CHAPTER 10

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine System Glands ● The target tissues have receptors for a specific
hormone.
● Hormones produce a particular response in the
target tissues.

Types of Hormones
1. Water-soluble hormones
● includes proteins, peptides, amino
acids
● most common
● Examples - growth hormone,
antidiuretic, prolactin
Cell Secretion Types 2. Lipid-soluble hormones
1. Autocrine ● includes steroids and eicosanoids
● released by cells and a have local effect ● Examples - LH, FSH, androgens
on same cell type
● Example - eicosanoids Control of Hormone Release
2. Paracrine ● Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate
● released by cells that affect other cell the release of some hormones.
types in ● These chemicals are referred to as humoral
close proximity stimuli because they circulate in the blood,
● Example - somatostatin ● Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood.
3. Neurotransmitter & neuromodulators ● Hormone release can also be under neural
● secreted by nerve cells control.
● Example - nervous system function ● Following action potentials, neurons release a
4. Hormones & neurohormones neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells
● secreted into blood and bind to receptor that produce the hormone.
sites ● Hormone release can also be controlled by other
● Example - epinephrine and insulin hormones.
● It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in
Endocrine System Functions turn, stimulates the secretion of other hormones.
1. Metabolism ● The same three types of stimuli (humoral,
2. Control of food intake and digestion neural, and hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit
3. Tissue development hormone release.
4. Ion regulation Humoral Regulation
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of Reproductive functions
9. Uterine contraction and milk release
10. Immune System regulation

Characteristics
● The endocrine system is composed of endocrine Neural Regulation
glands and specialized endocrine cells located
throughout the body.
● Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute
amounts of chemical messengers called
hormones into the bloodstream, rather than
into a duct.
● Hormones then travel through the general blood
circulation to target tissues or effectors.

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Hormonal Regulation Negative & Positive Feedback

Hormone Receptors
● A hormone can stimulate only the cells that
Inhibition of Hormone Release have the receptor for that hormone.
● Humoral inhibition of hormone release ● The portion of each receptor molecule where a
generally involves the actions of companion hormone binds is called a receptor site.
hormones. ● The receptor site has specificity, allowing only
● Usually each of the companion hormones one hormone to bind to it.
performs an opposite function. ● Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind
● For example, to raise blood pressure, the to a “family” of receptors that are structurally
adrenal cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone similar.
in response to low blood pressure, but to lower it ● This specificity is due to molecular shape and
the heart atria secrete atrial natriuretic peptide. chemical characteristic.
● They work together to maintain homeostasis of ● Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind
blood pressure. to their own classes of receptors.
● Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they ● Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear
stimulate targets. receptors due to their lipid solubility and small
● If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target molecular size allowing to easily pass through
endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone. the cell membrane.
● In control of hormone release by other ● Water-soluble hormones bind to
hormones, some hormones are inhibitory membrane-bound receptors. Water-soluble
hormones, that reduce the release of the hormones are polar molecules and cannot pass
hormone being controlled. through the cell membrane.
● For example, thyroid hormones can control their
own blood levels by inhibiting their anterior Lipid-Soluble Hormones Receptors
pituitary tropic hormone. ● Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear
receptors due to their lipid solubility and small
Regulation of Body Hormone Levels molecular size, allowing to easily pass through
● Two major mechanisms maintain hormone the cell membrane and nuclear membrane.
levels in the blood within a homeostatic range: ● Nuclear receptors can also be located in the
negative feedback and positive feedback cytoplasm, but then move to the nucleus when
● Most hormones are regulated by a activated.
negative-feedback mechanism, whereby the ● When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the
hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone hormone-receptor complex interacts with
itself once blood levels have reached a certain nuclear DNA to regulate specific gene
point. transcription.
● Some hormones are regulation by positive
feedback, as exemplified by tropic hormone Water-Soluble Receptors
action. ● Water-soluble hormones, such as protein and
peptide types, cannot pass through the cell
membrane.
● Interactions are with membrane-bound
receptors, that are proteins that extend across

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the cell membrane, with their hormone-binding Membrane Receptor Actions
sites exposed on the cell membrane’s outer ● Membrane receptors act in two ways, either
surface. altering the activity of G proteins on the inner
● When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns surface of the cell membrane or directly altering
on intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the activity of intracellular enzymes.
the response dictated by the hormone-receptor ● Activation of G proteins, or intracellular
interaction. enzymes, elicits specific responses in cells,
including the production of molecules called,
Target Tissue Specificity & Response second messengers.
● A second messenger molecule is produced
inside a cell once a ligand binds to its
membrane-bound receptor.
● A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific
cellular processes inside the cell in response to
the hormone.

G-Protein Activation
● Many membrane-bound receptors produce
Nuclear & Membrane-Bound Receptors responses through the action of G proteins,
which consist of 3 subunits.
● The G proteins are so named because one of the
subunits binds to guanine nucleotides.
● G-proteins, after several sequential actions,
interact with adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that
converts ATP to cAMP (cyclic adenosine
monophosphate).
● Cyclic adenosine monophosphate binds to
protein kinases and activates them.
Action of Nuclear Receptors ● Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn,
● Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein regulate the activity of other enzymes.
synthesis. ● Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases
● Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell can increase or decrease its activity.
membrane and bind to their receptors, with the ● Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme,
complex now binding to hormone-response breaks down cAMP and thus results in no
elements on DNA. further cell stimulation.
● This action regulates the transcription of specific
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules G-Protein Activation
and protein synthesis occurs.

Nuclear Receptor Model

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Cyclic AMP Synthesis Anterior Pituitary Gland Actions
● The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes
hormones, that is under the control of the
hypothalamus.
● Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing
hormones that stimulate the production and
secretion of a specific hormone.
● Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of a
specific anterior pituitary hormone

Hypothalamus & Anterior Pituitary

Signal Amplification
● Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of second
messengers act quickly and have an
amplification effect.
● Each receptor produces thousands of second
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and
ultimately amplification of the hormonal
signal.
● With amplification, a single hormone activates
many second messengers, each of which Anterior Pituitary Hormones
activates enzymes that produce an enormous 1. Growth Hormone
amount of final product. ● Target tissues: most
● The efficiency of this second-messenger ● Functions: stimulates growth of bones,
amplification is virtually unparalleled in the muscles, and organs
body. ● Abnormalities: Too much GH causes
giantism; Too little GH causes pituitary
Cascade Effect dwarfism
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
● Target tissues: thyroid gland
● Functions: regulates thyroid gland
secretions
● Abnormalities: Too much TSH, thyroid
gland enlarges ; Too little TSH, thyroid
gland shrinks
3. Gonadotrophine Hormone LH
● LH (Luteinizing) for females:
● Target tissue: ovaries
● Function: promotes ovulation and
Pituitary Gland
progesterone
● Small gland in brain
Production
● Controlled by hypothalamus
● LH for males:
● Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior
● Target tissue: testes
● Secretes at least 6 hormones
● Function: sperm production and
testosterone
4. Gonadotrophin Hormone FSH
● Follicle-Stimulating for females:
● Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
● Function: follicle maturation and estrogen
secretion
● FSH for males:
● Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
● Function: sperm production

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5. Prolactin Thyroid Gland
● Target tissues: mammary glands and One of largest glands
ovaries Requires iodine to function
● Functions: milk production Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
1. Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular cells:
Anterior Pituitary Hormones ● Target tissues: most
1. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) ● Functions: regulates metabolic rates
● Target tissues: melanocytes in the skin and is needed for growth
● Functions: stimulate melanin 2. Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
production in melanocytes ● Target tissues: bone and some other
2. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): tissues
● Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex ● Function: reduces blood calcium level
● Functions: stimulate production of when high
certain corticosteroids
Thyroid Hormone Disorders
Posterior Pituitary Actions
Hypothyroidism: Hyperthyroidism
● The posterior pituitary gland synthesizes and
releases hormones produced by neuroendocrine ● Decreased ● Increased
cells in the hypothalamus. metabolism metabolism
● Weight gain, ● Weight loss,
● The two hormones released from the posterior
reduced appetite, increased
pituitary are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and fatigue
appetite,
oxytocin. ● Low temp. And
pulse
nervousness
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) ● Higher temp.
● Dry, cold skin
● target tissues: kidneys ● Myxedema in And pulse
● Functions: conserve water adults ● Warm, flushed
● Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus ● Cretinism in skin
● low ADH infants ● Graves’ disease
(leads to goiter)
● kidneys to produce large amounts of
dilute
● (watery) urine Parathyroid Gland
● can lead to dehydration and thirst 1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
2. Oxytocin ● Target tissues: bones and kidneys
● Target tissues: uterus ● Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels
● Functions: increases uterine (more than calcitonin)
contractions during labor -If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone matrix
and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break down bone
matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

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Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands Adrenal Gland Hormones
❖ Adrenal Cortex Hormone
● Aldosterone:
● Type of mineralocorticoids
● Target tissues: kidneys
● Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be
retained and K+ to be secreted,
indirectly involved with blood pressure
and blood volume
❖ Cortisol
● Type of glucocorticoids
● Target tissues: most
● Functions: increases breakdown of fat
Adrenal Gland Actions and
● The adrenal glands are two small glands ● protein for energy uses reduces
located superior to each kidney inflammatory and immune responses
● Each adrenal gland has an inner part, called ❖ Androgens
the adrenal medulla, and an outer part, called ● Target tissues: most
the adrenal cortex. ● Functions:
● The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex ● Males: secondary sexual
function as separate endocrine glands. characteristics
● Females: sex drive

Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion

Adrenal Gland Hormones

● Adrenal medulla hormones:
Regulation of Cortisol Secretion
● Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
● Target tissues: heart, blood vessels,
liver, fat cells
● Functions: released as part of fight or
flight response

Regulation of Adrenal Medullary

Secretions

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Pancreas Actions Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels
● The pancreas is a mixed gland, with an exocrine
portion and an endocrine portion.
● The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes
digestive enzymes.
● The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), which
are dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of
the pancreas.
● The islets consist of three cell types, each of
which secretes a separate hormone.
● Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete
insulin, and delta cells secrete somatostatin.
● These three hormones regulate the blood levels
of nutrients, especially glucose Testes Hormone
1. Testosterone
Pancreas Structure ● Target tissues: most
● Functions: aids in sperm and
reproductive
organ development and function

Ovarian Hormones
1. Estrogen/Progesterone
● Target tissues: most
● Functions: involved in uterine and
mammary gland development and
Pancreas Hormones menstrual cycle
1. Insulin
● Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, Thymus Gland Hormone
adipose tissue 1. Thymosin
● Functions: regulates blood glucose ● Target tissues: immune system tissues
levels after a meal. Glucose levels are ● Functions: promotes immune system
high and insulin is secreted extra development and function
glucose is stored in form of glycogen
Insulin Abnormalities Pineal Gland Hormone
Diabetes mellitus 1. Melatonin
● Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin ● Target tissues: hypothalamus
receptors ● Functions: plays a role in onset of
● Symptoms: exaggerated appetite,excess urine, puberty and
dehydration, thirst, fatigue ● controls circadian rhythms. Light
● Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections affects its function.
required)
● Type II: insulin independent, often found in
obese people, can be treated with diet but can
turn into type I
2. Glucagon
● Target tissues: liver
● Function: regulates blood glucose
levels, between meals glucose levels
drop and glucagon is secreted
● glucagon allows glycogen to be broken
down into glucose

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