SESSION 2: May 3, 2023 (9:00 a.m. – 10:00 a.m.

Khieve – Grade 8

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PARTS OF SPEECH

A part of speech (also called a word class) is a category that describes the role a

word plays in a sentence. Understanding the different parts of speech can help you

analyze how words function in a sentence and improve your writing.

Many words can function as different parts of speech depending on how they are

used. For example, “laugh” can be a noun (e.g., “I like your laugh”) or a verb (e.g.,

“don’t laugh”).

1. NOUNS

A noun is a word that refers to a person, concept, place, or thing. Nouns can act

as the subject of a sentence (i.e., the person or thing performing the action) or as

the object of a verb (i.e., the person or thing affected by the action).

There are numerous types of nouns, including common nouns (used to refer to

nonspecific people, concepts, places, or things), proper nouns (used to refer to

specific people, concepts, places, or things), and collective nouns (used to refer to

a group of people or things).

Examples:

I’ve never read that book.

Ella lives in France.

The band played only new songs.

COMMON NOUNS

A common noun is a noun that describes a type of person, thing, or place or

that names a concept. Common nouns are not capitalized unless they appear at the

start of a sentence, unlike proper nouns, which are always capitalized.

Common nouns include the names of different jobs, plants and animals,

geographical features, ideas, objects, and many other things. They can be concrete

nouns or abstract nouns.

Examples:

The cat climbed the tree in an attempt to catch a bird.

Inequality is a major problem in many societies.

The farmer said his name was Tom.

PROPER NOUNS

A proper noun is a noun that serves as the name for a specific place, person,

or thing. To distinguish them from common nouns, proper nouns are

always capitalized in English.

Proper nouns include personal names, place names, names of companies and

organizations, and the titles of books, films, songs, and other media.

Examples:

I’ve never been to Egypt.

The Scribbr Knowledge Base is a useful educational resource.

Mr. Smith’s class is reading Much Ado About Nothing.

Her favorite Michael Jackson song was “Human Nature.”

Common nouns vs. proper nouns

Common nouns are defined by contrast with proper nouns. That means that

all nouns are either common or proper (though the same noun can be both, in

different contexts).

 Common nouns are general: they usually name classes of things, people, and

places rather than specific things, people, and places. They are only capitalized

at the start of a sentence, and they can be modified by articles, determiners,

and adjectives.

 Proper nouns are the names of specific individuals, things, places, companies,

etc. They are always capitalized and typically not modified by articles,

determiners, or adjectives.

Examples:

My grandmother’s name is Delilah.

Bill Gates is the co-founder of Microsoft.

World War II was the largest military conflict in history.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

A collective noun is a noun that refers to some sort of group or collective—

of people, animals, things, etc. Collective nouns are normally not treated as plural,

even though they refer to a group of something.

Collective nouns include common nouns like “group” and proper nouns like

“Google” or “The Rolling Stones.”

A collective noun may appear to be singular (e.g., “team”) or plural (e.g., “The

Beatles”) in form, and there’s some disagreement about whether they should be

treated grammatically as singular or plural. The following applies for US vs. UK

English.
  In US English, it’s standard to treat collective nouns as singular, regardless of

whether they look plural or not.

 In UK English, the same words may be treated as plural or singular depending

on the context—for example, treated as plural when you’re emphasizing the

individual members of the group, singular when you’re emphasizing the overall

collective.

Examples:

The whole team is really excited to meet you!

A gaggle of geese is the most threatening thing you’re likely to encounter at

the park.

My favorite band is Fleetwood Mac, but Talking Heads is pretty good, too.

The party will have to rethink its strategy to win the next election.

A flock of sheep is crossing the road, delaying motorists.

The Beatles broke up when Paul McCartney quit the band.

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

 Countable nouns (also called count nouns) refer to things that can be counted.

They can be preceded by an indefinite article or a number, and they can be

pluralized. Most nouns are countable (e.g., “fact(s)” or “misnomer(s)“).

 Uncountable nouns (also called noncount nouns or mass nouns) refer to things

that can’t be counted. They should never be preceded by an indefinite article

or a number, and they cannot be pluralized (e.g., “information” or “advice“).

A common mistake in English is treating uncountable nouns as if they were

countable by pluralizing them or using an indefinite article. The solution to

these problems is usually to rephrase using a related term or phrase that is

countable.
Examples: Mistakes with the uncountable noun “research”

 My previous two researches indicated that … (ERROR)

 My previous two studies indicated that …

 It’s important to account for bias in a research. (ERROR)

 It’s important to account for bias in research.

 It’s important to account for bias in a research project.

Concrete vs. abstract nouns

A distinction is often made between concrete nouns and abstract nouns.

 Concrete nouns refer to physical objects, places, or individuals: things or people

that can be observed with the senses, such as “apple,” “hill,” “zebra,” and

“Dorothy.”

 Abstract nouns refer to concepts, ideas, feelings, and processes that can’t be

physically located, such as “grammar,” “justice,” “sadness,” and “relaxation.”

There’s no grammatical difference between concrete and abstract nouns—it’s

just a distinction that’s made to point out the different kinds of things nouns

can refer to.

Other types of nouns

There are many nouns in English (more than any other part of speech), and

accordingly many ways of forming nouns and using them. Some other important

types of nouns are:

 Possessive nouns

 Gerunds

 Attributive nouns

 Appositive nouns
  Generic nouns

Possessive nouns

A possessive noun is a noun that’s followed by an apostrophe (’) and the

letter “s” to indicate possession (e.g., “my father’s house”).

To indicate possession with a plural noun that ends in “s,” you just add the

apostrophe after the “s,” and don’t add an extra “s” (e.g., “my parents’ house”).

Example:

This place is smaller than my parents’ house but much bigger than

my sister’s apartment.

Gerunds

A gerund is a noun that is identical to the present participle (the “-ing”

form) of a verb. These are typically nouns that describe the same activity as

the verb they were formed from, such as “driving,” formed from the present

participle of “drive.”

Example:

When I’m on vacation, sunbathing and reading are my favorite activities.

Note: Gerunds are one way of turning a verb into a noun. The opposite process,
turning a noun into a verb, is called “verbing” (e.g., using the noun “medal” as a verb
to mean “win a medal”).

Attributive nouns

Attributive nouns are nouns that are used like adjectives, to modify another

noun. For example, “company” is an attributive noun in the phrase “company policy.”
Even though attributive nouns work similarly to adjectives, they’re still classed as

nouns. This is because they don’t fulfill all the grammatical requirements of

adjectives. For example, they have to appear before the noun—it wouldn’t

make sense to say “a policy that is company.”

Example:

I’m a big fan of carrot cake, but ice cream is my favorite dessert.

Appositive nouns

An appositive noun (or appositive noun phrase) is a noun that comes after

another noun to provide additional information about it.

If the appositive provides essential information (i.e., it wouldn’t be clear who or

what you are referring to without it), it’s written without any extra punctuation. If

it provides extra information that is not essential, it’s surrounded by commas.

Examples:

My colleague Adam has really bad breath.

My car, a Ford Focus, broke down yesterday.

Generic nouns

A generic noun is a noun that is used to refer to a whole class of things (or

people, places, etc.). They can be plural or singular, and they may appear with a

definite article, an indefinite article, or no article.

The same noun may be used generically in some contexts and not others. For

example, it would be equally possible to use the nouns in the sentences below in a

non-generic way (e.g., “the people I know best are my brothers”; “my father

operated a printing press”).

Examples:

People are resourceful.

 The printing press revolutionized European society.

2. PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Pronouns typically refer

back to an antecedent (a previously mentioned noun) and must demonstrate

correct pronoun-antecedent agreement. Like nouns, pronouns can refer to

people, places, concepts, and things.

There are numerous types of pronouns, including personal

pronouns (used in place of the proper name of a person), demonstrative

pronouns (used to refer to specific things and indicate their relative

position), and interrogative pronouns (used to introduce questions about

things, people, and ownership).

Examples:

I don’t really know her.

That is a horrible painting!

Who owns the nice car?

Pronoun-antecedent agreement means choosing a pronoun that matches

its antecedent (the earlier noun or noun phrase it refers to) in terms of number,

person, and gender. Agreement errors can cause confusion or just make your

writing read poorly.

For example, the sentence “Jennifer is here, and she isn’t happy” is correct

because the pronoun “she” is singular (Jennifer is one person), third-

person (Jennifer is not the speaker and isn’t being directly addressed), and

feminine (Jennifer is a woman).

 The vast majority of common agreement errors relate to number (singular

vs. plural). Examples of some errors and how they can be fixed are shown in the

table below. The following sections explain various contexts where mistakes

commonly occur.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement errors

Error Correction

The box of pencils remained The box of pencils remained in its place.

in their place.

Each day will bring their own challenges. Each day will bring its own challenges.

One should look out for themselves. One should look out for oneself.

Personal pronouns are words like “you” that refer to the person speaking or

writing, to the person they’re addressing, or to other people and things.

Like other pronouns, they are used in place of nouns to allow us to speak and

write more concisely. For example, without the first-person pronoun “I,” you would

have to use your name every time you wanted to make a statement about yourself.

Personal pronouns change form based on person, number, gender, and case

Person, number, gender, and case

Four factors indicate which personal pronoun you should use in a particular

grammatical context to refer to a particular person or thing. These are:

 Person (first, second, or third)

 Number (singular or plural)

 Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, or epicene)

 Case (subject, object, possessive, or reflexive)

 To demonstrate correct pronoun-antecedent agreement, a personal pronoun

must match its antecedent (the person or thing it refers back to) in person,

number, and gender. Case is determined by how the pronoun is used in the

sentence, not by the antecedent.

Person

Personal pronouns are called “personal” not because they always refer to people

(“it,” for example, doesn’t) but because they indicate a grammatical feature

called person. There are three possibilities:

 First-person pronouns are used to refer to the person speaking or writing.

 Second-person pronouns are used to refer to the person being addressed.

 Third-person pronouns are used to refer to anyone or anything else.

Number

Number indicates whether the personal pronoun refers to an individual person

or thing or to a group of two or more.

 Singular pronouns refer to an individual person or thing.

 Plural pronouns refer to two or more people or things.

Note: Collective nouns, despite referring to groups made up of multiple individuals,

are most commonly treated as singular and thus referred to by singular pronouns.
For example, you could refer to the company Scribbr as “it.”

Gender

Gender is how personal pronouns indicate the gender of the person referred to

—or the lack of gender of objects and concepts.

  Masculine pronouns refer to men and boys.

 Feminine pronouns refer to women and girls.

 Gender-neutral pronouns, also referred to as epicene, refer to people who

identify as neither male nor female, or to people whose gender is not

considered relevant in context.

 Neuter pronouns refer to things that are not people: objects, concepts,

places, and sometimes animals.

Note: In English, only third-person singular pronouns display gender; plural

pronouns are always gender-neutral, as are first- and second-person singular
pronouns (and the impersonal pronoun “one”).

Case

Case means the grammatical role that the pronoun plays in a sentence. Personal

pronouns can play four different roles in a sentence:

 Subject pronouns act as the subject of a verb—the person or thing that

performs the action described.

 Object pronouns act as the object of a verb or preposition—the person or

thing that is acted upon.

 Possessive pronouns indicate ownership—they stand for something or

someone that belongs to someone or something else. These are slightly

different from possessive determiners.

 Reflexive pronouns are used instead of object pronouns when the object of

the sentence is the same as the subject. The same words double as intensive

pronouns.
First-person pronouns

The first-person pronouns don’t vary based on gender, but they do vary

based on number and case, as shown in the table below. The first-person singular

subject pronoun “I” is the only English pronoun that is always capitalized.

Note that there is ongoing debate about the use of first-person pronouns in

academic writing.

English first-person pronouns

Subject Object Possessive Reflexiv

Singular I me mine myself

Plural we us ours ourselves

Examples:

I’m not sure what you mean by that.

If we work hard, the prize could be ours.

If you ask me, we just have to trust ourselves.

Second-person pronouns

The second-person pronouns also do not vary based on gender, only the

reflexive form varies based on number, and the subject and object forms are the

same. This makes them the least variable set of personal pronouns but can

occasionally lead to ambiguity.

Second-person pronouns should almost never be used in academic writing, as

addressing the reader directly is seen as too informal.

 English second-person pronouns

Subject Object Possessive Reflexive

Singular you yours yourself

Plural you yours yourselves

Examples:

You can’t be serious!

May I ask you a question? Is this jacket yours?

If you behave yourselves, you’ll all get out of class early.

Third-person pronouns

The third-person pronouns are much more variable than the first- and

second-person pronouns, since they also change form based on gender, in addition

to number and case.

As well as forms for the masculine and feminine, there is a neuter (or

inanimate) form that’s used to refer to things other than people (e.g., ideas,

objects, animals).

There’s also an increasingly widely used gender-neutral (or epicene) form,

the singular “they.” This is largely identical to the plural form (which is always

gender-neutral), except that the reflexive “themself” is sometimes used instead of

“themselves” (though it’s often considered nonstandard).

English third-person pronouns

Subject Object Possessive Reflexive

Masculine singular he him his himself

Feminine singular she her hers herself

English third-person pronouns

Subject Object Possessive Reflexive

Neuter / inanimate it its itself

singular

Gender-neutral they them theirs themselves

singular (epicene)

Plural they them theirs themselves

Examples:

I like him a lot. He and I are going for drinks again next week.

I’m glad she can be herself now.

Participants assessed themselves in terms of performance.

My parents complain about my car, but I like it better than theirs.

Impersonal pronouns

The impersonal pronoun “one,” as the name suggests, doesn’t vary based on

person—it’s not in the first, second, or third person.

Rather, like an indefinite pronoun, it refers to a nonspecific, generic

individual, usually for the purpose of making a generalization or stating a principle.

It’s considered quite formal and often replaced with “you,” or otherwise avoided, in

informal contexts.

The impersonal pronoun doesn’t vary based on number or gender, and it has

the same form whether used as a subject or object. It does have a separate form

for the reflexive, but no possessive pronoun form.

English impersonal pronouns

Subjec Object Possessive Reflexive

one — oneself

Examples:

One never wants to be the person to bring bad news.

One has to believe in oneself in order to succeed.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

The four English demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those.

They are used to highlight something that was previously mentioned or that is

clear from the context.

Demonstrative pronouns “demonstrate” something; using them is the verbal

equivalent of pointing at something or someone. They draw attention to the thing

or person you’re referring to.

Demonstrative pronouns indicate number (singular or plural) and the relative

distance of the thing being referred to.

Examples of the demonstrative pronouns

Near (proximal) Far (distal)

Singular This is my friend Jamie. I don’t know about that. Let’s

discuss it tomorrow.

Plural I like all kinds of chocolates, Those are my notebooks on the desk.

but these are my favorites.

Demonstrative pronouns vs. demonstrative determiners

The demonstrative pronouns are identical to the demonstrative

determiners (often called demonstrative adjectives instead). The same words—

this, that, these, and those—are used for both grammatical functions in English.

The pronouns and determiners together can be collectively referred to

as demonstratives.

 A demonstrative pronoun replaces a noun, meaning that it stands alone as

the subject or object of the sentence.

 A demonstrative determiner modifies a noun, meaning that it appears

before the noun, telling you something about it.

Examples:

That is a misconception. I recommend reading this article to understand the

topic better.

These are very good chocolates, but I still prefer these peanuts.

I’m afraid I can’t answer that question. This is a classified investigation.

“Near” and “far” demonstratives

Demonstratives—both pronouns and determiners—are used to indicate the

distance of the thing or person being referred to from the person speaking or

writing.

 This (singular) and these (plural) are the “near” (or proximal)

demonstratives. They indicate someone or something that is relatively close.

 That (singular) and those (plural) are the “far” (or distal) demonstratives.

They indicate someone or something that is relatively far.

This can refer to literal physical distance—for example, contrasting the

distance of two physical objects, people, or locations from the speaker or writer.
Examples:

These flowers in my hand are tulips. Those, over on the windowsill, are roses.

No, this is my uncle Bill. That’s my dad over there.

That’s the Van Gogh Museum in the distance, and this building on our left is

the concert hall.

It can also mean distance in time, when you’re contrasting the past or future
with the present.
Example:

That was an era of unprecedented economic prosperity,

whereas these days, we’re living through a recession.

Finally, demonstratives may indicate a more abstract, figurative type of

distance—for example, referring to something that was previously said or to some

idea, concept, or event.

Example:

She didn’t do anything wrong. That’s my opinion and I’m sticking to it.

This argument isn’t getting us anywhere. Let’s agree to disagree.

Two major events are often said to mark the beginning of modern European

history. These are the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution.

Antecedents of demonstrative pronouns

The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun or phrase it refers to.

The antecedent usually appears before the pronoun—earlier in the sentence or in a

previous sentence. But it can sometimes appear shortly after the pronoun.

Examples:

I really like orange juice. I think that’s my favorite drink.

 This is my fear: that we aren’t doing enough.

But demonstrative pronouns, because of the way they’re used, don’t always

have explicitly named antecedents. When the implied antecedent is clear from the

context, that isn’t a problem.

Example:

Well, that was awkward. [antecedent = the meeting the speaker and the

person they’re speaking to just left]

I want these! [antecedent = the toys the speaker is holding]

What’s that? [antecedent = the building in the distance that the speaker is

pointing at]

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used (along with other types of interrogative

words) to introduce questions. The interrogative pronouns are:

 What and which, used to ask questions about things

 Who and whom, used to ask about people

 Whose, used to ask about ownership

Examples:

Whose is this jacket?

What were your favorite classes at school?

Whom do you admire the most?

Note: All English interrogative pronouns can also function as relative pronouns.
Relative pronouns

A relative pronoun is used to introduce a relative clause—a phrase that usually

supplies more information about the preceding noun. They have a lot in common

with interrogative pronouns. The relative pronouns are:

 Which(ever), that, and what(ever), used in relation to things

 Who(ever) and whom(ever), used in relation to people

 Whose, used to indicate ownership

Relative pronouns are often omitted in practice (e.g., “the book [that] I read”).

There’s nothing wrong with doing this as long as it doesn’t create ambiguity.

Examples:

The first thing that I thought of was a cloud.

It doesn’t matter whose it was; it’s ours now!

Whoever broke the chair should own up to it.

Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are words like “somebody” that refer to an unspecified

person or thing. Many of them are formed using some combination

of some-, any-, every-, or no- with -thing, -one, -where, or -body.

There are also various indefinite pronouns used to describe quantity, such as

“little,” “many,” “none,” and “enough.” And there are distributive pronouns like

“neither” and “each” that allow you to distinguish between options.

The impersonal pronoun “one” can also be regarded as indefinite.

Examples:

Try to think of somewhere nice to go for dinner.

No one likes him, and he doesn’t like anyone.

 Some are born lucky, while others have to work hard for everything they

get.

Few are able to excel in such a competitive field.

Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns are used to indicate a reciprocal relationship between

two people or things, where the members of a group each perform the same action

relative to the other(s). The English reciprocal pronouns are each other and one

another.

Some writers claim that “each other” should only be used to refer to groups

of two and “one another” to groups of three or more. But this distinction is

rejected by most style guides and not borne out in practice; you can use the two

interchangeably.

Examples:

Siblings often compete with each other for parental attention.

It’s important that we treat one another with respect.

Dummy pronouns (expletives)

A dummy pronoun (also called an expletive) is a pronoun that doesn’t have

any explicit meaning but is necessary to the sentence structure. Unlike other

pronouns, dummy pronouns don’t actually replace a noun.

The two words used as dummy pronouns in English are it and there. Note

that both words can also fulfill other grammatical roles. Dummy pronouns are

commonly used to talk about the weather, to emphasize certain elements in a

sentence, or to introduce the existence of something.

Examples:
 It rained yesterday, but today it’s bright and sunny.

There are thousands of different species of birds in the world.

It isn’t clear to me what you mean.

3.Verbs

A verb is a word that describes an action (e.g., “jump”), occurrence (e.g.,

“become”), or state of being (e.g., “exist”). Verbs indicate what the subject of a

sentence is doing. Every complete sentence must contain at least one verb.

Regular verbs are verbs whose simple past and past participle are formed by

adding“-ed” to the end of the word (or “-d” if the word already ends in

“e”). Irregular verbs are verbs whose simple past and past participles are formed

in some other way.

Examples:

“Will you check if this book is in stock?”

“I’ve already checked twice.”

“I heard that you used to sing.”

“Yes! I sang in a choir for 10 years.”

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) are used along with a main verb to

express tense, mood, or voice. For example, in the statement “it is raining,” “is”

functions as an auxiliary verb indicating that the action of the main verb (“raining”)

is ongoing.

Auxiliary verbs are used in various verb tenses, including the continuous

tense (e.g., “I am talking”), the perfect tense (e.g., “you have run”), and the future

tense (e.g., “they will dance”).

Examples:

Alice has been working here for a month.

Shaun was eating dinner when his friends arrived.

Do you know how to get to the theater?

How are auxiliary verbs used in sentences?

Auxiliary verbs are always used along with a main verb to indicate tense,

mood, and voice. Auxiliary verbs typically come before the main verb in a sentence.

The primary auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do. Some sentences (e.g., those

in the perfect continuous tenses) contain more than one auxiliary verb.

Examples:

Eric is talking to Laura.

Jess has already eaten dinner.

Did you go to school yesterday?

Aria has been living in China for a year.

Modal auxiliary verbs

Modal auxiliary verbs (also called simply modal verbs) help to clarify the

context of a sentence. They express possibility (e.g., “might”), ability (e.g., “can”),

permission (e.g., “may”), and necessity (e.g., “must”). The modal verb “will” is used to

form all future tenses.

While regular auxiliary verbs follow subject-verb agreement, modal auxiliary verbs

never change form. In sentences containing modal verbs, the main verb typically

takes the infinitive form (e.g., “he can sing”).

Examples:

I would expect nothing less.

 We should schedule an interview with the preferred candidate.

Shall we order dessert?

Auxiliary verbs and tense

Conjugated forms of the auxiliary verbs “be” and “have” are used in various

verb tenses to help indicate time. In the future tense, the modal auxiliary verb

“will” is also used.

Below is a table that shows the conjugated forms of the verb “read” in the

first person singular. The table illustrates the use of auxiliary and modal verbs in

creating the progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive aspects.

Past Present Future

Progressive I was reading. I am reading. I will be reading.

Perfect I had read. I have read. I will have read.

Perfect I had I have I will have

progressive been reading. been reading. been reading.

Note: The modal verb “will” is used in all aspects of the future tense, including the
future simple (e.g., “I will run”). The past simple and present simple (e.g., “I ran,”
“I run”) don’t use auxiliary or modal verbs.

Auxiliary verbs and mood

The grammatical mood of a verb indicates the tone and intention of a

sentence. Auxiliary verbs and modal verbs are used along with a main verb to

express grammatical mood.

Grammatical Function Example

mood

Indicative State a fact “Ravi is working.”

Imperative Express a command or a request “Don’t break anything.”

(often with a negative auxiliary

verb)

Interrogative Ask a question “Have you eaten yet?”

Conditional Express a condition “You can use my phone if you

need to.”

Subjunctive Express a wish, doubt, or “If I were more athletic,

hypothetical situation I would play basketball.”

Auxiliary verbs and the passive voice

Passive constructions (i.e., sentences in which the subject is the recipient of

the action) use a conjugated form of the auxiliary verb “be” along with the past

participle of the main verb. Sometimes, sentences in the passive voice also contain

a prepositional phrase indicating the person or thing performing the action.

Example:

The boy was bitten by a dog.

Other uses of auxiliary verbs

Auxiliary verbs have various other functions in English. They can be used:

 As question tags

 To avoid repetition

 In negative statements

 For emphasis
Question tags

Question tags are used at the end of a sentence to ask whether a preceding

statement is true. If the main statement is positive, the question tag should use a

negative auxiliary verb. If the main statement is negative, the question tag should

use a positive auxiliary verb.

Question tags use the same auxiliary verb as the main statement. They also

refer to the same subject. However, they always use subject pronouns (e.g., “I,”

“he,” “she,” “we”).

Examples:

Paula is coming to the party, isn’t she?

You don’t work on Saturdays, do you?

Note: If the main statement doesn’t contain an auxiliary verb, the question tag
uses a conjugated form of the verb “do” along with the adverb “not” (e.g., “Laura
comes from Germany, doesn’t she?”).

To avoid repetition

Auxiliary verbs are often used to avoid repeating the main verb in a

sentence. Instead, a conjugated form of the main statement’s auxiliary verb is

used along with the coordinating conjunction “but” and the

relevant noun or pronoun. If the main statement is positive, the second statement

should use a negative auxiliary verb, and vice versa.

Examples:

I don’t really like soccer, but Emily does. [she does like soccer]

Kim is tidying the house, but her sisters aren’t. [they aren’t tidying the

house]
Note: If the main statement doesn’t contain an auxiliary verb, the second
statement should use a conjugated form of the verb “do” (e.g., “Sara believed
Harry’s story, but Una didn’t.”

Negative statements

Most negative statements are formed by adding the adverb “not” between

the auxiliary verb and the main verb (or after the first auxiliary verb if the

sentence contains more than one).

Examples:

I am not going to the party.

They had not been traveling long when they ran out of money.

To create a negative version of a sentence that didn’t originally contain an

auxiliary verb, use a conjugated form of the auxiliary verb “do” along with “not” and

the infinitive form of the main verb.

Examples:

I didn’t lose the car keys.

Tess doesn’t like classical music.

Emphasis

In everyday conversation, people sometimes place emphasis on an auxiliary

verb to refute or contradict a previous statement or question. When written down,

the emphasized word is often italicized.

Examples:

Why aren’t you studying?

 I am studying!

You don’t know what you’re talking about.

I do know what I’m talking about!

4. Adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives can

be attributive, appearing before a noun (e.g., “a red hat”), or predicative, appearing

after a noun with the use of a linking verb like “to be” (e.g., “the hat is red”).

Adjectives can also have a comparative function. Comparative

adjectives compare two or more things. Superlative adjectives describe something

as having the most or least of a specific characteristic.

Examples:

The dog is bigger than the cat.

He is the laziest person I know

5. Adverbs

An adverb is a word that can modify or describe a verb, adjective, another

adverb, or entire sentence. Adverbs can be used to show manner (how something

happens), degree (to what extent), place (where), and time (when).

Adverbs are usually formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective (e.g., ‘quick’

becomes ‘quickly’), although there are also other adverbs that don’t have this

ending. There are also adverbial phrases, series of words that play the grammatical

role of adverbs.

Examples:

Ali walked quickly.

Charlize never answers her phone.

 It is an incredibly exciting film.

Actually, I’m not sure.

How are adverbs used in sentences?

Adverbs provide context in a sentence by describing how, when, where,

and to what extent something occurs. Adverbs can be used to

modify verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs.

Examples:

Tamara danced slowly.

Jeff is extremely talented.

I started playing golf quite recently.

Adverbs can also be used to modify entire sentences by expressing a

viewpoint or making an evaluation. These adverbs (called sentence adverbs) are

typically set off with commas.

Examples:

Luckily, the fire department responded immediately.

Monica can’t attend the party, unfortunately.

Adverbs of manner

An adverb of manner describes how an action is performed or how

something happens. In most cases, adverbs of manner occur after the main verb.

Examples:

Jessie read quietly.

Tom laughed loudly.

If the verb has a direct object (a thing being acted upon), the adverb should be
placed before the verb or at the end of the sentence. It should never be placed
between the verb and its object (in the following examples, ‘the book’ is the
object).
Examples: Adverbs of manner and direct objects

 Jessie read quietly the book.

 Jessie quietly read the book.

 Jessie read the book quietly.

Adverbs of degree

Adverbs of degree are used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs by

expressing extent or degree. Some common adverbs of degree include: ‘extremely’,

‘absolutely’, ‘slightly’, ‘quite’, and ‘enough’.

Examples:

The medication had a very positive effect.

I’ll be ready soon; I’m almost finished.

Adverbs of place

An adverb of place provides information about the location of an action

(e.g., position, distance, and direction). Adverbs of place typically occur after the

main verb of a sentence.

Examples:

Go downstairs and open the door.

Confetti was thrown everywhere.

Come here!
Note: Some words can be used as both an adverb of place and a preposition.
When the sentence has no object, it’s considered an adverb (e.g., ‘go inside‘). If
the sentence has an object, it’s considered a preposition (e.g., ‘go inside the
house’)

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of time (e.g., ‘yesterday’, ‘today’, ‘tomorrow’)

describe when something happens. They are typically placed at the end of a

sentence.

Examples:

I have to run, but I’ll see you tomorrow.

Dylan has a dentist appointment, so he will be late for school today.

Adverbs of duration (e.g., ‘temporarily’, ‘forever’, ‘shortly’) are slightly different;

they describe the length of time something happens for.

Examples:

The power outage should be fixed shortly.

I played football briefly, but I didn’t enjoy it.

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of frequency describe how often something happens. They can be

divided into two categories based on how specific they are.

Adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g., ‘always’, ‘sometimes’, ‘never’) give an

idea of how often something occurs, but they don’t give an exact timeframe.

Adverbs of indefinite frequency are usually placed before the main verb.

Examples:
 Anna always works on Saturdays.

Jessica never washes the dishes.

Adverbs of definite frequency (e.g., ‘hourly’, ‘daily’, ‘weekly’) give a more

precise description of how often something happens. They typically occur at the

end of a sentence.

Examples:

I check my email hourly.

We visit France yearly.

Adverbs of purpose

Adverbs of purpose (also called adverbs of reason) help to

explain why something is the case. Many adverbs of purpose function

as conjunctive adverbs. Other adverbs of purpose usually take the form of

adverbial phrases instead of individual words.

Examples:

The company made a huge profit; therefore, the employees were given

raises.

Since you’re busy, I’ll call back later.

6. Prepositions

Prepositions are words that show the relationship between elements in a

sentence. They can express relationships of place, time, direction, and other

abstract or logical connections.

A preposition is usually located directly before the word or phrase that it

relates to – the object of the preposition.

  We walked to the shop.

 I’ve been unwell since last Wednesday.

 That gift is for him.

Prepositions are flexible words that are often central to the meaning of a

sentence, and it can be tricky to choose the right one. The best way to master

them is by reading and practice.

Using prepositions

Prepositions are often used to describe where, when, or how something

happens.

Relationship expressed Examples

How Accuracy was increased by repeating the test.

I fixed the light with a screwdriver.

When Jeremy has wanted to be a musician since childhood.

The meeting resumes at 10:30 a.m.

Where The conference room is through that door.

The crushing machine is located in the mechanics lab.

However, prepositions are easy to confuse and misuse. The same preposition can

often be used in different ways, and the meaning can only be deduced from the

context.

 Dangerous chemicals should be used behind the safety screen.

 Every team member is behind the proposed changes.

 The company is behind its competitors in terms of total revenue.

Furthermore, the choice of preposition can change the meaning of a sentence,

so it’s important to use the right one. The following examples show the effect of

switching between some commonly confused prepositions.

Commonly confused prepositions

Example Meaning

Of/ The aim is to replicate the The engineering team produced the

for results of the engineering team. results.

The aim is to replicate the Someone else produced the results.

results for the engineering team.

At/to The prize was awarded at the office. The office is the location where the

prize was awarded.

The prize was awarded to the office. The office received the prize.

On/in This report examines the impacts of The impact suffered by developing

plastic pollution on developing countries due to plastic pollution

countries. (including pollution that occurs

elsewhere).

This report examines the impacts of The impacts of the plastic pollution

plastic pollution in developing that occurs within developing countries.

countries.
Contrary to a common writing myth, there is no rule against ending a sentence

with a preposition.

 Machine error is an issue to look out for.

List of common prepositions

According to the Cambridge English Dictionary, there are over 100 single-

word prepositions in the English language. These are some of the most common

ones – but note that many of these prepositions can be used to express more than

one type of relationship.

 Common prepositions

Time in (month/year), on (day), at (time), before, during, after, since,

until

Location under, over, above, below, between, in, out, on, at, by

Movement to, into, towards, through, across, up, down, around, past

Other relationships for, by, from, of, as, with, about

As prepositions are so versatile, there are no defined rules about how to use

each one. The best way to learn is by reading and practice. If in doubt, carefully

consider the relationship you are trying to explain and consult a dictionary or use

a proofreading service.

Multi-word prepositions

Sometimes prepositions take the form of multi-word phrases. They can also be

combined with verbs to express physical or abstract relationships.

 According to various sources, the new design is similar to the old one.

 The sensor is situated on top of the battery pack due to space limitations.

As with single-word prepositions, these combinations can be used in many

different ways. Using them correctly requires practice and careful attention.

7. Conjunctions
 A conjunction is a word that is used to connect words, phrases, and clauses.

There are many conjunctions in the English language, but some common ones

include and, or, but, because, for, if, and when.

There are three basic types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating,

and correlative.

Because the popstar caught a terrible cold, her upcoming performances in

Boston and Chicago were indefinitely postponed. The tour organizers

provided neither rescheduled dates nor refunds for the tickets, causing much

discontent among the fans.

Coordinating conjunctions

This type of conjunction is used to connect items that are grammatically

equal: two words, two phrases, or two independent clauses. There are seven

coordinating conjunctions in English, and you can remember them using the

mnemonic device FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

A conjunction of this type is placed between the items that it links together.

Words

Coordinating conjunctions can join two nouns, verbs, adjectives, or other types

of word.

 The data was gathered through questionnaires and interviews.

 I don’t like to run or swim.

 He was clever but lazy.

Phrases

They can also join different types of phrases.

  The dog wagged his tail and panted excitedly.

 The results were undeniably intriguing yet ultimately inconclusive.

 She usually studies in the library or at a cafe.

Independent clauses

A clause is a group of words that contains at least a subject and a verb. An

independent clause can stand on its own as a full sentence, expressing a complete

thought.

 Today Jane Austen is one of the most widely read English novelists, but she

achieved little fame during her lifetime.

In the sentence above, the coordinating conjunction but creates a relationship

between two independent clauses. Therefore, you place a comma before but.
Notice that the two clauses also work as sentences on their own.
 Today Jane Austen is one of the most widely read English novelists. She

achieved little fame during her lifetime.

Punctuating coordinating conjunctions

When joining two words or phrases with a coordinating conjunction, do not use

a comma.

 Comma error  Correction

Data was gathered through Data was gathered

questionnaires, and interviews. through questionnaires and interviews.

She usually studies in the library, or at She usually studies in the library or at a

a cafe. cafe.
In these examples, the conjunction joins two words or phrases that are connected
to a single verb (gathered and studies), so you shouldn’t place a comma before and.
When joining two independent clauses, however, use a comma before the
conjunction.

 Comma error  Correction

Data was gathered through Data was gathered through

questionnaires and selected questionnaires, and selected respondents

respondents participated in interviews. participated in interviews.

She usually studies in the library but She usually studies in the library, but when

when it is too busy she goes to a cafe. it is too busy she goes to a cafe.

Subordinating conjunctions

This type of conjunction includes words

like because, if, although, since, until, and while. A subordinating conjunction is

used to introduce a dependent clause.

In contrast to an independent clause, a dependent clause (also known as a

subordinate clause) is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb but

cannot stand as a complete sentence on its own. A dependent clause does not

express a complete idea, so it must always be attached to an independent clause.

 Because I woke up late this morning. I went to school without eating

breakfast.

 Because I woke up late this morning, I went to school without eating

breakfast.

 I went to school without eating breakfast because I woke up late this

morning.
I woke up late this morning is an independent clause, but the subordinating
conjunction because turns it into a dependent clause: Because I woke up late this

morning does not finish a complete thought. It must be joined to an independent

clause to form a grammatically correct sentence.

The subordinating conjunction defines the relationship between the clauses.

The table below shows some common subordinating conjunctions and the

relationships they express, but note that this is not a complete list.

Relationship Common subordinating conjunctions

Cause and effect because, since, as

Time when, before, after, once, until, whenever, since, while

Place where, wherever

Condition if, unless, in case

Contrast although, though, whereas

Punctuating subordinating conjunctions

When a subordinating conjunction follows an independent clause, a comma is

often not necessary. In general, when the dependent clause contains essential

information about the independent clause, don’t use a comma.

 Comma error  Correction

She will receive a major bonus, if she She will receive a major bonus if she

succeeds in closing the corporate partnership succeeds in closing the corporate

deal. partnership deal.

John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set John’s friends snuck into his apartment

up a surprise party, while he was at work. to set up a surprise party while he was at

work.
However, when the subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the

sentence, use a comma at the end of the dependent clause.

  Comma error  Correction

If she succeeds in closing the corporate If she succeeds in closing the corporate

partnership deal she will receive a major partnership deal, she will receive a major

bonus. bonus.

While John was at work his friends snuck into While John was at work, his friends

his apartment to set up a surprise party. snuck into his apartment to set up a

surprise party
Correlative conjunctions

This type of conjunction always comes in a pair and is used to join grammatically

equal elements in a sentence. Common pairs include either … or, neither … nor, not

only … but also, and both … and. In most cases, no comma should be used between
the two elements.

 Her book on the Vietnam War drew not only from interviews with other

survivors but also from her own experiences in the conflict.

Correlative conjunctions must use parallel structure, which means the two

elements should take the same grammatical form.

 She planned to collect data by either using an online survey or phone

interviews.

 She planned to collect data by either using an online survey or conducting

phone interviews.

8. Interjection

An interjection is a word or phrase used to express a feeling or to request or

demand something. While interjections are a part of speech, they are not

grammatically connected to other parts of a sentence.

 Interjections are common in everyday speech and informal writing. While some

interjections such as “well” and “indeed” are acceptable in formal conversation, it’s

best to avoid interjections in formal or academic writing.

Examples:

Wow! That bird is huge.

Uh-oh. I forgot to get gas.

We’re not lost. We just need to go, um, this way.

Psst, what’s the answer to number four?

How are interjections used in sentences?

Interjections add meaning to a sentence or context by expressing a feeling,

making a demand, or emphasizing a thought.

Interjections can be either a single word or a phrase, and they can be used

on their own or as part of a sentence.

Examples:

Phew!

Shoot, I’ve broken a nail.

Oh really? I didn’t know that.

As interjections are a grammatically independent part of speech, they can often

be excluded from a sentence without impacting its meaning.
Examples: Sentences with and without interjections

 Oh boy, I’m tired.

 I’m tired.

 Ouch! That hurts!

 That hurts!
Primary interjections

A primary interjection is a word or sound that can only be used as an

interjection. Primary interjections do not have alternative meanings and can’t

function as another part of speech (i.e., noun, verb, or adjective).

Primary interjections are typically just sounds without a clear etymology. As

such, while they sometimes have standard spellings, a single interjection may be

written in different ways (e.g., “um-hum” or “mm-hmm”).

Examples:

Ugh! That’s disgusting.

Um-hum. I think that could work.

We won the game. Yippee!

Secondary interjections

A secondary interjection is a word that is typically used as another part of

speech (such as a noun, verb, or adjective) that can also be used as an interjection.

Examples:

Goodness! That was a close one.

Shoot! My flight has been canceled.

Awesome! Do that trick again.

Volitive interjections

A volitive interjection is used to give a command or make a request. For

example, the volitive interjection “shh” or “shush” is used to command someone to

be quiet.
Examples:

Shh! I can’t focus when you’re singing.

Psst. Pass me an eraser.

Ahem. Please pay attention.

Emotive interjections

An emotive interjection is used to express an emotion or to indicate a

reaction to something. For example, the emotive interjection “ew” is used to

express disgust.

Curse words, also called expletives, are commonly used (in informal contexts)

as emotive interjections to express frustration or anger.

Examples:

Ew. I’m not eating that.

Yay! I’m so excited to see you.

Yum! This apple pie is delicious.

Cognitive interjections

A cognitive interjection is used to express a thought or indicate a thought

process. For example, the cognitive interjection “um” can express confusion or

indicate that the speaker is thinking.

Examples

Um, can you explain it once more?

Wow! I wasn’t expecting that.

Eureka! I’ve solved the puzzle.

Greetings and parting words

Greetings and parting words/phrases are interjections used to acknowledge

or welcome someone or to express good wishes at the end of a conversation.

Examples:

Hey!

Hello! It’s good to see you.

Bye!

See you soon! Drive safe.

Interjections and punctuation

How an interjection is punctuated depends on the context and the intensity

of the emotion or thought being expressed.

Exclamation points are most commonly used along with interjections to

emphasize the intensity of an emotion, thought, or demand.

When the emotion or thought being expressed is less extreme, an

interjection can also be followed by a period. If an interjection is used to express

uncertainty or to ask a question, it should be followed by a question mark.

Examples:

Oh. I don’t know.

We’ve just won the lottery. Hurray!

Hmm?

When an interjection is used as part of a sentence, it should be set off from the
rest of the sentence using commas.

Examples:

Hmm, how are we going to do this?

 It was an interesting lecture, indeed.

The project is, uh, going well.

OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH

** DETERMINER

A determiner is a word that modifies, describes, or introduces a noun.

Determiners can be used to clarify what a noun refers to (e.g., your car) and to

indicate quantity or number (e.g., four wheels).

Examples:

That cup is chipped.

Priya is taking her first steps.

The festival has been postponed due to bad weather.

How are determiners used in sentences?

A determiner modifies or describes a noun by clarifying what it refers to.

Determiners do this by indicating qualities such as possession, relative position, and

quantity. In a noun phrase, determiners come before nouns.

Examples:

One person is missing from the group.

I’ve been stung by a wasp.

Determiners vs. adjectives

Many kinds of determiners are traditionally classified as adjectives, and

they may still be classified that way now, depending on the source you consult. But

there are significant differences in how determiners and adjectives actually

function.

While both can be used to modify a noun, only an adjective can modify

a pronoun (e.g., he’s sad). And unlike adjectives, determiners are often considered

essential to the sentences they’re a part of and can’t be removed.

Examples: Determiners vs. adjectives

 Calvin cycled his blue bike home from work.

 Calvin cycled his bike home from work.

 Calvin cycled bike home from work.

Tip: If a noun is preceded by both a determiner and an adjective, the determiner

will always occur first (e.g., Siya is proud of her new job).

** ARTICLES

Articles

An article is a word that modifies a noun by indicating whether it is specific or

general.
  The definite article the is used to refer to a specific version of a

noun. The can be used with all countable and uncountable nouns (e.g., “the

door,” “the energy,” “the mountains”).

 The indefinite articles a and an refer to general or unspecific nouns. The

indefinite articles can only be used with singular countable nouns (e.g., “a

poster,” “an engine”).

Examples:

I live just outside of the town.

There’s a concert this weekend.

Karl made an offensive gesture.

Definite and indefinite articles

Articles are sometimes classed as their own part of speech, but they are

also considered a type of determiner.

The definite article the is used to refer to a specific noun (i.e., one that is

unique or known).

Examples:

The moon looks beautiful tonight.

Can I borrow the book on the table?

The indefinite articles a and an are used to refer to a general or unspecific

version of a noun. Which indefinite article you use depends on the pronunciation of

the word that follows.

 A is used before words that begin with a consonant sound (e.g., a clown).

 An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (e.g., an arrow).

Examples:

Jesse ate an apple and an orange.

 Would you like a free sample?

Indefinite articles can also be used to refer to something for the first time.
Once a noun has been introduced, the definite article should then be used, as it
refers to a previously mentioned noun.
Example:

An elephant approached. The elephant was large and gray.

Note: While the definite article the can be used with all countable and
uncountable nouns, the indefinite articles a and an can only be used with singular
countable nouns.
 The rain

 A rain

 The raindrop

 A raindrop

Identifying errors

1. You should be well-versed with the parts of speech, such as adverb, adjectives,

conjunctions, nouns, interjections, etc.

 These must be correctly used as they help to make a sentence constructive.

 Example:

She cooks real good. (Incorrect)

She cooks really well. (Correct)

2. Make sure the sentence is grammatically appropriate, where the subject must

agree with the verb.

 The subject-verb agreement should there, if not, then the sentence has an

error. It also acts as a hint for finding an error.

3. There should be no parallelism within the sentence. Various words in the

sentence should follow the same concept where all are written in the same tense.

 Example:

Students must go through programming, computing and how to process.

(Incorrect)

The student must go through programming, computing, and

processing. (Correct)

4. A modifier is something which should come after subject as it modifies the

subject. The sentence can be wrong if the modifiers are placed before the

subject.

 Example:

Swamped in mud, Jai rescued the puppy. (Incorrect)

Swamped in mud, the puppy was rescued by Jai. (Correct)

5. The sentence must not include repetitive words or redundancy.

 Example:

He will return back next week. (Incorrect)

He will return next week. (Correct)

6. Several grammatical, punctuation, and spelling details or knowledge is a must

have for the people appearing for error identification test.

7. Pronoun agreement should be there, such as he/she/it should go with does or

‘es’ and you/we/they must go with doing.

8. A verb followed by a preposition typically forms a phrasal verb.

 Phrasal verb mistakes happen when a dissimilar preposition is used in place

of the one that is required to be put.

 It is required to have knowledge about phrases and idioms as they have some

specific words.
  One can easily identify errors in phrases if they have thorough knowledge

about the phrases.

9. Use of correct words at correct places is important. It may also help you find a

logical replacement of the word in mind through which you can identify that the

sentence has errors to be replaced.

EXERCISE

Honey is much more than a tasty substitute ………………… (for / of / to) sugar. This

sweet substance has healing powers too. …………………… (For / Of / By) one thing, its

thick, sticky consistency helps coat and soothe the throat. Studies have shown

that antioxidant levels …………………… (in / on / at) the body rise after someone

swallows honey. Antioxidants are substances that protect our cells ……………………

(from / of / with) damage. All honey ………………….. (contain / is containing / contains)

antioxidants, but certain types contain more of them than others. Honey has

another health advantage too. At least some types ………………….(seem / seems /

seemed) to kill infectious microbes.

There is no evidence that having honey will help ………………… (prevent / to prevent /

preventing) colds. But if your throat is sore and you can’t stop coughing, it might

make you ……………………. (feel / to feel) better. And a little dose of sweetness might

as well cheer you ……………………. (on / up / for)!

Honey is much more than a tasty substitute for sugar. This sweet substance has

healing powers too. For one thing, its thick, sticky consistency helps coat and

soothe the throat. Studies have shown that antioxidant levels in the body rise
after someone swallows honey. Antioxidants are substances that protect our

cells from damage. All honey contains antioxidants, but certain types contain more

of them than others. Honey has another health advantage too. At least some

types seem to kill infectious microbes.

There is no evidence that having honey will help prevent / to prevent colds. But if

your throat is sore and you can’t stop coughing, it might make you feel better. And

a little dose of sweetness might just cheer you up!