EECQ 4242: Eng.

Hydrology 1B

Introduction
1.1. Systems concept
Hydrologic phenomena are extremely complex and may never be fully understood. However, in the
absence of perfect knowledge, they may be represented in a simplified way by means of the systems
concept.
A system is a set of connected parts that form a whole.
The hydrologic cycle may be treated as a system whose components are precipitation, evaporation,
runoff, and other phases of the hydrologic cycle. These components can be grouped into subsystems
of the overall cycle; to analyze the total system, the simpler subsystems can be treated separately and
the results combined according to the interactions between the subsystems.

Figure 1. Block-diagram representation of the hydrologic cycle

(source: Chow et al, 1988)
In Figure 1., the global hydrologic cycle is represented as a system. The dashed lines divide it into three
subsystems:

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 EECQ 4242: Eng. Hydrology 1B

the atmospheric water system containing the processes of precipitation, evaporation, interception,
and transpiration;
the surface water system containing the processes of overland flow, surface runoff, subsurface and
groundwater outflow, and runoff to streams and the ocean; and
the subsurface water system containing the processes of infiltration, groundwater recharge,
subsurface flow and groundwater flow. Subsurface flow takes place in the soil near the land surface;
groundwater flow occurs deeper in the soil or rock strata.
For most practical problems, only a few processes of the hydrologic cycle are considered at a time, and
then only considering a small portion of the earth's surface. A more restricted system definition than
the global hydrologic system is appropriate for such treatment, and is developed from a concept of
the control volume.
The control volume provides the framework for applying the laws of conservation of mass and energy
and Newton's second law to obtain practical equations of motion. In developing these equations, it is
not necessary to know the precise flow pattern inside the control volume. What must be known are
the properties of the fluid flow at the control surface, the boundary of the control volume. The fluid
inside the control volume is treated as a mass, which may be represented as being concentrated at
one point in space when considering the action of external forces such as gravity.
Hydrologic system:
A hydrologic system is defined as a structure or volume in space, surrounded by a boundary, that
accepts water and other inputs, operates on them internally, and produces them as outputs (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of system operation

The structure (for surface or subsurface flow) or volume in space (for atmospheric moisture flow) is
the totality of the flow paths through which the water may pass as throughput from the point it enters
the system to the point it leaves.
The boundary is a continuous surface defined in three dimensions enclosing the volume or structure.
A working medium enters the system as input, interacts with the structure and other media, and leaves
as output.
Physical, chemical, and biological processes operate on the working media within the system; the most
common working media involved in hydrologic analysis are water, air, and heat energy.
The procedure of developing working equations and models of hydrologic phenomena is similar to that
in fluid mechanics. In hydrology, however, there is generally a greater degree of approximation in
applying physical laws because the systems are larger and more complex, and may involve several
working media.

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 EECQ 4242: Eng. Hydrology 1B

Also, most hydrologic systems are inherently random because their major input is precipitation, a
highly variable and unpredictable phenomenon. Consequently, statistical analysis plays a large role in
hydrologic analysis.
Example: Represent the storm rainfall-runoff process on a watershed as a hydrologic system.
Solution: A watershed is the area of land draining into a stream at a given location. The watershed
divide is a line dividing land whose drainage flows toward the given stream from land whose drainage
flows away from that stream.
The system boundary is drawn around the watershed by projecting the watershed divide vertically
upwards and downwards to horizontal planes at the top and bottom (Fig. 3). Rainfall is the input,
distributed in space over the upper plane; streamflow is the output, concentrated in space at the
watershed outlet. Evaporation and subsurface flow could also be considered as outputs, but they are
small compared with streamflow during a storm. The structure of the system is the set of flow paths
over or through the soil and includes the tributary streams which eventually merge to become
streamflow at the watershed outlet.

Fig. 3. The watershed as a hydrologic system

If the surface and soil of a watershed are examined in great detail, the number of possible flow paths
becomes enormous. Along any path, the shape, slope, and boundary roughness may be changing
continuously from place to place and these factors may also vary in time as the soil becomes wet. Also,
precipitation varies randomly in space and time. Because of these great complications, it is not possible
to describe some hydrologic processes with exact physical laws. By using the system concept, effort is
directed to the construction of a model relating inputs and outputs rather than to the extremely
difficult task of exact representation of the system details, which may not be significant from a practical
point of view or may not be known. Nevertheless, knowledge of the physical system helps in
developing a good model and verifying its accuracy.

1.2. Hydrologic system model

The objective of hydrologic system analysis is to study the system operation and predict its output. A
hydrologic system model is an approximation of the actual system; its inputs and outputs are

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 EECQ 4242: Eng. Hydrology 1B

measurable hydrologic variables and its structure is a set of equations linking the inputs and outputs.
Central to the model structure is the concept of a system transformation.
Let the input and output be expressed as functions of time, 𝐼(𝑡) and 𝑄(𝑡) respectively, for t belonging
to the time range T under consideration. The system performs a transformation of the input into the
output represented by:
𝑄(𝑡) = ΩI(𝑡)
which is called the transformation equation of the system. The symbol Ω is a transfer function between
the input and the output. If this relationship can be expressed by an algebraic equation, then Ω is an
algebraic operator. For example, if
𝑄(𝑡) = CI(𝑡)
where C is a constant, then the transfer function is the operator
𝑄 (𝑡 )
Ω= = C
𝐼(𝑡)
If the transformation is described by a differential equation, then the transfer function serves as a
differential operator. For example, a linear reservoir has its storage S related to its outflow Q by
𝑆 = 𝑘𝑄
where k is a constant having the dimensions of time. By continuity, the time rate of change of storage
𝑑𝑆/𝑑𝑡 is equal to the difference between the input and the output
𝑑𝑆
= 𝐼(𝑡) − 𝑄(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Eliminating S between the two equations and rearranging,
𝑑𝑄 𝑄 (𝑡 ) 1
𝑘 + 𝑄 (𝑡 ) = 𝐼 (𝑡 ), 𝑠𝑜 Ω = =
𝑑𝑡 𝐼(𝑡) 1 + 𝑘𝐷

where D is the differential operator 𝑑𝑙𝑑𝑡. If the transformation equation has been determined and can
be solved, it yields the output as a function of the input. The previous equation describes a linear
system if k is a constant. If k is a function of the input/or the output Q the equation then describes a
nonlinear system which is much more difficult to solve.

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 EECQ 4242: Eng. Hydrology 1B

Tutorials
1. Take three hydrologic systems with which you are familiar. For each, draw the system boundary
and identify the inputs, outputs, and working media.
2. The equation 𝑘{𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡) + 𝑄(𝑖) = 𝐼(𝑡) has been used to describe the gradual depletion of
flow in a river during a rainless period. In this case, 𝐼(𝑡) = 0 and 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄0 for 𝑡 = 0. Solve
the differential equation for 𝑄(𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0 and plot the result over a 20-day period if 𝑘 =
10 days and 𝑄0 = 100 𝑐𝑓𝑠. Convert cfs to cumecs
3. The equation 𝑘{𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡) + 𝑄(𝑖) = 𝐼(𝑡)) has been used to describe the response of
streamflow to a constant rate of precipitation continuing indefinitely on a watershed. In this
case, let 𝐼(𝑖) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0. Solve the differential equation and
plot the values of 𝐼(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑡) over a 10-hour period if 𝑘 = 2 ℎ.