CHAPTER 1: PLATFORM TECHNOLOGIES v. Operator carries Output Tape to Tape Reader.

vi. Tape Reader prints output.

Hardware + Software + Networks = Platform

HIERARCHY
MODERN COMPUTERS
I. Peopleware – Us
II. Software – serves as the platform for the A modern computer consists of:
hardware
o One or more processors
III. Hardware – physical aspects
o Main memory
TWO TYPES OF SOFTWARE: o Disks
o Printers
 Application Software
o Various input/output devices
 Multimedia
 Enterprise o AVR, mouse, keyboard, system unit, monitor, etc.
 Productivity • Managing all these components requires a layer of
 Educational software — the OPERATING SYSTEM

 System Software
 Operating System HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE – A set of disciplines that
 Driver’s/Device System describes a computer system by specifying its parts and
 Utility System their relations provides physical environment.

PLATFORM
 In general, a computing platform is any pre-existing
hardware environment, a piece of software that is
designed to run within it, and any associated facilities
used with it.
 A platform is any base of technologies on which other
technologies or processes are built; support the
creation of other technologies
 Most services that the end users use will be build on
top of platforms.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTING (VTIPM)
1. (1945–55) Vacuum Tubes (15)
• Punch cards and machine language programming
2. (1955–65) Transistors and Batch Systems (15)
• Mainframes (IBM 1401,IBM 7094), FORTRAN compiler
3. (1965–1980) ICs and Multiprogramming (20)
• IBM System/360,OS/360, multiprogramming,
timesharing, MULTICS
4. (1980–Present)Personal Computers (10)
• IBM PC, DOS, Macintosh, Windows, Linux
5. (1990–Present)Mobile Computers (10)
• PDAs, SymbianOS, Blackberry OS, Smartphones, iOS,
Android
TRANSISTORS AND BATCH SYSTEMS
Common Types:
o Commodity computing platforms
o Video game consoles
o RISC
o Midrange computers
o Mainframe computers
o Supercomputer
OPERATING SYSTEMS
• A collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for
computer programs.
• It is an essential component of the system software in a
computer system.
• Application programs usually require an operating
system to function.
• The most important program that runs on your
computer.
• It manages all other programs on the machine.
• Every PC has to have one to run other applications or
programs.
• It’s the first thing “loaded”.
• In simple terms, an operating system is a manager.
• It manages all the available resources on a computer,
from the CPU, to memory, to hard disk accesses.
• Major cost of general purpose computing is software.
• An operating system is a program that acts as an
intermediary between the user of a computer and
computer hardware.
• Operating systems simplify and manage the complexity
of running application programs efficiently.
• Operating systems turn the ugly hardware details into
beautiful abstractions for the use of other software.

i. Programmers bring Cards to a Card Reader.

ii. Card Reader reads (converts the commands) batch of The Operating System as a Resource Manager
jobs onto Tape.
• Allow multiple programs to run at the same time
iii. Operator carries Input Tape to the Main Processor.
iv. Main Processor does computing.

© claiming uno for ebriwan – misyel

 • Manage and protect memory, I/O devices, and other
resources
• Includes multiplexing (sharing) resources in two
different ways:
 In time
 In space
Operating System Concepts
o Processes
o Address spaces (Memory)
o Files
o Input/Output
o Protection
o The shell
Development in computing over time
o Large memories
o Protection hardware
o Disks
o Virtual memory
DIFFERENCE OF MEMORY AND STORAGE:
MEMORY – high speed, but limited; it can only store
what is needed in the immediate time
STORAGE – low speed, but larger size/space; permanent
BUS – transportation of data from one component/site
to another
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS (mainframe mobile
handheld embedded smart card)
I. MAINFRAME OPERATING SYSTEMS - heavily oriented
toward processing many jobs at once, most of which
needs a prodigious amount of I/O
Services Provided:
 The BATCH SYSTEM is one that processes routine
jobs without any interactive user present.
 TRANSACTION-PROCESSING SYSTEMS handle
large numbers of small requests, for example,
check processing at a bank or airline reservations;
Each unit of work is small, but the system must
handle hundreds or thousands per second
 TIMESHARING SYSTEMS allow multiple remote
users to run jobs on the computer at once, such
as querying a big database.
II. SERVER OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Run-on servers (either large personal computers,
workstations or even mainframes)
 Serve multiple users at once over a network and
allow the users to share hardware and software
resources
 Services: print service, file service, or web service
 Examples: Solaris, FreeBSD, Linux, and Windows
Server 201x.
III. MULTIPROCESSOR OPERATING SYSTEMS
 The increasingly common way to get major
computing power is to connect multiple CPUs into a
single system
 The Increasingly common way to get major-league
computing power is to connect multiple CPUs into a
single system
 Even conventional desktop and notebook operating
systems are starting to deal with at least small-scale
multiprocessors and the number of cores is likely to
grow over time.
 Examples: Windows and Linux, run on
multiprocessors
IV. PERSONAL COMPUTER OPERATING SYSTEMS –
made for single users
V. HANDHELD OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Smaller and smaller systems, tablets, smartphones,
and other handheld computers
 PDA(Personal Digital Assistant)
 A small computer that can be held in a hand during
operation
 Runs mostly on UNIX based systems
VI. EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Embedded systems run on computers that control
devices that are not generally thought of as
computers and which do not accept user-installed
software.
 Microwave ovens, TV sets, cars, DVD recorders,
traditional phones, and MP3 players
 The main property which distinguishes embedded
systems from handhelds is the certainty that no
untrusted software will ever run on them.
 All software is in ROM
VII. SENSOR NODE OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Sensor networks are used to protect the perimeters
of buildings, guard national borders, detect fires in
forests, measure temperature and precipitation for
weather forecasting, glean information about enemy
movements on battlefields, and much more
 Sensors are small battery-powered computers with
built-in radios
 Runs a small, but real operating system, usually one
that is event-driven, responding to external events or
making measurements periodically based on an
internal clock
o Nodes have little RAM and battery lifetime is a
major issue
o Example: TinyOS
VIII. REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEMS – In an RTOS,
repeated tasks are performed within a tight time
boundary, while in a general-purpose operating
system, this is not necessarily so.
IX. SMART CARD OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Smallest operating systems run on smart cards, which
are credit-card-sized devices containing a CPU chip
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 Some are powered by contacts in the reader into
which they are inserted, but contactless smart cards
are inductively powered, which greatly limits what
they can do
 ROM on the smart card holds an interpreter to
interpret a programming language
EVOLUTION OF IT INFRASTRUCTURE (58-65-81)
General-purpose mainframe and minicomputer era:
1959 to present
• 1958: first mainframes introduced
• 1965: less expensive DEC minicomputers introduced
Personal computer era: 1981 to present
• 1981: Introduction of IBM PC
• Proliferation in 80s, 90s resulted in growth of personal
software
Client/server era: 1983 to present
• Desktop clients networked to servers, with processing
work split between clients and servers
• Network may be two-tiered or multi-tiered(N-tiered)
• Various types of servers (network, application, Web)
Enterprise Computing Era: 1992 to present
• Move toward integrating disparate networks,
applications using Internet standards and enterprise
applications
Cloud and Mobile Computing: 2000 to present
• CLOUD COMPUTING: computing power and software
applications supplied over the Internet or other network
INFRASTRACTURE COMPONENTS (COEDNIC)
• IT Infrastructure has seven main components:
1. COMPUTER HARDWARE PLATFORMS – personal
computers, servers
• Client machines: Desktop PCs, mobile devices, laptops
• Servers: BLADE SERVERS: ultrathin computers stored in
racks
• Mainframes: IBM mainframe equivalent to thousands
of blade servers
• Top chip producers: Intel, AMD, ARM, IBM
• Top firms: IBM, HP, Dell, Lenovo
2. OPERATING SYSTEM PLATFORMS – Batch OS, Real-
Time OS, Smart Card OS, etc.
Operating Systems
• Server level: 65%run Unix or Linux; 35%run Windows
• Client level: 90% run Microsoft Windows(XP, 2000, CE,
etc.); Mobile/multitouch (Android, iOS); Cloud computing
(Google’s Chrome OS)
3. ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS – used by big
companies; an example is when students enroll in a
portal
• Enterprise application providers: SAP and Oracle
• Middleware providers: BEA
4. DATA MANAGEMENT AND STORAGE – hard drives,
flash drives, compact disks, etc.
• Database software: IBM (DB2),Oracle, Microsoft (SQL
Server), Sybase (Adaptive Server Enterprise), MySQL
• Physical data storage: EMC Corp (large-scale systems),
Seagate, Maxtor, Western Digital
• STORAGE AREA NETWORKS(SANS): Connect multiple
storage devices on dedicated network
5. NETWORKING PLATFORMS – router, landlines
• Telecommunication services -
Telecommunications/cable company charges for voice
lines and Internet access; AT&T, Verizon
• Network operating systems: Windows Server, Linux,
Unix
• Network hardware providers: Cisco, Alcatel-
Lucent,Nortel, Juniper Networks
6. INTERNET PLATFORMS – search engines
• Hardware, software, management services to support
company web sites, (including web-hosting services)
intranets, extranets
• Internet hardware server market: IBM, Dell, Oracle, HP
• Internet services: Amazon, Google
• Web development tools/suites: Microsoft (.NET) Oracle
(Java), Adobe
7. CONSULTING SYSTEM INTEGRATION SERVICES –
Accenture, IBM Global Services
• Even large firms do not have resources for full range of
support for new, complex infrastructure
• Software integration: ensuring new infrastructure
works with legacy systems
• Legacy systems: older TPS created for mainframes that
would be too costly to replace or redesign
• Accenture, IBM Global Services, EDS, Infosys, Wipro
CHAPTER 2: PROCESSES
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PROCESSES Another instances:

 A process is an abstraction of a running program
 It enables doing several things at the same time
 support the ability to have (pseudo) concurrent
operation
 Example: Consider a User PC
• In a MULTIPROGRAMMING system, the CPU switches
from process to process quickly, running each for tens or
hundreds of milliseconds
 If a peripheral device is inserted (e.g. USB) while a
process is ongoing, another process will be
created
 Simply booting up the PC
•In all these cases, a new process is created by having an
existing process execute a PROCESS CREATION system
call.

PROCESS TERMINATION
DIFFERENCES:
Events which cause process termination:
• A PROCESS is an activity of some kind; simply a running
1. Normal exit (voluntary).
program
2. Error exit(voluntary).
• A PROGRAM is something that may be stored on disk, 3. Fatal error (involuntary).
not doing anything; set of instructions 4. Killed by another process(involuntary).

Example: baking vs. recipe Another instances:

MULTIPROGRAMMING - allows our CPU to work than  User uses a task manager
one or multiple processes at a time, but not  Plug out the PC
simultaneously (runs in parallel); one CPU or single
processor, multiple process in a parallel manner
PROCESS STATES
MULTIPROCESSING - multiple processors that can run
multiple processes at the same time Three states a process may be in:

1. RUNNING – actually using the CPU at that instant;

currently run by the CPU
THE PROCESS MODEL
 Can transition to ready state (pag may bagong
a. Multiprogramming four programs.
dating = interrupts the process) or
b. Conceptual model of four independent,
 blocked (waiting for input)
sequential processes.
c. Only one program is active at once. 2. READY – runnable; temporarily stopped to let another
process run
• All the runnable software on the computer, sometimes
including the operating system, is organized into a 3. BLOCKED – unable to run until some external event
number of sequential processes happens; waiting or input or waiting list
• To understand the system, it is much easier to think  blocked to ready = pag may available na input)
about a collection of processes running in (pseudo)
SCHEDULER – nakatask sa tatlong state, magdedecide
parallel
alin sa tatlo yung process
• This rapid switching back and forth is called
INTERRUPT – change in the status mode = change in the
MULTIPROGRAMMING
schedule
OPERATING SYSTEMS are designed to handle processes.
NO MORE MEMORY/RAM – not responding na ang
In multiprogramming, it brings an illusion na sabay sabay process state kaya suspended na
where in fact one at a time pa rin; an instance is while
waiting for the first system kasi matagal, instead na mag
idle, magmumumove on siya sa next system then kung IMPLEMENTATION OF PROCESSES
may ibang dinedemand ulit, next system ulit, giving the
illusion na sabay sabay niya nahahandle (kumbaga • The lowest layer of a process-STRUCTURED
mabilis lang siya mag-thank you next) OPERATING SYSTEM handles interrupts and scheduling.

• Above that layer are sequential processes.

PROCESS CREATION

Events which cause processes creation: PROCESS TABLE

1. System initialization.  One entry per process

2. Execution of a process creation system call by a
running process.
3. A user request to create a new process.
4. Initiation of a batch job.
 Contains important information about the
process’ state
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  Information that must be saved when the
process is switched from running to ready or
blocked state so that it can be restarted later
Interrupt Handling and Scheduling
• Skeleton of what the lowest level of the operating
system does when an interrupt occurs.
1. Hardware stacks program counter, etc.
2. Hardware loads new program counter from
interrupt vector.
3. Assembly language procedure saves registers.
4. Assembly language procedure sets up new stack.
5. C interrupt service runs (typically reads and
buffers input).
6. Scheduler decides which process is to run next.
7. C procedure returns to the assembly code.
8. Assembly language procedure starts up new
current process.
MODELLING MULTIPROGRAMMING
• CPU utilization as a function of the number of processes
in memory.
IDLE - downtime of CPU
THREADS
 In many applications, multiple activities are going on
at once
 Threads give the ability for the parallel entities to
share an address space and all of its data
 not possible with multiple processes (with their
separate address spaces)
 Threads are lighter weight than processes, so they
are easier (i.e.,faster) to create and destroy
 Threads allow computing and IO activities to overlap
 nakapaloob sa processes na ginagawa ng isang
processor; bawat isang thread, isang trabaho;
tatlong process = tatlong threads
Thread Usage - A Word Processor
 First thread interacts with the user.
 Second thread handles reformatting in the
background.
 Third thread handles the disk backups.
The Classical Thread Model
MULTITHREADING is the situation of allowing multiple
threads in the same process
 One process, multiple threads inside; multiple
parts ng program ang mapaprocess at the same
time; mas mabilis ang communication; mas may
advantage sa speed; instance variable; consumes
less memory
 Pag single thread lang, intayan before magjump
to another activity which is matagal; global
variable
ADVANTAGES OF THREAD OVER PROCESS
1. Responsiveness:
 If the process is divided into multiple threads, one
thread can complete its execution and its output can
be immediately returned.
2. Faster context switch:
 Context switch time between threads is lower
compared to process context switch. Process context
switching needs more CPU overhead.
3. Effective utilization of multiprocessor system:
 If we have multiple threads in a single process, then
we can schedule multiple threads on multiple
processor.
4. Resource sharing:
 Resources like code, data, and files can be shared
among all threads within a process. (Stack and
registers can’t be shared)
5. Communication:
 Communication between multiple threads is easier,
as the threads shares common address space. while
in process we have to follow some specific
communication technique for communication
between two process.
6. Enhanced throughput of the system:
 If a process is divided into multiple threads, and each
thread function is considered as one job, then the
number of jobs completed per unit of time is
increased, thus increasing the throughput of the
system.
INTER-PROCESS COMMUNICATION (IPC)
Processes frequently need to communicate with other
processes:
 To pass information from process to another
 To enable proper sequencing when dependencies
are present
 To ensure that no two processes are ever in their
critical regions at the same time.
Mechanisms for IPC:
 Atomic read/write
 Locks
 Semaphores
 Monitors
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 Message Passing
RACE CONDITIONS – Two or more processes are reading
or writing some shared data and the final result depends
on who runs precisely when; two process communicate
with each other
Example: two processes want to access the printer
spooler directory at the same time
Conditions Required to Avoid Race Condition
1. No two processes may be simultaneously inside their
critical regions. – Mutual Exclusion (mutex)
2. No assumptions may be made about speeds or the
number of CPUs. – No Assumption
3. No process running outside its critical region may block
other processes. – Progress
4. No process should have to wait forever to enter its
critical region. – No Starvation
Mutual Exclusion using Critical Regions
• CRITICAL REGION – the part of the program where
shared variables are accessed
Mutual Exclusion with Busy Waiting
DISABLING INTERRUPTS
 Each process disables all interrupts just after entering
its critical region and re-enable them just before
leaving it
 In a multicore (i.e., multiprocessor system) disabling
the interrupts of one CPU does not prevent other
CPUs from interfering with operations the first CPU is
performing
LOCK VARIABLES
 A single, shared (lock) variable, process sets it to 1
and enters the critical region. If the lock is already 1,
the process just waits until it becomes 0.
 Has the same fatal flaw that we saw in the spooler
directory.
STRICT ALTERNATION
 two processes strictly alternate in entering their
critical regions
 it is not really a serious candidate as a solution
because it violates condition 3
PETERSON’S SOLUTION
THE TSL INSTRUCTION
Process Summary
PROCESSES – units of execution
PROCESS CONTROL BLOCKS (PCBs) – how those units of
execution represented
How is work scheduled in the CPU?
• Process states, process queues, context switches
Execution states of a process: Running, ready, waiting
How does a process move from one state to another?
• Scheduling, I/O, creation, termination
How are processes created?
• Create Process (Windows), fork/exec (Unix)
Threads Summary
 The OPERATING SYSTEM as a large multithreaded
program
 Each process executes as a thread within the OS
 Multithreading is very useful for applications
 Efficient multithreading requires fast primitives
 Processes are too heavyweight
 Solution is to separate threads from processes
 Kernel-level threads much better, but still
significant overhead
 User-level threads even better, but not well
integrated with OS
CHAPTER 3: SCHEDULING
PROCESS BEHAVIOUR
a) CPU-bound processes spend most of their time
computing
b) I/O bound processes spend most of their time
waiting for I/O
MULTIPROGRAMMING
• Overlapping I/O and CPU activities
o To increase CPU utilization and job
throughput
• Previously covered the mechanisms of
o Context switching
o Process queues and process states
• which process(thread) to run, for how long, etc. –
SCHEDULING
SCHEDULING
 Choosing which process to run next, when two or
more of them are simultaneously in the ready state
 Deciding which process should occupy the resource
(CPU, disk, etc.)
 Done by scheduler using the scheduling algorithm
 Many of the same issues that apply to process
scheduling also apply to thread scheduling, although
some are different.
 JOBS - schedulable entities (processes, threads)
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WHEN TO SCHEDULE?
 when a job exits
 when a job blocks on I/O
 when time slice expired
o a hardware clock provides periodic interrupts
 when a new job is created
o whether to run the parent or the child
 when an I/O interrupt occurs
o from an I/O device that has now completed
its work for a waiting job
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
 THROUGHPUT – number of jobs completed in unit
time
 TURNAROUND TIME (elapse time) – Amount of time
to execute a particular process from the time it
entered
 WAITING TIME – Amount of time process has been
waiting in ready queue
 MEETING DEADLINES – Avoid bad consequences
SCHEDULING OBJECTIVES
 Fair - Everyone is happy
 Priority - Some are more important
 Efficiency - Make best use of equipment
 Encourage good behavior - Good boy/girl
 Support heavy load - Degrade gracefully
 Adapt to different environment - Interactive,
real-time, multi-media
CATEGORIES OF SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS
1. BATCH
 Periodic tasks – payroll, bills, interest calculation
(at banks)
 No users impatiently waiting
 Possible to run for long time periods for each
process without switching
2. INTERACTIVE
 For environments with interactive users –
personal computing, servers
 One process cannot be hogging the CPU and
denying service to the others
3. REAL-TIME
 Only programs that are intended to further the
application at hand
 Processes may not run for long and usually do
their work and block quickly, so it’s okay to let
them finish
Preemptive Vs. Non-preemptive
NON-PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING – The running process
keeps the CPU until it voluntarily gives up the CPU
PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING – The running process can be
interrupted and must release the CPU
SCHEDULING ALGORITHM GOALS
All Systems
 FAIRNESS - giving each process a fair share of the
CPU
 POLICY ENFORCEMENT - seeing that stated policy is
carried out
 BALANCE - keeping all parts of the system busy
Batch Systems
 THROUGHPUT - maximize jobs per hour
 TURNAROUND TIME - minimize time between
submission and termination
 CPU UTILIZATION - keep the CPU busy all the time
Interactive Systems
 RESPONSE TIME - respond to requests quickly
 PROPORTIONALITY - meet users' expectations
Real-time Systems
 MEETING DEADLINES - avoid losing data
 PREDICTABILITY - avoid quality degradation in
multimedia systems
SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS
BATCH SYSTEMS:
a) FIRST-COME, FIRST-SERVED (FCFS)
 “Real-world” scheduling of people in lines (e.g.,
supermarket)
 A single queue of ready jobs
 Jobs are scheduled in order of arrival to ready queue
 Typically non-preemptive (no context switching at
market)
 Jobs treated equally, no starvation.
 When the running process blocks, the first process
on the queue is run next.
 When a blocked process becomes ready, like a newly
arrived job, it is put on the end of the queue, behind
all waiting processes.
Problems
 Average waiting time can be large
 If small jobs wait behind long ones (high
turnaround time)
 Non-preemptive
b) SHORT JOB FIRST(SJF)
 Choose the job with the smallest expected duration
first
o Person with smallest number of items to buy
 Requirement: the job duration needs to be known in
advance
 Used in Batch Systems
 Optimal for Average Waiting Time if all jobs are
available simultaneously
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Problems
 STARVATION – a job is waiting forever
 All jobs must be available at start – Suited for
batch systems
INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS:
a) ROUND-ROBIN SCHEDULING
 One of the oldest, simplest, most commonly used
scheduling algorithm
 Select process/thread from ready queue in a round-
robin fashion (take turns)
Problems
 Time slice too large
o FIFO behavior
o Poor response to short interactive
requests
 Time slice too small
o Too many context switches (overheads)
o Inefficient CPU utilization
 A quantum around 20–50 msec is often a
reasonable compromise.
b) PRIORITY SCHEDULING
 Not all processes are equally important
 Need to consider external factors
 Email checking less priority than displaying video
c) MULTI-QUEUE & MULTI-LEVEL FEEDBACK
 Scheduling algorithms can be combined
o Have multiple queues
o Use a different algorithm among queues
o Move processes among queues
 Multiple queues representing different job types
o Interactive, CPU-bound, batch, etc.
o Queues have priorities
o Jobs can move among queues based upon
execution history
REAL-TIME SYSTEMS:
a) EARLIEST DEADLINE FIRST SCHEDULING
 Each job has an arrival time and a deadline to finish
(e.g. assignments, exams)
 Always pick the job with the earliest deadline to run
Scheduling Summary
SCHEDULER is the module that gets invoked when a
context switch needs to happen
SCHEDULING ALGORITHM determines which process
runs and where processes are placed on queues
Scheduling algorithms have many goals: Utilization,
throughput, wait time, response time, etc.
Various algorithms to meet these goals: FCFS/FIFO,SJF,
RR, Priority
MULTIPLE-LEVEL FEEDBACK QUEUES - can combine
algorithms
CHAPTER 4: FILE SYSTEMS
NEED FOR LONG-TERM STORAGE
Computer applications need to store and retrieve
information. There is need for long-term storage,
because:
 Limited amount of space in main memory or
virtual memory
 Information must be retained beyond the life of
a process
 Multiple processes may need to access (parts of)
same information
Requirements for long-term information storage:
 It must be possible to store a very large amount
of information.
 The information must survive the termination of
the process using it.
 Multiple processes must be able to access the
information at once.
WHY FILE SYSTEMS?
Think of a DISK as a linear sequence of fixed-size blocks
and supporting two operations:
 Read block k
 Write block k
For large systems, few of the questions that quickly arise:
 How do you find information?
 How do you keep one user from reading another
user’s data?
 How do you know which blocks are free?
FILE SYSTEMS
 FILES are logical units of information created by
processes.
 Processes can read existing files and create new ones
if need be.
 Files are managed by the operating system.
 The operating system dealing with files is known as
the FILE SYSTEM.
ROLES OF FILES SYSTEM
 Implement an abstraction for secondary storage
(files)
 Organize files logically (directories)
 Protect data from unwanted access (security)
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  Permit access of data between processes,
people, and machines (sharing)
FILES
 A file is data with some properties
 Contents, size, owner, last read/write time,
protection, etc.
 A file can also have a type
 Understood by other parts of the OS or runtime
libraries
 Executable, dll, source, object, text, etc.
 Understood by the file system
 Block/character device, directory, link, etc.
 A file’s type can be encoded in its name or contents
Windows encodes type in name
- .com, .exe, .bat, .dll, .jpg, etc.
Unix encodes type in contents - Magic numbers, initial
characters
FILE NAMING EXTENSIONS
o file.bak - Backup file
o file.c - C source program
o file.gif - Compuserve Graphical Interchange
Format image
o file.hlp - Help file
o file.html - World Wide Web HyperText Markup
Language document
o file.jpg - Still picture encoded with the JPEG
standard
o file.mp3 - Music encoded in MPEG layer 3 audio
format
o file.mpg - Movie encoded with the MPEG
standard
o file.o - Object file (compiler output, not yet
linked)
o file.pdf - Portable Document Format file
o file.ps - PostScript file
o file.tex - Input for the TEX formatting program
o file.txt - General text file
o file.zip - Compressed archive
FILE ATTRIBUTES
o Protection - Who can access the file and in what
way
o Password - Password needed to access the file
o Creator - ID of the person who created the file
o Owner - Current owner
o Read-only flag - O for read/write; 1 for read only
o Hidden flag - 0 for normal; 1 for do not display in
listings
o System flag - O for normal files; 1 for system file
o Archive flag - O for has been backed up; 1 for
needs to be backed up
o ASCII/binary flag - 0 for ASCII file; 1 for binary file
o Random access flag - 0 for sequential access only;
1 for random access
o Temporary flag - 0 for normal; 1 for delete file on
process exit
o Lock flags - O for unlocked; non-zero for locked
o Record length - Number of bytes in a record
o Key position - Offset of the key within each
record
o Key length - Number of bytes in the key field
o Creation time - Date and time the file was
created
o Time of last access - Date and time the file was
last accessed
o Time of last change - Date and time the file was
last changed
o Current size - Number of bytes in the file
o Maximum size - Number of bytes the file may
grow to
THREE COMMON WAYS FOR STRUCTURING OF FILES
1) BYTE SEQUENCE: an unstructured sequence of bytes.
What is contained inside the file is specific to the
program that will write / read them.
2) RECORD SEQUENCE: is a sequence of fixed-length
records. This was a common model on mainframe
computers.
3) TREE: consists of a tree of records, each containing a
key field in a fixed position in the record. The tree is
sorted on the key field, to allow rapid searching for a
particular key. This is used on some large mainframe
computers for commercial data processing.
REGULAR FILES are the ones that contain user
information
DIRECTORIES are system files for maintaining the file
system structure
• Regular files are generally either ASCII files or binary
files.
• ASCII files can be displayed and printed as is, and they
can be edited with any text editor.
• Binary files have some internal structure known to
programs that use them.
FILE TYPES
• An executable binary file where the operating system
will execute an executable binary file only if it has the
proper format
• An ARCHIVE consists of a collection of library
procedures compiled but not linked. Each one is prefaced
by a header telling its name, creation date, owner,
protection code, and size
FILE ACCESS
Sequential Access
© claiming uno for ebriwan – misyel
  A process could read all the bytes or records in a A FREE MAP determines which blocks are free, allocated
file in order, starting at the beginning, but could
 Usually a bitmap, one bit per block on the disk
not skip around and read them out of order
 Also stored on disk, cached in memory for
 Used with magnetic tapes
performance
Random-access
REMAINING DISK BLOCKS used to store files (and dirs)
 Files whose bytes or records can be read in any
 There are many ways to do this
order
 Used with discs
 Essential for many applications, such as database
DISK LAYOUT STRATEGIES (CLI)
systems
FILES can span multiple disk blocks.

How do you find all of the blocks for a file?

FILE OPERATIONS
1. CONTIGUOUS ALLOCATION
The most common system calls relating to files:

 Create  Fast, simplifies directory access

 Delete  Inflexible, causes fragmentation, needs
 Open compaction
 Close 2. LINKED STRUCTURE
 Read
 Write  Each block points to the next, directory points to
 Append the first
 Seek  Good for sequential access, bad for all others
 Get Attributes 3. INDEXED STRUCTURE (indirection, hierarchy)
 Set Attributes
 Rename  An “INDEX BLOCK” contains pointers to many
other blocks
 Handles random better, still good for sequential
DIRECTORIES  May need multiple index blocks (linked together)

Directories serve two purposes:

 For users, they provide a structured way to organize UNIX I-NODES – implement an indexed structure for files
files
• Each I-NODE contains number of file block pointers
 For the file system, they provide a convenient
naming interface that allows the implementation to • Last block points to a block containing more disk-block
separate logical file organization from physical file addresses
placement on the disk
 Most file systems support multi-level directories
 Naming hierarchies (/, /usr, /usr/local/, …) SHARING FILES BETWEEN DIRECTORIES

• Links (or hard links) in source_file target_dir

DIRECTORY INTERNALS  Simply create another link from target_dir to the
i-node of source_file (the i-node is not
DIRECTORY is a list of entries; typically store files
duplicated)
• Most file systems support the notion of a current  Now two directories have links to source_file
directory
• The system call to remove a file is named “UNLINK”
• RELATIVE NAMES specified with respect to current
directory

• ABSOLUTE NAMES start from the root of directory tree

FILE SYSTEM LAYOUT

FILE SYSTEMS define a block size

 DISK SPACE is allocated in granularity of blocks

A “MASTER BLOCK” determines location of root directory

 Always at a well-known disk location

 Often replicated across disk for reliability

© claiming uno for ebriwan – misyel