Abstract

1. Hofstede
Article 1
“Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context, Unit 2 - Theoretical and
Methodological Issues (article 8)”
This article describes briefly the Hofstede model of six dimensions of national cultures: Power
Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Long/Short
Term Orientation, and Indulgence/Restraint. It shows the conceptual and research efforts that
preceded it and led up to it, and once it had become a paradigm for comparing cultures,
research efforts that followed and built on it. The article stresses that dimensions depend on the
level of aggregation; it describes the six entirely different dimensions found in the Hofstede et al.
(2010) research into organizational cultures. It warns against confusion with value differences at
the individual level. It concludes with a look ahead in what the study of dimensions of national
cultures and the position of countries on them may still bring.
Source: https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss1
Publication Date: 12-2011
Article 2
“Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede with Inglehart”
Cross-national research on cultural differences across space and time intersects multiple
disciplines but the prominence of concepts varies by academic fields. Hofstede’s dimensional
concept of culture, to begin with, dominates in cross-cultural psychology and international
management. Inglehart’s dynamic concept of culture, by contrast, prevails in sociology and
political science. We argue that this disciplinary division is unfortunate because the two
concepts are complementary, for which reason a synthesis rectifies their mutual weaknesses.
Indeed, while Hofstede’s dimensional concept neglects cultural dynamics, Inglehart’s dynamic
concept is dimensionally reductionist. We demonstrate empirically that combining these two
concepts lead to an improved understanding of cultural differences. Inspired by Hofstede’s
cultural dimensions, we use data from the European Value Studies and World Values Surveys for
495,011 individuals born between 1900 and 1999 in 110 countries and then show that change
on these dimensions proceeds as Inglehart and his collaborators suggest. Most notably, younger
generations have become more individualistic and more joyous. But even though economic
development and generational replacement drive this cultural change, roughly half of the
variation in national cultural orientations is unique to each country, due to lasting intercept
differences in developmental trajectories that trace back to remote historic drivers. We discuss
the implications for cross-national cultural research.
publication date: 2018

Article 3
Cross-cultural comparisons often investigate values that are assumed to have long-lasting
influence on human conduct and thought. To capture and compare cultural values across
cultures, Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory has offered an influential framework.
Hofstede also provided a survey instrument, the Values Survey Module (VSM), for measuring
cultural values as outlined in his Cultural Dimensions Theory. The VSM has since been subject to
a series of revisions. Yet, data on countries have been derived from the original VSM—and not
on one of the revised versions of VSM.We tested three scales (indulgence, power distance, and
individualism) from the latest version, the VSM 2013, as part of a larger survey across 57
countries. Two main findings emerged. For one thing, country scores based on the VSM 2013
scales correlated only weakly with country scores of the same cultural dimensions obtained in a
large previous study. Thus, the validity of the VSM 2013 is in doubt. For another thing, the
internal consistency of the VSM 2013 scales was overall poor, indicating that the scales did not
reliably measure well-defined constructs. We discuss implications for cross-cultural research.
publication date: 06 April 2021

2. Edward Hall

Article 1
“Intercultural Communication Education”
This article reflects on current conceptualizations of intercultural understanding by reexamining
the ideas of pioneer thinkers Marshall McLuhan and Edward Hall. It argues that common notions
of intercultural understanding are reminiscent of McLuhan’s ideas—as a form of advanced
perception and higher forms of awareness. It will argue, however, that Hall’s view—which
emphasizes the importance of unconscious cultural programming and inner change—deserves
more attention. Hall’s view is said to concord with insights currently emerging from brain and
mind sciences. Examples of ideas that support Hall’s vision of intercultural understanding are
discussed, including: 1) the embodied nature of culture, 2) culture and the unconscious mind; 3)
the cognitive architecture of bias; 4) empathy and intercultural understanding; and 5) language
and embodied simulation. It is argued that Hall’s fundamental insights, combined with these
more recent ideas from brain and mind sciences, can act as building blocks for new approaches
to intercultural education. Implications for pedagogy are discussed. Keywords: world language
education, foreign language education, global competence, global literacy, intercultural
competence, teacher certification, culture instruction.
Source: https://journals.castledown-publishers.com/ice/
Publication date : April 2019
Article 2
“Social & Cultural Geography”
The concept of care and its associated practices remain a key subject of debate in human
geography, as they continue to evolve in response to changing norms and expectations of who
does and should provide care, how, and where care takes place. With the growing politics of
austerity shaping welfare and support provision across the Global North, these norms and
expectations are once again being reviewed and reconfigured. New spaces and relationships of
care are unfolding, as austerity intensifies many debates over the role of the state vis-a vis the
private, informal and third sectors. This paper examines the changing geographies of care that
are unfolding within this context of austerity and frames a collection of papers on this subject. It
offers a short review of the concept of care in the discipline of geography before examining the
shifting landscapes of care provision overtime. It considers where these new spaces of care are
unfolding. After identifying the boundaries of this scholarship, it then outlines the key themes
within and across the four papers in this special issue.
Source: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rscg20.
Publication date : 1464-9365 (Print) 1470-1197 (Online)
Article 3
“Sex Differences in Postischemic Neuronal Necrosis in Gerbils”
post-ischemic neuronal damage occurring 24 hours after a severe, incomplete hemispheric
ischemia (caused by unilateral carotid occlusion) was compared between male and female
Mongolian gerbils. Among the stroke-prone individuals, males had a stroke incidence of 42.9%
compared to 26.7% in females. Notably, stroke-prone males exhibited significantly more
neuronal necrosis after 24 hours of ischemia in both the cerebral cortex and the CA1 region of
the hippocampus. In the CA1 region of the male stroke-prone gerbils, only 2.0% of the normal
neuronal population remained after 24 hours, while the stroke-prone females retained 36.8% (p
< 0.02). In the cerebral cortex, males had 19.9% of the normal neuronal population remaining, in
contrast to 58.2% in females (p < 0.05).
In a subsequent set of experiments to investigate the mechanisms involved, there were no
significant differences in cortical blood flow (CBF) between preselected male and female stroke-
prone animals before, during, or up to 2 hours after ischemia. Similarly, the extent of cortical
extracellular hypocalcemia during ischemia did not vary significantly. However, the post-ischemic
recovery of cortical extracellular calcium was notably better in females from 30 minutes to 2
hours after reperfusion. Additionally, levels of hemispheric vitamin E were measured at the 2-
hour mark as an indicator of post-ischemic brain lipid peroxidation. No differences were
observed in baseline vitamin E levels between male and female sham-operated gerbils. In males
subjected to 3 hours of ischemia followed by 2 hours of reperfusion, hemispheric vitamin E
levels decreased by 43.5% compared to sham-operated males. In contrast, females displayed
only a 4.2% decline (p < 0.05 compared to males). Previous research highlighting the protective
effects of antioxidants in this model has suggested that oxygen radical-induced lipid peroxidation
plays a crucial role. Therefore, it is proposed that the lower vulnerability of females to ischemic
damage may be attributed to the antioxidant effect of endogenous estrogen. In fact, estrogen
was found to be a more potent inhibitor of iron-catalyzed lipid peroxidation in brain tissue than
vitamin E.
3. Fons Trompenaars

Article 1
“THE TROMPENAARS’ SEVEN-DIMENSION CULTURAL MODEL AND CULTURAL ORIENTATIONS OF
ROMANIAN STUDENTS IN MANAGEMENT”
The objective of the research was to find out the” natural” cultural attitudes – directly derived
from the fundamental attitudes of Romanian culture – of students in management before their
enrolment, using the Trompenaars’ and Hampden-Turner’s matrix centered on seven cultural
dimensions, expressed as couples of opposing attitudinal dispositions. The results of the
research seem to confirm the initial hypothesis, namely that the exposure to different aspects of
education in a business university could alter the fundamental cultural orientation of people.
1. UNIVERSALISM VERSUS PARTICULARISM (RULES VERSUS RELATIONSHIPS)
According to Trompenaars, in universalistic cultures people generally adhere to the standards
which are universally agreed and relations between them are prescribed by laws, rules, general
values and obligations. Always rules come before personal relationships. In particularistic
cultures, on the other hand, personal relationships come always before universal rules and laws,
and individuals’ behavior is determined by the particular obligations to the people they know in
person. Typical universalist cultures are Switzerland, U.S.A. and Canada; typical particularistic
cultures are Russia, China, India.
2. INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COMMUNITARIANISM (THE GROUP VERSUS THE INDIVIDUAL)
In individualist cultures, the person is believed to be more important than the group. People
cherish personal freedom and initiative, individual decision and responsibility and reward
personal achievement: everyone must make his own decisions and take care of himself. In
communitarian cultures, the group is considered to be more important than the individual,
because, in exchange for individual’s loyalty, provides him with safety and help when needed.
Belonging to a group is cherished more than personal freedom and independence.
3. NEUTRAL VERSUS EMOTIONAL (THE DEGREE AND RANGE OF FEELINGS EXPRESSION)
In neutral cultures, people believe that they must always control their emotions, let their actions
to be influenced by reason rather than sentiment and do not let others know what they are
feeling. Here, people are expected to (1) manage their emotions rigorously; (2) do not let body
language to convey emotions; (3) do not let feelings interfere in professional relations (3) watch
and interpret carefully other people’s emotional reactions. In emotional cultures, on the other
hand, people are allowed to express spontaneously their feelings at work, and let them
influence (at least partially) their decisions. They are expected to (1) open up emotionally to
others (2) use emotional means to communicate to each other (3) use body language effectively;
(4) manage conflicts before they became personal. Typical neutral cultures include: Sweden, the
Netherlands, Finland, and Germany. Typical emotional cultures are Poland, Italy, France, Spain
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1997, pp. 70-80).
4. SPECIFIC VERSUS DIFFUSE (THE DEGREE OF INVOLVEMENT)
5. ACHIEVEMENT VERSUS ASCRIPTION (HOW STATUS IS VIEWED AND ACCORDED)
In an achievement-oriented culture, peoples’ worth is evaluated on the basis of their actions and
performances, and derive their social and professional status from what they have
accomplished, so achieved status must be proven time and again. People tend to recognize,
value, and reward good performance appropriately, and use titles only when relevant. In a
culture where status is ascribed, people derive it from birth, age, gender or wealth. Here status
is not based on what a person did or does, but on who that person is. Since here people believe
that you should be valued for who you are, titles and credentials matter the most, so they tend
to use titles frequently, and to show respect to people with formal authority. Typical
achievement cultures are: U.S.A., Canada, Australia, and Scandinavian countries. Typical
ascription cultures are: France, Italy, Japan.
6. SEQUENTIAL TIME VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS TIME ORIENTATION (HOW PEOPLE UNDERSTAND
AND MANAGE THE PASSAGE OF TIME)
In a sequential time culture, people tend to understand the structure of time as being
sequential, inflexible and to assign different importance to past, present and future. For them,
the order of events happening is important, the value of time is high (“time is money”) and the
value of punctuality, planning, and respecting a schedule is accordingly high. Typical sequential-
time cultures are: Germany, the U.K., and the U.S.A. In a synchronic time, culture, people see the
past, present, and future as interlocked periods so they tend to work on several projects at once,
and view plans and commitments as flexible, because they think time itself is a flexible frame.
Typical synchronous-time cultures include Japan, Argentina, and Mexico
7. INTERNAL DIRECTION VERSUS OUTER DIRECTION (THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE RELATION
BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THEIR NATURAL ENVIRONMENT)
In an inner-directed culture, people think of nature as a complex mechanism that is immense,
but can be controlled if they have the right expertise (“knowledge is power”). They believe that
humans can and have the right to dominate nature, if they make the effort. This way of thinking
however, refers not only to natural environment, but also the social one, namely the way how
individuals work with teams and within the organizations. The way we trat other people will be
the same as the way we treat nature. In an outer-directed culture, people have an organic (as
opposed to the previous mechanistic one) view of nature. It is again a holistic perspective, where
man is viewed as only one of nature’s forces and should therefore live in harmony with the
others and the environment. People therefore believe that they must rather adapt themselves
to external circumstances and have to work together with their environment to achieve goals. In
the context of their relation with the social environment such as in the workplace or
relationships, they should focus their actions on others, and avoid conflicts where possible.
Source: PROCEEDINGS OF THE 7th INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT CONFERENCE "New
Management for the New Economy", November 7th-8th, 2013, BUCHAREST, ROMANIA

Article 2
“Managing Change Across Corporate Cultures”
Many business change programs fail because leaders neglect, overlook or don’t tackle thorny
corporate culture issues. To avoid problems, you should know eight axioms about change:
1. Change may happen with planning or not, maybe because a fi rm evolves or revolts.
2. Change in an organization usually results from change in its environment.
3. Change is necessary if an organization is to survive in a shifting environment.
4. Change management is necessary because of the inevitability of change.
5. Change management processes affect every other process
6. Poor change management can leave a fi rm ill-equipped to cope with future change.
7. Change management often addresses leadership, middle management, management
development, feedback, quality circles and business processes.
8. Despite change, managers may continue to guide organizations based on core assumptions
about industries, technology and people that no one bothers to question.
Source: by Fons Trompenaars and Peter Prud’-homme Capstone © 2004

Article 3
“Resolving international conflict: culture and business strategy”
To minimize conflict between cultures, you must first analyses - measure even - the differences
between them. That’s the starting point for the third 1996 Stockton Lecture., reproduced there.
The author identifies seven dimensions by which cultures can be distinguished from each other
which he defines as: Universalism versus Particularism; Collectivism versus Individualism;
Affective versus Neutral relationships; Specificity versus Diffuseness; Achievement versus
Ascription; Orientation towards Time; and internal versus External Control. According to Dr
Trompenaars, “culture is the manner in which these dilemmas are reconciled, since every nation
seeks a different and winding path to its own ideals of integrity.” Not only will conflict be
reduced by this reconciliation, he argues, but businesses “will succeed to the extent that this
reconciliation occurs,”
Source: Fons Trompenaars, London Business School, 1996, Volume 7 Number 3
4. Laurent Schwartz
“Schwartz's work is focused on basic human values rather than cultural dimensions in the way
Hofstede's work is.”

Article1
In this article, we delve into the comprehensive Schwartz theory of basic human values, offering
a nuanced exploration of their nature and the distinctive features that delineate one value from
another. The theory posits ten fundamental personal values, universally acknowledged across
cultures, tracing their origins and elucidating a circular structure that encapsulates the inherent
motivations of each value. This structure, culturally pervasive, reflects both conflicts and
compatibilities among the ten values, with the article unraveling the underlying psychological
principles. Central to the theory are two major measurement methods—the Schwartz Value
Survey and the Portrait Values Questionnaire. Across 82 countries, findings from these methods
validate the theory's cross-cultural applicability, showcasing substantial variations in individual
value priorities. Interestingly, societal groups share a common hierarchical order in their average
value priorities, a phenomenon expounded upon in the article. The theory identifies universal
conflicts experienced globally, such as the tension between openness to change values and
conservation values, as well as between self-transcendence and self enhancement values. The
article introduces dynamic processes to account for the observed circular structure, hinting at a
potential unifying theory of human motivation. Cross-cultural research highlights a remarkable
consensus on the relative importance of the ten values, with benevolence, universalism, and
self-direction values consistently ranking higher and power, tradition, and stimulation values
ranking lower across the majority of nations. This suggests a shared foundation in human nature
and social functioning influencing individual value priorities, a phenomenon explored in-depth.
Values, distinguished from attitudes, beliefs, norms, and traits, emerge as a pivotal component
of our self and personality, wielding significant influence over behaviors and attitudes. The
article concludes by teasing a future exploration into the origins of our values and the profound
impact of value priorities on our behavior and attitudes.
Published in 12-2012
Article 2
In this article Schwartz discuses, A theory of the types of values on which cultures can be
compared is presented and validated with data from 49 nations from around the world. Seven
types of values are idented, structured along three polar dimensions: Conservatism versus
Intellectual and Affective Autonomy; Hierarchy versus Egalitarianism; and Mastery versus
Harmony. Based on their cultural value priorities, nations are arrayed in a two-dimensional
space, revealing meaningful groupings of culturally related nations. Analyses replicate with both
teacher and student samples. Implications of national differences in cultural values for
differences in meaning of work are explicated. To stimulate research on cultural values and work,
hypotheses are developed regarding the cultural value emphases that are especially compatible
or conflicting with work centrality, with different societal norms about work, and with the
pursuit of four types of work values or goals.
Published in 1973
Article 3
“The role of culture in accounting in the light of Hofstede's, Gray’s, and Schwartz's cultural
dimensions theories: A literature review”
The article discusses Shalom Schwartz's Cultural Dimensions of Values, which is a framework
used to understand and analyze cultural differences. Schwartz's work is considered
complementary to Geert Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions. Using data from 41 cultural
groups in 38 nations, Schwartz categorized national cultures into seven primary value types,
which he further condensed into two culture-level dimensions. These value types and
dimensions shed light on how societies perceive individual autonomy, tradition, hierarchy, and
commitment to group welfare.
Source: The role of culture in accounting in the light of Hofstede's, Gray's and Schwartz's cultural
dimensions theories: A literature review (econstor.eu)
Publication date: 2013

Article 4
“VALUE DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE : COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS”
The article "VALUE DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Shalom Schwartz’s
cultural values theory" discusses the results of an investigation into the cultural values and
priorities of students from Bulgaria, Hawaii (USA), New Zealand, and Japan based on Shalom
Schwartz's cultural values theory. Here are the key findings from the investigation: Significant
Differences in Value Priorities: The study reveals that students from these four different cultural
backgrounds have varying value priorities.
• New Zealand students prioritize intellectual autonomy and egalitarianism.
• Japanese students share a similar emphasis on egalitarianism and intellectual autonomy.
• Hawaiian (USA) students highly value egalitarianism and mastery.
• Bulgarian students place the highest significance on affective autonomy, intellectual autonomy,
egalitarianism, and mastery.
High Significance of Egalitarianism
Low Significance of Hierarchy
Bipolar Culture Dimension of Hierarchy versus Egalitarianism
In summary, the investigation shows that despite cultural differences, there are commonalities
in the priorities of students from these four cultural backgrounds. Egalitarianism is highly valued,
while hierarchy is of little significance to them. This suggests a shared value orientation among
these students regarding individual responsibility and the transcendence of hierarchical systems
for responsible behavior.
Source: VALUE-DIMENSIONS-OF-CULTURE-COMPARATIVE-ANALYSIS.pdf
Publication date: January 2008