear Tooth
Standard pressure angles
Φ: Fr
n
14.50, 200, 250.
全⺠
忍 Φ
不
Ft
Default 200.
FcosΦ
F
Tangential Force Ft = Fcos Fr
Radial Force Fr = Fsin FsinΦ
Normally Ft is found first as it

is the force that transmits torque.
Fr is absorbed by bearings
䶫 , .mn-
Min. number of teeth on the pinion
to avoid teeth interference.
Pinion base
diameter is small.
Part of its teeth
profile is below the
base circle if the
number of teeth is
too small, resulting
in no-involute
contact:
Called interference.
Min. number of teeth on the pinion to avoid -
teeth interference.
o-n.tn
Pressure angle: 200 18 (17)
250 12
Basic Circles on the gear
Base circle is above the

dedendum circle if the
number of teeth on a gear
is small (relative to pitch Clearance
diameter). Otherwise, it circle
may be below the
dedendum circle.
Gear meshing simplified to pitch circles
Pinion and Gear
Ǎ
Where is the pitch circle?
Center distance is
(Dp+Dg)/2
External and internal meshing gears
External meshing:
Change rotation direction Internal meshing: rotation
⼀ direction unchanged
(Dp+Dg)/2 (Dg - Dp)/2
Basic gear parameters ?
N: number of teeth
D: pitch diamter
m: module nn
Pd: diametral pitch
m = D/N; Pd = N/D
Circular pitch p
p = D/N
Design Data for Gears
m = 25.4/Pd
Standard Module m (mm) m = D/N D: pitch diameter
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 25.0
The larger the module m, the stronger the gear teeth.

Standard Diametral Pitch Pd (Teeth/inch) Pd = N/D
Course Pitch (Pd <20) Fine Pitch (Pd 20)
1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.0, 2.5, 20.0, 24.0, 32.0, 48.0, 64.0,
3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0, 72.0, 80.0, 96.0, 120.0
12.0, 14.0, 16.0, 18.0
Comparative size of gear tooth
m = 25.4/Pd
Standard Module m (mm) m = D/N D: pitch diameter
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 25.0
lagerm-largerta.tn
Circular pitch: p
Measured on the pitch
circle, an arc including a
section of space and tooth.
p = D/N = Dg/Ng
= Dp/Np 型
Center distance
Cd = Dg/2 + Dp/2
=(Dg + Dp)/2
Pressure angle Φ:
normally 200 , special
Cases 250
Gear Geometry
Addendum (a): 1.0m
Dedendum (b): 1.25m
Clearance: c = b-a
= 0.25m
Face width(F): 9m<F<14m
Pitch circle,
vine
wnmodule
outside circle: D+2a
circular pitch: p = D/N
tooth thickness: p/2
module: m
Conditions for meshing gears
1. Same module (m) or diametral pitch (P)
2. Same pressure angle The two conditions ensure
the two gears have the
same teeth size
Gear Materials
Desirable: High bending and surface contact
strength; Good manufacturability.
Medium-carbon steel: most common for

medium-to-heavy duty load power transmissions.
Cast Iron: least expensive, normally greater surface
⼀
fatigue strength than bending fatigue strength
Bronzes: Corrosion resistance, good wear property,

Low friction are major merits.
Plastics: quiet, durable, no lubrication, low cost,
light load. Relatively high coefficient of thermal
expansion
Gear Manufacturing
* Plastic gears:
Molding, no machining is needed.
* Metal gears:
1) Forging, sand casting, die casting to
⼀
near shape.
Then machining the gear teeth to final profile with
required accuracy (normally using a cutter in the
shape of a gear tooth profile).
2) Direct milling, shaping and hobbing
3) EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining) wire cut.
* Gear Quality Number
Qv 1-14 (based on AGMA)
Gear Trains
P-aohradsrpmRadiusdt.n
Pitch circle linear velocity Vp
Vp = p x Rp = g x Rg
Angular Velocity Ratio (VR):
p (input, pinion) over g (output, gear)

Or
p np Rg Dg Ng
VR = = = = =
g ng Rp Dp Np
Gear Train
A gear train is one or more

pairs of gear operating together
to transmit power.
R
Driving N
Gear Trains
%
Gear Train Value (TV): the
input speed n ( input) over the
output speed n (output). TV is
the product of VR for each
gear pair in the gear train.
TV = VR1 x VR2 x …
Three pairs of mating gears:
1-(A,B), 2-(C,D), 3-(D,E)
Gear Train Example
Idler D?
Gear Train Value (TV):
n1=1750rpm
TV = VR1 x VR2 x VR3
= (NB/NA)x(ND/NC)x(NE/ND)
= (NB/NA)x(NE/NC)
= (70/20)x(54/18)
= 10.5
TV = n1/n4
10.5 = 1750rpm/n4
n4 = 166.7rpm
Force on a gear tooth
Pressure Line – direction of force: constant direction

Points of contact are all along pressure line
Force on a gear tooth
Ft : tangential; Fr: radial
Fr Force F is along the
F
pressure line. The force can
Ft be resolved into two
components: Ft and Fr
(which component transmit
power?)
Fr = Ft tan 嘤
住⼆
⾄ P = Ft x V = T x ⼀
V= x D x n/60,000
EET.fi n(rpm), D(mm), V(m/s),

Which force is doing the work, Ft , or Fr ?
Which force causes a linear velocity?
Fr P = Ft x V = T x
F
Ft Which are known, P, n, F?
: normally 200, seldom
250, or 14.50.
200: is normally used;
250: special cases;
14.50: out of date.
Why only a few pressure
angles?
Gear and Stress Distribution
Load is transmitted either from hub Tooth mesh points

to teeth (for driving gear) or teeth to
hub (driven gear). Hub stress due to
contact with shaft
Periodic gear tooth stress
Teeth in contact have

stress, otherwise no stress.
F
rlifespan time
isalsoaansidenon
So fatigue strength is used
vrrnnnn Tooth mesh points
for gear design. fadr
Photoelastic pattern of a gear in stress
q
The potential failure modes of gear tooth?
unnnigrtefatǐe
badàhtqtigue 2
Failure Samples
Flank Pitting (contact) Root Cracking (Bending)

Contact stress failure Bending stress failure
Gear blank & hub design
Reduce weight, save material, … ?

Reduce strength?
Hub strength is ensured by design:
strengthened at the interface with shaft.
Bending Stress
Fr The first recognized
bending stress
Ft analysis of gear tooth
was done by Wilfred
Ft Lewis in 1892 with a
b
number of
assumptions
t
A Tooth is treated as a cantilever bending beam

Assumptions 1. The full load is applied to the tip
of a single tooth. This is the most
Fr severe condition
Ft 2. The radial load Fr is negligible.
Ft
h b Conservative because it causes
t
compressive stress (It reduces tensile
bending stress)
h
3. The load is distributed uniformly
t bendgness
. = McI = 6btF h 4. Forces due to sliding friction is
across the full width
Y: the Lewis form t
2
Factor negligible
Ft
Y=t2/(6hm) =
mbY 5. Stress concentration in the tooth
b: tooth width Ft Pd fillet is negligible.
=
t: tooth thickness bY I: moment of area: bt3/12,
c= t /2, M = Ft x h
c: distance to neutral plane
Assumptions Due to stress concentration at
the root of the tooth, a stress
Fr
,
concentration factor Kt should
Ft be considered.
Ft
h
Since Kt and Y are both related

h
to tooth shape, they are
combined to form the
t
geometry factor J:
Y: the Lewis form FtKt
=
mbY
Factor
Ft J=Y/Kt
=
Y=t2/(6hm) mbJ
b: tooth width Ft Pd Refer to your teaching note on
=
t: tooth thickness
bJ page 12 for J
Ft K a K s K m K B
t =
mbJ ⼼
Kv
Ft Pd K a K s K m K B
or t
=
bJ Kv
Y: the Lewis form FtKt
=
mbY
Factor Ft
=
J: geometry factor mbJ
FP
b: tooth width = t d
bJ
Ft K a K s K m K B
t =
mbJ Kv
wntf
Gear 不比 3
Ka : Application factor for bending strength <load condition
-44
Ks : Size factor for bending strength < teeth size
figmef
Km : Load distribution factor for bending strength< face width
K-
B : Rim thickness fact < Rim design
Kv figweq
: dynamic factor < Velocity
The above factors are found from charts or tables

Geometry/Form Factor J
Factors to the refined bending stress
Ft K a K s K m K B For all parameter values,
t = refer to notes uploaded
mbJ Kv with belt drive
J: Geometry factor, combined stress concentration factor kt at the tooth
root and the Lewis factor Y (dependent on tooth geometry).
Ka: Application factor. Reflect the application background: uniform
load, light shock load, medium shock, or heavy shock load?
Ks: Size factor for bending stress. Larger size gear teeth result in
greater chance of failure.
Km: Load distribution factor. Load may not distribute uniformly along
aihns !
feshaft
the tooth width.
Ft K a K s K m K B
t =
。
mbJ Kv
KB: Rim thickness factor. Reflect the design of the gear shank.
In preliminary gear design,
assume KB =1.
Tr>1.2ht (tooth thickness), then KB

=1.0; otherwise greater than 1.0
Tr
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
Kv: Dynamic factor. Dependent on pitch line velocity & gear

manufacturing quality. A
Bending
≤ load of a
tooth flank
n (rpm)
Fatigue bending load
Gear Design for bending stress
Ft K a K s K m K B
t =
mbJ Kv 9 at ( K L / KR )
Gmmatrial
KL: Life adjustment factor. Life test is based on 107 cycles
KR: Reliability adjustment factor. Based on 99% reliability
If KL is 107, then KL is 1;
And if required reliability is 99%, then KL is 1. Otherwise use the
suggested values as in your note.
Life Adjustment Factor KL
Number of load cycles, N KL
107 1.00
108 0.92
109 0.87
1010 0.8
Reliability Adjustment Factor KR
Required Reliability KR
0.9 0.85
o
0.99
0.999
1.00
1.25
0.9999 1.50
Allowable Bending Strength at
Normally what material strength are provided ?

A sample chart for at
What are the major factors for Fatigue Strength ?
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
S ress S reng h
Stress t : from calculation
Strength at :from charts/tables
Grade 1: for normal use
Medium carbon steel materials Grade 2: for high strength

Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
S ress S reng h
Stress t : from calculation
Strength at :from charts/tables

Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
匪 S e S eng h
Stress σt : from calculation
Strength σat :from charts/tables
Surface Contact Fatigue Stress
Phmepanei
__
Ft Contact load of
a tooth flank
Revolution
(rpm)
Surface and subsurfaceennnnr
fatigue failure because
of periodic compressive stress
Normally happen around pitch line
Surface Contact Hertz Equation
Contact stress
Ft between
cylinders
Based on Hertz
equation, the surface
contact stress is
Ft [ 2 /( d p sin ) + 2 /( d g sin )]
H = 0.564 2 2
1 p 1 g
b cos ( + )
Ep Eg
Surface Contact Stress
Ft [ 2 /( d p sin ) + 2 /( d g sin )]
H = 0.564 2 2
1 p 1 g
b cos ( + )
Ep Eg
b: gear face width
dp, dg: pitch diameters of pinion and gear respectively
p, g: Poi on a io fo inion and gea ma e ial e ec i el

Ep, Eg : Modulus of elasticity of pinion and gear material
respectively.
Ft: Transmitted tangential load on the pitch line
: The gear pressure angle

Cp value can be found from Table below
Normally, we use steel or cast

iron pinions/gears
Ft [2 /( d p sin ) + 2 /( d g sin )]
H = 0.564 2 2
1 p 1 g
Elastic Coefficient Cp b cos ( + )
Ep Eg
1
C p = 0.564 2 2
1 p 1 g
+
Ep Eg
Surface Contact Stress
sin cos R
I = I: Geometry Factor
2 R +1
Ft [2 /( d p sin ) + 2 /( d g sin )]
dg H = 0.564
R=
2 2
1 p 1 g
b cos ( + )
dp Ep Eg
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv Be careful about the unit
of CP: CP MPa
inionfrunfastrstralarger
Why is dp used? For a pair of gears, the pinion fatigues first, why?
For Iron and Bronze Gears: Allowable Surface
Contact (Bearing, Fatigue) Strength ac
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv
Or use the chart on next page

Allowable Surface Contact (Bearing, Fatigue)
Strength ac
For Through-Hardened Steel
Specify a material Code and heat treatment by
referring to relevant material handbooks.
Different countries may have different coding
systems. The one shown here is based on US
system
H
SH = ac
CLi CR
Life adjustment factor: CLi
2.8
Reliability factor: CR
In case allowable contact strength not given, use the

table for calculation.
Hardness: Brinell scale
(unit: HB, or Bhn)
2.8 x (hardness value) - 69MPa
Cases in Gear Design
ee-n-uut.my
Ft K a K s K m K B Ft K a K s K m
t = H = CP
mbJ Kv bd p I Kv
What are the unknowns? (major: m, N, D, b, material)
-
taawidth
1. Choose a tentative module m first, and then
select a material with enough strength; Or
2. Choose a tentative material with given strength,
and then calculated the module m.
3. If gear width is not given, use a tentative value in
the range 9xm<b<14xm (constrained by space).
1. Choose a tentative module
Calculated bending stress

and surface contact stress
Ft K a K s K m K B
t =
mbJ Kv
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv
Select a material that meets
the bending stress and
contact stress requirement.
Material is unknown here.
2. Or choose a tentative material and find the bending
strength, then calculate the module m and verify contact
stress. Module m is unknown here.
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = < t(KL/KR) 9m<b<14m
mbJ Kv
Assignment
The Nature of Design Problems:
*Unstructured, incomplete problem descriptions;
*Many assumptions must be made;
*Limited knowledge of engineering designers;
* Not enough reference materials;
*No unique solution;
* Iterative
Assignment
* Gear Mechanical Efficiency: 95% to 99%.
•Load at bearings ?
c
a
A B
b
B
T
A
*What materials?
T Shaft b Free body load
diagram?
Assignment
Stress calculation for pinion on shaft b ?
c
Ft K a K s K m K B a
t = A B
mbJ Kv b
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv 9m<b<14m
dp : pitch diameter
K factors ? (Not sure? Make assumptions.)

A Sample Gear Design
A
Requirements:
Design a pair of gear drive to transmit a power of 12kW. a
The input shaft rotate at 1500rpm with a desired speed
f
reduction ratio of 3.5. The gear drive is expected to last for b
10 years when it works 8 hours a day and 5 days a week.
B
Solutions
Assumptions: the working condition has light impact load;
otene
Lets tentatively set the pinion teeth number NA to 18, then
NB = 18 x 3.5 = 63 (make sure this is an integer).
(If 18 is too small, we can change it to 20 and redo the
design process. Design is always an iterative process).
T.o-os.gg/-
From the chart,
select an estimated module m: 3 A

Then DA = NA x m = 18x3 a
=54(mm)
DB = NB x m = 63 x 3
b
=189(mm)
B
In a pair of gear drive, the
pinion normally fails first
because the pinion and gear
have the same contact force, yet
the pinion rotates more
revolutions.
P = Ft x VT
=T-
x TEF.ir ,
✓V = x DA x n/60= 3.14 x 54(10-3) x 1500/60

= 4.24(m/s) A
Ft = P/V = 12 x 103 /4.24 = 2.83(kN) a
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR ) b
mbJ Kv
B
Gear face width b ->9 x m to 14 x m or 27 to 42 (mm)

Lets choose b = 30 (mm)
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
A
a
0
Find J to be around 0.32 for Gear teeth pair (18,63)
髦
b
i
Ft K a K s K m ⼀
KB
t =
⼆mbJ Kv
at ( K L / KR )
A
Find J to be around 0.32 a
。
KB: Rim thickness factor is set to 1.0
b
Tr>1.2ht (tooth thickness), then KB

=1.0; otherwise greater than 1.0
Tr
Ft -_-
Ka Ks Km KB
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
A
a
From Gear-Table 3, Ka is set B

1.25
From Gear-Table 4, size

factor is set to 1.0
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
A
From Gear-Figure 8, faewuh a
Estimated load distribution factor K
m o
1.3, (based on F/D or 30/54 = 0.55)
B
A
a
Ft K a K s K m K B
t =
mbJ
⼀⼆
Kv
at ( K L / KR )
b
B
Dynamic factor Kv from Gear-Figure 9, 0.75 for quality grade 6, V=4.24(m/s)
$$
Üqrade
Estimated load distribution factor K 1.3, (based on F/D or 30/54 = 0.55)
m → none
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = at ( K L / KR )
mbJ Kv
A
a
σt =[(2.83x103)/(3 x 10-3
x 30 x x 10-3
9= 212.9(MPa)
0.32)]x[(1.25
-_-
x 1.0 x 1.0 x1.3)/0.75] b
B
A Sample Gear Design A
a
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv b
σH Surface contact stress ? B
From Gear-Table 6, select steel material, then

CP = 191
a
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv b
sin cos R
I =
Geometry factor I ? B
2 R +1
dg
R=
dp
R= 189/54 = 3.5
I = [(sin 20 x cos 20)/2][3.5/(3.5+1)] =0.145
Ka is set 1.25, Ks =1.0, Km = 1.3, Kv =0.75
a
Ft K a K s K m
H = CP
bd p I Kv b
B
σH = 191 x sqr{[(2.83x103)/(30 x 10-3 x54x10-3 x0.145)]
x[(1.25x1.0x1.3)/0.75]}
=191 x sqr{26.1MPa}
=975.819(MPa)
a
Select a material based on B

Ft K a K s K m K B
t = < t(KL/KR)
mbJ Kv
rpm.9oaormx87zo oipdnOOnoeo _360 0.hu

And 1 500
H
SH = ac
CLi CR
Gear Life :
1500 x 60 x 8 x 5 x 52 x 10 =1.872x109( Revolution)
Gear Life : 31.2x106( Revolution) a
Select a material based on B

N (Load Cycle) KL
KL/KR
107 1.00
108 0.92
109 0.87
1010 0.8
KL= 0.87
Reliability KR
0.9 0.85
0.99 1.00
0.999 1.25
KR= 1.25 (for 99.9% reliability) 0.9999 1.50
KL/KR = 0.87/1.25=0.696
Gear Life : 31.2x106( Revolution)
CLiCR 。
From Gear-Figure 10:
CLi= 0.97 (approximate)
From Gear-Table 7:
CR= 0.8 (for 99.9% reliability)
CLiCR = 0.97 x 0.8 = 0.776

σt = 212.9(MPa) < σat (KL/KR)=0.696 σat

σH =454.39(MPa) < σac (C C )= 0.776 σac Li R
Select a material with suitable σ σ

at ac
σ at σac
Grade 1 Case Hardened Steel Material with surface
hardness of 50 HRC is chosen
Discuss Gear Material Selection with
Reference to the Chart Below
Chosen Material Specs
Composition of AISI 1080 Hot-Rolled Steel
Carbon Manganese Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Nickel Chromium
C Mn Si P S Ni Cr
0.8 % 1.00 % 0.35 % 0.040 % 0.050 % Nil Nil
Physical Properties of AISI 1080 Hot-Rolled Steel

Physical Properties Metric Physical Properties Metric
Tensile Strength, Ultimate 1270 MPa Elongation at Break 12.1 %
Tensile Strength, Yield 869 MPa Reduction of Area 34.4 %
Density 7.85 g/cc Modulus of Elasticity 205 GPa
Hardness, Brinell HB 363 Bulk Modulus 140 GPa
Hardness, Knoop 392 Poisson's Ratio 0.29

Hardness, Rockwell B 100 Shear Modulus 80 GPa
AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute

JIS: Japanese Industrial Standard, etc.
Sample gear and pinion design
for input shaft
No. of teeth N1 = 18
No. of teeth N2 = 63
Module m = 3.0mm
Speed ratio = 63/18=3.5
Other Gears
Helical Gears
Bevel Gears
Worm Gears
Helical Gears: opposite-hand pair
Right hand
left hand
Left hand helical ; right-hand

Stepped thin spur gears:
Cutting planes into spur Helical Gear
gears
Spur Gear: Teeth are
straight and aligned
with the axis of the gear
Helical Gear: Teeth

have an helix angle with
the axis of the gear
Sample helical gears
An axial or
thrust load Fa
An Axial or thrust load

Spur Gear Helical Gear
component is introduced
in helical gear Ft & Fr
Same gear width, bigger
tooth width,
Use in pair to cancel
out axial load
Fa Fa
An Axial or thrust load

component is introduced An axial or
in helical gear thrust load
Helical gear Advantages:
More teeth are in contact at the An Axial or

same time; thrust load
Uniform load transfer; 7
Carry larger load at higher >
speed;
More compact.
Ft K a K s K m K B
t = Spur Gear Helical Gear
mbJ Kv
Problem: Thrust or axial load
Helical gear Nomenclature
Two Sets of data:

1. Normal plane;
2. Transverse Plane.
Two set of data related by the helix angle
Normal Transverse
Plane plane
Helical gear Nomenclature
1. Normal plane: pn, n, mn

2. Transverse Plane: pt, t mt.
From the figure:
Circular pitch pn = ptcos
Because pn = 2 rn/N= mn; pt = mt pn pt
mn = mtcos
Helix angle is normally 150 to 450
Force diagram
Fr = FN sin n
Ft = FN cos n cos
Fa = FNcos n sin
Normally Ft = T/(D/2)
P=Tx
Fr = Ft tan t
Fa = Ft tan
Relationship between
n and t
Look at Normal Plane

Fr = (Ft/cos )tan n or
Fr/Ft = tan n/cos

Look at transverse plane:
tan t = Fr/Ft
That is:
tan t = tan n/cos , or
cos = tan n/tan t
Helical Bending Stress
The bending stress equation for spur gear teeth applies with
only slight modification to helical gear teeth
Ft K a K s o
(0.93K m ) KB
t =
mnbJ Kv
The load distribution is better in helical gear than in spur gear.
This is reflected by using a small mounting factor Km.
In some text book, Km is not modified by 0.93
Geometry factor J can be found in the charts provided.
Contact stress is the same equation as in spur gear too
Bevel Gears
Transmit motion between

non-parallel shafts, normally
at 900.
Two set of gear
profiles: Bevel gear
parameters are
based on the large
profile.
Projection
plane
For 900 intersection,
pitch cone angles:
γ
+ γ = 900
Teeth are made

along a cone
Scale the spur gear
tooth profile along the
face width from the
back cone to the apex,
the tooth size shrinks to
a point at the apex.
Normally face width is

limited to A0/3.
Gear tooth size, shape
are defined on the back
cone similar to spur
gear.
Forces on bevel gear teeth
Normally tangential force:
Wt = T/(Da/2)
P=Tx
Da is the average pitch

diameter.
Axial force:
Wa = (Wttan ) sin γ
Radial force:
Wr = (Wttan ) cos γ
W = Wt /cos
Worms & Worm Gears
Transmit motion between non-intersecting shafts, normally at 900
Worms & Worm Gears
High speed worm shaft: helical thread
as in power screws;
Wormgear: similar to helical gears.
Only the worm shaft can be used as
the driving shaft (self-locking).
Speed reduction ratio up to 360:1
(principal advantage over other
gears), normal range: 3 to 100.
Ng/Nw
Ng ; number of teeth on the
wormgear; Nw :number of threads on
the worm. Normally 1.
Forces on worm and
wormgear
Wtw
Wrw
Wag Wrg Wtg
Wtg = Waw
Wag = Wtw
Wrg = Wrw
Wtw = 2Tw/dw Wtg = 2Tg/dg
Tw : torque on worm; dw : pitch
diameter of worm.
Some points about worm & wormgears
Self-locking lead angle: 60 to 80 depending on coefficient of friction f.
Wormgear
transmission has very
low efficiency due to
friction:
around 80%.
Smaller lead angle
results in less
efficiency
Bearings
A part of a machine that supports another

part that rotates or moves linearly:
Bearings
A part of a machine that supports another

part that rotates or moves linearly:
Why bearings ?
Bearing is a support or supporting part
In machine design, a bearing is a
component that allows for relative motion
(linear/rotary) between two bodies
Bearings are for:
E 1) reduce friction
2) carry load
3) guide moving parts
4) ..
tneot Bearmg
Sliding or rolling ?
Sliding bearings:
sliding friction
Rolling bearings:
rolling friction
Anti-friction
bearing
⼩
mwheasn.ee
Direct load support
Shaft
Support
gear
bracket
A shaft can be simply supported by two plates

Good mechanical properties are required for the contact surface
Problems with direct load support
。
Surtefail
After a period of operation: worn out,
replace the whole support plate ?
platehd
fnoneed
feaiy n
snongmon-E-h-d-urab.la
Add a plain/journal bearing: make the
bearing with good mechanical properties
(e.g. small coefficient of friction).
When the plain/journal bearing is worn

out, just replace it.
Rolling element bearings may be

w w w.
even better in many cases.
Sliding or Rolling Bearings?
Where do we need a bearing?

Between contact surfaces with relative
motion
Rotation
Translation
Linear or rotary bearings ?
Bearings
1. Plain Bearings (sliding bearings, journal bearing)

direct sliding of the load-carrying member on
its support.
Üi
2. Rolling Element Bearings
Balls or rollers are interposed between the
sliding surfaces.
Inner ring
Outer ring
Bearings
Objectives:
1. Types of rolling contact bearings;
2. Equivalent load on a bearing;
3. Load & life expectancy;
4. Select bearings for a given
application;
5. Mounting details.
Rolling Element Bearings
Either ball or roller bearings:
Ball Bearings: higher speed;
⼆
Point contact
Roller Bearings: greater load.

Line contact
Also known as anti-friction bearings,
Coefficient of friction f: 0.001 to 0.002(without seals)
Plain bearings f: 0.002 to 0.05
Types of Ball Bearings
Qpōmtt
F aine F anguar
contact
F
hormal
toswte
Radial Ball Bearing Angular Contact

Ball Bearing
Thrust Ball Bearing
Balls can be replaced by Rollers

Radial, angular
1. Radial Bearings (Deep Groove):
Fr
Carry primarily radial load. E.g. spur
gears, belt & chain drives.
2. Angular contact: carry combined
radial and axial load. E.g. helical
Fa gears.
Ft Frb for Bearing: resultant force along
a radial direction
Fa
Radial (Deep Groove) Ball
Bearings
Outer Ring Single Row
Inner Ring
Ball
Oāigmei
Separator
Double Row
Major Parameters
ra and da on the shaft are

dictated by the bearing
Mainly carry symmetric
radial force Fr
Angular contact ball bearing
F
Fa
Fr
Angular contact ball bearing
parameters
-
Single row bearings carry
thrust load in only one
direction. Use in pairs
Double row bearings
carry thrust load in
both directions
囉
Cylindric Roller bearing
Fr
Carry mainly radial load
Taper roller bearings
F Carry both radial and thrust load

Tappered Roller
Bearings
Fa
Thrust Force
Radial Force F
Needle Bearings
More contact lines in needle

bearings, so a larger load can be
transmitted
i
Relative proportions of bearings of different series
(A sample bearing coding system)
Normally the bore diameter is related to the bearing code
E.g. L04, 204, 304 Bore diameter 04 x 5 = 20mm
L06, 206, 306 Bore diameter 06 x 5 = 30mm
The left bearing takes the load
in both directions (left&right):
One end free to move
The left bearing takes the load

to the left; and the right takes
Bearing Mounting the load to the right.
How
we
Bearings Fail
Static stress
Static Load Rating, Co (easy to calculate)
= Load that bearing can withstand without permanent
deformation
Balls will indent races, cause pitting, lead to noise, rapid
wear Roller has no load
Fatigue stress Bearings are under fatigue load
Life, Reliability and Load relations
Will happen due to high contact stresses
More likely than static failure
Rollers under load

Bearing Life Requirement
Bearing life is in millions of revolutions.
A common supplier test value 90 x 106
revolutions
The test is under an applied load C
(capacity).
With 90% reliability.
Life L vs load F relationship

Bearing life varies inversely with the 3rd to 4th
power of the load; L 1/F (3 to 4)
For simplicity, weLunnn
use the exponent 10/3 for both
ball and roller bearings
Bearing Life Requirement
3.33
L CR
=
LR Fr
L: bearing life under radial load Fr
LR: Rated life for the rated load CR. (these are known)
And:
L = LR (CR/Fr)3.33 or CR = Fr (L/LR)0.3
CR: required value of CR
Rated Capacity for Bearings
Ü
Bearing Life adjustment
Bearing life is tested for 90% reliability. If higher
reliability is required, a life adjustment factor Kr
is needed.
Bearing life test is for uniform loading. If there is
impact load, an application factor Ka is needed.
Equivalent load Fe: If axial (thrust) load exist,
equivalent load must be used.
L = LR Kr[CR/(FeKa )]3.33 and
C
⼀
R = F e Ka [L/(Kr LR )]0.3
Equivalent load Fe
vnnnn
← Ft 少 → 氋沶
⼤
⼀
Ft ⼤ ,
是社法
←
Equivalent load Fe
we
Sample Problem
Select ball bearings for an industrial machine intended for
continuous one-shift (8-hour day) operation. The bearings
concerned support a shaft rotation at 1800rpm. Radial and
thrust (axial) loads of the shaft are 1.2 and 1.5 kN
respectively, with light-to-moderate impact.
wm
Solution
Known: Bearings operate 8 hrs per day and carry constant radial
and thrust load.
Find: Select suitable ball bearings
Sample Problem
Schematic and Given Data:
1800rpm
Ft Ft
Fr Fr
dmmeiaudiutionfrsnguball
A radial (deep groove) ball bearing and an
angular contact ball bearing are selected
Sample Problem
1800rpm
Assumptions and decisions:

1. The machine runs for 5 days per week;
=
2. o
A 90% reliability is assumed;
3. A radial and an angular ball bearing (250) is tentatively
selected; Thrust load is only in one direction (if bi-
directional, two angular ball bearings are suggested).
4. Bearing life varies inversely with the 10/3 power of load.
Sample Problem
1800rpm
Ft Ft
Fr Fr
Design Analysis:
> 068
1. Ft/Fr = 1.5/1.2 = 1.25, from Eqn (3) and (4)
vrn
要
Fe = Fr[1.0 + 1.115(Ft/Fr – 0.35)] = 2.4 kN (radial)
Fe = Fr[1.0 + 0.870(Ft/Fr – 0.68)] = 1.8 kN (angular)
Sample Problem
1800rpm
Ft Ft
Fr Fr
The calculation for the radial bearing is more
conservative as the thrust load is largely carried
by the angular contact ball bearing if the thrust
load is uni-directional. For bi-directional thrust
load, it is better to select two angular contact ball
bearings.
Sample Problem
1800rpm
Ft Ft
Fr Fr
2. From Table 3, choose Ka = 1.5;
From Table 4, choose 30,000 hours design life.
vr tt
3 00 00
Now life in revolutions:
L = 1800rpm x 30000hrs x 60 min/hr = 3240 x 106
Tables for Ka and Design Life
tn-hn -e -TE-s-73o acanchoc.se

250 0 00
Sample Problem
1800rpm

Ft Ft
Fr Fr
O.it
3. Select reliability of 90%, Kr = 1.0; LR = 90x106
(rev)
(Figure 12)
CR I
Creq = FeKa [L/(KrLR)]0.3 o
ttti
-
= 2.4 x103x 1.5 [3240/(90 x 1.0)]0.3=10.55kN (radial)

= 1.8 x103x1.5[3240/(90x1.0)]0.3=7.91kN (angular)
Sample Problem
1800rpm
Ft Ft
4. From Table 2, Bore size 70mm, 55mm, 35mm
1445 1145 07 ✗5 5
⼆
For radial ball bearings: L14, 211, 307 (choose only one)
ll.6KNKKN-3ooseriers35boe-10.HN
For angular ball bearings: L11, 207, 306 (only choose one)
Dimensions of bearings are in Table 1. Actual shaft Dim
Creq = 2.4 x103x 1.5 [3245/(90 x 1.0)]0.3=10.55kN (radial)
= 1.8 x103x1.5[3240/(90x1.0)]0.3=7.91kN (angular)
Table 1 and 2
(width)
Égr 55
Radiablo v55 KN
Sample Problem
1800rpm
Ft Ft
5. Comments:
Other factors being the same, the final selection would be
made on the basis of cost and availability. Shaft size
should be sufficient to limit bearing misalignment.
Bearings have INTERACTION with shaft, support
structures, thus it should be finalized together with them.
Shaft & Related Parts
Animation
Shaft is an
Intermediate important
component for
Output
mechanical systems
Input
Qdtague
n, T
Shaft & Related Parts
x
z
Pinion 2
Shaft S
T1 B
T2
A
Gear 1 Bearing B
Bearing A
A sample shaft free body equilibrium diagram

What are the possible mechanical components on the shaft?
Shaft & Related Components
Where is the shaft in the drawing ?
Load: bending,
⼀ Tension/compression, torsion,
or combination.
*Design of a shaft is both
creative and computation
intensive.
Shaft: a rotating or stationary
component, usually of circular *No standard shaft design.
cross section. *Shaft design is the most
Interacting components: gears, challenging part of the course.
pulleys, cranks, bearings, etc.
Load: bending,
Shaft & Related Components
Tension/compression, torsion,
or combination.
Pulley
Free-body load
Gear diagram
Shaft Sketch &
Actual Geometry
*Consider the degrees

of freedom of each
component on the
shaft.
*Consider installation
sequence of all
components.
Where is the shaft in the drawing ? *Consider the function
What are the geometric features on of geometric features
the shaft? on the shaft.
Shaft Coupling (Modular mechanical systems)
Axial
Gear Motor misalignment
box
0
Parallel/offset misalignment
No misalignment Gdeah
aupkugis
A device used to connect
two shafts together at their
ends for the purpose of
transmitting power.
Couplings do not normally
allow disconnection of
angular misalignment shafts during operation
Coupling: Shaft to shaft connection
Modular components
and sub-systems
n
E
2D shaft drawing
What is this drawing ?

2D shaft drawing
Correct drawing
Shaft 1 Shaft 2 Rigid Coupling
Bolts carry the load
A component used to connect two

shafts together at their ends for
~
Flange type rigid coupling the purpose of transmitting
power.
Rigid coupling: No relative
motion between two connected
shafts. Precise shaft alignment is
required.
Collar coupling-friction
Shaft 2 qmall
Set screw
wad
Shaft 1
Another type of rigid coupling
-friction
Gap
Teethed Flexible coupling
Flexible coupling: transmit
torque smoothly while
permitting some offset, axial and Internal gear
angular misalignment. teeth
7 component
Spider Flexible coupling
Rubber Element flexible coupling
Intermittent hard and flexible teeth

Oldham Couplings
Variation of slider blocks in
Oldham coupling design. Shaft 2
Leh
Lubrication & wear must be
considered.
Allow mis-alignment Shaft 1
Gear Type coupling
Spline Coupling
Allow axial
displacement.
Can be also
considered as keys
for transmitting
torque.
Long distance torque

transmission (trucks)
Cross type universal coupling
(joint), allow angular misalignment
Where do you need coupling in
the gear box?
What couplings do you
select for your project?
Coupling Selection Considerations
* Assembly data required to select coupling.

* Type of driver and driven equipment.
* Shaft size of driver and driven.
* Load and speed to be transmitted (kW, rpm).
* Space limitations.
* Misalignment - Angular, Parallel, Axial.
* Hours of operation/day.
* Lubrication facilities.
* Environment (temp., corrosion, etc.).
Suppliers will provide all these data.

Mount a gear on a shaft
Friction based: What
may be the problems?
Tapered shaft
Other ways of
mechanically
locking a
component
to a shaft
Set screws
are used in
two
In most cases, the

designs are not
standardized,
and analysis of
individual case
is necessary
Gear and shaft assembly
Set screws may be used to fix

the keys
Key and Keyseat/Keyway
Connect a mechanical component to the shaft to transmit
torque T.
Key Shaft
Gear
Gear, pulley or sprocket are

normally connected to a shaft
by keys
Commonly
used keys
Parallel keys
(square/rectangle) Feather keys Woodruff keys
Simput
Round (Dowel)
Gib-head keys Taper keys
keys
3D drawing of keys
Feather keys Gib head keys
Woodruff keys Parallel keys

Retaining Rings
Placed on a shaft in grooves in the

shaft, or in the housing to prevent
⼀
the⼀axial movement of a machine
component. Normally can not carry
Retaining large load.
Rings A groove on shaft causes stress
b., concentration!
← → cannot
Unne
Keyseats/keyways
Keyseat
machining
ffi.tt
c
.
ˋ -
Common error in keyseat drawing

Keyseat machining
Keyseat detail
Key dimensions are dependent on shaft

diameter
s
Round keyseat
Significantly lower stress

concentration factors result from
this type of key compared to
A ball end mill can be
parallel and tapered keys
used to machine the
keyseat
Stress Analysis of
parallel Keys
F F
F F
Shear Stress
F =
T
⼀⼀秒
D/2
v-v-C-Og.tn
As = W .Ls
F T
Ls = =
As ( D / 2)(WLs )
W
Maximum shear stress theory
d = 0 .5 s y / N (N: safety factor
2~3)
T
F d =
( D / 2)(WLs )
F
2T
Ls =
DW d
Contact (bearing) stress
T
F=
D/2
HLb
H Ab =
2
F 4T
b = =
Lb Ab DHLb
F Compressive yield strength
d = sy / N
F
4T
Lb =
DH d
shattd
Ls or Lb ? Tkey
㨾 Onydetrmīneu
Of W(b) uqh
H(h)
Lb or Ls ? uemaxvalue
Refer to different standard
for key width b and height h.
Normally b and h are
dependent on shaft diameter.
Only L is calculated
Woodruff keys
Circular groove in
shaft holds the
key in place while
the hub is slid
over the shaft.
Shear Stress Analysis
of Woodfruff Keys
B 2 B 2 2
( ) =( ds ) + A
2 2
A = ds (B ds )
W As = 2W d s ( B ds )
Shear Area 2T
From the right =
angle triangle DAs
0 .5 s y
d =
N
Tapered Keys
Designed to be inserted from the end of the
shaft after the hub is in position. The taper
will impart a compressive contact pressure
between the hub and the shaft. Friction will
help transmit torque and provide resistance
to axial motion of hub relative to the shaft.
Seals
nnnunfnothis
1. Contaminants must be
excluded from critical areas
of a machine;
2. Lubricants must be
contained within a space;
3. Pressured fluids must be
Circular cross section contained within a
O-Ring, component such as a valve
T-shape cross section: or hydraulic cylinder.
T-Ring, etc.
Where do you need seals in your project?
6 seas
• o o
o o o
Different cross section shape have different names for seals: O-ring seals, Lip seals
o ring
-
o
_
cipseak
t
Seal: between moving parts

Gasket: between static parts
Gasket View from A

Identify the seal & gasket elements
Propose the
Schematic Diagram
general
geometry for a
shaft
Proposed Geometry
What about the diameters D1,
D2, D3, D4, D5, D6?
retaining ring
Shaft - Turning
q
retaing
ràg
beaimg
Stock material
Avoid big steps unless

necessary
Hollow shaft
Reduce weight
Shaft Materials
High strength
High modulus of elasticity
⼀
* Most used materials: Low to medium
Carbon Steel.
Good machinability
• Key Materials:
Normally low-carbon materials for their
good ductility.
Shaft Geometry
You can propose the shaft

geometry now for gear 2
and 3.
Bearing, spacer/sleeve, gear, retaining

ring installed from this direction
Spacer/sleeve, or retaining ring?
Advantages of using spacer:

Less steps on shaft
Shaft is stronger
Shaft diameter can be smaller
Less problem of stress concentration
Bearing, spacer, gear, and retaining

ring installed from this direction
A sample shaft drawing with all
details (engineering drawing)
Shaft Design Analysis
Shaft-01
From all mechanical components --

Geometric features and Load Diagrams on each
section of the shaft.
Shaft-02
Shaft Design
eSpecify material:
Low to medium carbon steel with heat
treatment.
Geometric Features for component installation:
sequence of all components installation. How
each component is installed and fixed.
Geometry: Analyze critical points (every load
carry component).
Find out minimum diameters (Any value
greater than the minimum will be safe).
Geometric Features on a Shaft
Where do the features come from?
Key seat
算
。 Step/shoulder
Sharp fillet
(bearing?)
Smooth fillet
r
r
groove
Stress
r
concentration
(gears, pulleys, sprocket)
Load on A Shaft
F Load difference at
T A time t1 and t2
T
A
Bending t1
stress
Bending: Fatigue
time
Torsion: Constant
t2
Thrust (axial): constant
A
Shear: constant (variation is small)
(1) Shaft in Direct Shear only
-_-
Fs
Average shear stress τ = Fs/A
For cylindrical solid shaft, the max. shear

stress:
τmax = (4/3)(Fs/A), what is Fs and A?

Design Shear Stress & Strength
Based on Distortion energy theory:
τd = 0.577 (Sy/N)
Sy : yield strength; N: Safety Factor.

Tmax E Td 告 FSIA -0.577 仇
τmax = (4/3)(Fs/A) τd = 0.577 Sy/N
告只
1 -_-
_能
A= .r2=(4 x N x Fs)/(0.577 x 3 x Sy)
遍試
⼀
or r2 =(4 x N x Fs)/(0.577 x 3 x Sy x )
(2) Shaft in Torsion Only
For shafts mainly rotate in one direction such

as in cars (mainly forward, occasionally back)
o
τ= (T/Zp)
T : torque; Zp: Polar moment of inertia.

For cylindrical solid shaft:
Zp = D3/16
Then:
τ =(T/Zp) τd = 0.577 Sy/N
Zp=TN/(0.577Sy)
Sections in shaft with torsion
00 0 Output
In between two
power transmitting
components
(3) Shaft in tension or compression only
✗
F F
For shafts with helical, bevel, worm gears
σ = (F/A)
A: cross section area
Then:
=(F/A) d = Sy/N
A=FN/Sy
。
(4) Stress for Shaft in Bending only (Fatique)
F
For fatique strength, we use endurance strength

Sn that is related to ultimate tensile strength.
σ = (M/Z)
For solid circular shaft, section module Z

Z = D3/32
M: moment
Design Strength for Shaft in Bending (Fatique)
F
For fatique strength, we use endurance strength

Sn that is related to ultimate tensile strength.
Modified endurance strength
Sn =Sn Cs Cr
Ttomrtue
Design Bending Strength d lgytah
= Sn /N
Then = (M/Z) d
Size factor and Reliability factor
F
Size factor Cs nedtomeassumptùn

Cs = (D/7.6)-0.068 D<50mm
Cs = 1.85D-0.19 50mm<D<250mm
Reliability factor Cr
Desired reliability Cr
50% 1.0
90% 0.9
-
99% 0.81
99.9% 0.75
Safety Factor/Design factor N
F
* Uncertainties and variability always exist in design

practice;
•In many cases, the strength of material is divided by N
to get a design stress d, called allowable stress.
• Often N and d are governed by codes of national or
international organizations, or suggested by companies.
•Ductile materials and brittle materials have different
range of N.
•In the absence of codes and standards. Judgment by
the designers is always needed
Use suggested N based on nature of applications
and environment
<For ductile materials>;
•N = 1.15 to 2.0, static load, and reliable data;
•N = 2.0 to 2.5, machine element under dynamic

loading with average confidence in all design data;
•N = 2.5 to 4.0, under dynamic load with uncertainty

about loads, or material properties, or stress analysis, or
environment;
•N = 4.0 or above, under dynamic load with uncertainty

about some combination of loads, material properties,
stress analysis, and the environment.
Use suggested N based on nature of applications
and environment
<For brittle materials>;

•N = 3.0 to 4.0, static load, and reliable data;
•N = 4.0 or above, under dynamic load with uncertainty

about loads, or material properties, or stress analysis, or
the environment.
Stress concentration in shaft
1. Keyseats:
。
Profile keyseats: Kt = 2.0
Sled runner keyseats: Kt = 1.6
2. Shoulder fillet:
fillet radius r as large as possible
Kt related to ratio r/d, and D/d
D For initial design:
d r
⺜
Kt = 2.5 (sharp fillet)
Kt = 1.5 (well-rounded fillet)
9
l
3. Retaining ring:
Kt = 3.0 (for fatique load such as bending)

If only steady load exist, no
need to count the stress
concentration factor, but the
reduced diameter should be
used.
(5) Combined bending & torsion
znds.hn
F M
T T
Combined bending & torsion
Endurance 1
Strength
σ = (M/Z)
1
τd or Ssy Shear
Strength
⾼⼆ 0.577
og
*
1
氯差 …北
o
Why Compressive stress is not
considered ?
It reduces the tensile stress due to bending
moment, thus the calculation is conservative by
neglecting the compressive stress.
Compressive stress in
axial direction csman )
,
tensile stress due

to bending
Uargeiandcommon )
reasonuhyitfaik
Sample shaft Design
Input
Ouput
A sample shaft Design
O_o utimatetusde
stnengtn
不 tgsn
⼀
-9 叫
For machined shaft
舆
計魁再 wrify
✓
epit.no
Shaft Free Body in Equilibrium
WtA 25438125 4
WrB
T=Ta WtC
A WrC
B WrD
WrA
T=Tc
C
WtB D
WtD
Forces on horizontal plane (Forces on radial
⼀
plane in the load diagram)
254 38 1
o
54
2
0
o
znere
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Mech3427 Notes

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Dr.

Proof of concept prototype. -

Input? Muffler Output?

Adaptive Fixed Mechanism? Design? Fiber glass Cotton Single Twin

Can we make a decision

Polymers Subject to creep, sensitive to temperature

Elastomers Lo Yo ng s mod li hich increase ith temperat re

Ceramics Hard but brittle, no ductility

Glasses Hard, brittle

An important use of the chart is in materials

2) Multiple variations (Free variables)=

Since most material charts are in logarithmic scale, a

Answer: aluminum nitride, AlN, or alumina, Al2O3. 63

fast as possible, it must also have the highest possible

Function Support a tension load

b) Carry axial tensile load F Fsphed

F* is allowable loading given by the

Functional Geometric Material

At this stage, keep as many options

Free a) Panel thickness h

Functional Geometric Material

Functional Geometric Material

Function, From From History Cost?

Function, Weight/ From Calculation From History Cost?

Transmittance of UV-IR materials.

Transmittance of VIS-NIR materials.

The Process Material

The Process Mass-range chart.

The Process Tolerance chart.

The Process Surface roughness

The Process Economic batch-size

Dr. Y.H. Chen

Design for X (fun, self-satisfaction,

Prototyping Workshop: 3D printers.

Belts and Chains

Flexible power transmission machine

Belt properties have been improved

Chain properties have been improved

Con's for Chains

Con's for Belts

All chain drive data tables can be used

If Belt Drive is chosen:

All belt drive data tables may not be used

For high speed For slow speed

Basic Belt Types

There may be different belt

One common point: soft material and

The e Ti i g Bel efe

What is the major specs of a motor ?

Special features of belt drives

Design procedure of belt drive

Modular Design and

Flat Belt Round Belt o

Multi-strand Timing Double sided

Pulley groove dimensions

Flat belt has one contact surface,

A correctly designed and installed timing belt

V-belt drive: 95% - 98%

Idler Driver Idler

Crossed reverse drive

Slack belts: changeable center

When Static, two sides are equally tight

1. Inside: near the driven

How to connect the belt and