MTY1102: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 10: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

GENERAL GUIDELINES

LEGEND FOR HEADERS

MAIN TOPIC
SUBTOPIC
SUB-SUBTOPIC

PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL
COMMUNICATION
• Chemical messengers –
allows cells to communicate
with each other
• Secretion – controlled release
of chemicals from a cell
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL SYSTEM
MESSENGERS
• Metabolism
• Autocrine – stimulates the cell
• Control of blood glucose and
that originally secreted it
other nutrients
o Ex. WBCs during an
infection • Control of reproductive
functions
• Paracrine – act locally on
nearby cells; secreted by one • Control of food intake and
cell type into the extracellular digestion
fluid and affect surrounding • Ion regulation
cells of a different type
• Immune system regulation
o Ex. WBCs during allergic
reactions • Water balance
• Neurotransmitter – activate • Heart rate and blood pressure
an adjacent cell regulation
• Endocrine – secreted into the • Uterine contraction and milk
bloodstream by certain glands release
and cells • Tissue development
o Affect cells that are
distant from their source CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Endocrine system – composed
of endocrine gland + endocrine
specialized cells

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 • Hormones – chemical
messenger that is secreted into
the blood
• Target tissue – effectors;
where hormones produce a
coordinated response of the
target tissues
• Endocrine – derived from the
Greek words endo (within) +
krino (secrete)
• Exocrine glands – have ducts
that carry their secretions to
the outside of the body
• Endocrinology – study of
endocrine system
TRANSPORT OF LIPID – SOLUBLE
HORMONES
• Hormone – derived from the
Greek word hormon, set into
motion; regulate almost every
physiological process in our
body
CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES
• Hormones fit into one of two
chemical categories
o Lipid-soluble hormones
o Water-soluble hormones
• Within the two chemical
categories, hormones can be
subdivided into groups based
on their chemical structures
o Steroid hormones –
derived from cholesterol
o Thyroid hormones –
derived from the amino
acid tyrosine
o Other hormones –
categorized as amino
acid derivatives,
peptides, or proteins
LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES
• Nonpolar, and include steroid
hormones, thyroid hormones,
and fatty acid derivative
hormones, such as certain
eicosanoids
HORMONES
• Travel in the bloodstream
attached to binding proteins,
proteins that transport the
hormones
• The rate at which lipid-soluble
hormones are degraded or
eliminated from the circulation
is greatly reduced and their
lifespans range from a few
days to as long as several
weeks
• Without binding proteins, lipid -
soluble hormones would
quickly diffuse out of capillaries
and be degraded by enzymes
of the liver and lungs or be
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 removed from the body by the • Blood-borne chemicals can
kidneys directly stimulate the release of
some hormones
WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES • These hormones are sensitive
to blood levels of particular
• Polar molecules substance, such as glucose,
• Include protein hormones, calcium, or sodium
peptide hormones, and most
amino acid derivative
hormones

TRANSPORT OF WATER – SOLUBLE

HORMONES
• Can dissolve in blood
• Many circulate as free
hormones, meaning most of
them dissolve directly into the
blood and are delivered to their
target tissue without attaching
to a binding protein
• Many are quite large, they do
not readily diffuse through the CONTROL BY NEURAL STIMULI
walls of all capillaries
• Neurons release a
• Others are quite small and neurotransmitter into the
require attachment to a large synapse with the cells that
protein to avoid being filtered produce the hormone
out of the blood
• In some cases,
• Short half-lives because they neurotransmitter stimulates the
are rapidly degraded by cells to increase hormone
enzymes, called proteases secretion

CONTROL OF HORMONE
SECRETION
• Three (3) types of stimuli
regulate hormone release
o Humoral
o Neural
o Hormonal
CONTROL BY HUMORAL STIMULI
• Circulate in the blood

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CONTROL BY HORMONAL STIMULI
• Occurs when a hormone is
secreted that, in turn,
stimulates the secretion of
other hormones
• Examples are hormones from
the anterior pituitary gland,
called tropic hormones
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE
• Involves the same three (3)
types of stimuli
o Humoral
o Neural
o Hormonal
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELASE
BY HUMORAL STIMULI
• Often when a hormone’s
release is sensitive to the
presence of a humoral
stimulus, there exists a
companion hormone whose
release is inhibited by the same
humoral stimulus
• The companion hormone’s
effects oppose those of the
secreted hormone and
counteract the secreted
hormone’s action
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELASE
BY NEURAL STIMULI
• Neurons inhibit targets just as
often as they stimulate targets
• If the neurotransmitter is
inhibitory, the target endocrine
gland does not secrete its
hormone
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELASE
BY HORMONAL STIMULI
• Some hormones prevent the
secretion of other hormones,
which is a common mode of
hormone regulation
REGULATION OF HORMONE LEVELS
IN THE BLOOD
• Negative feedback – blood
concentrate if hormones
decline
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 o More hormone is
secreted
o If maximum set point is
exceeded
o Hormone production is
halted
• Positive feedback – tropic
hormones stimulate the release
of other hormones

CONTROL RECEPTORS AND

MECHANISMS OF ACTION
• Receptors – where hormones
exert action by binding to
protein
• Receptor site – portion of each
receptor molecule where a
hormone binds
• Specifity – tendency of
hormones to bind to one type of
receptor
• Target tissue – responding
tissue based on the hormone
released

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 • Combination of the hormone
and its receptor forms a
transcription factor

CLASSES OF RECEPTORS
• Lipid-soluble hormones bind
to nuclear receptors –
interaction with cell DNA to
regulate transcriptions
• Water-soluble hormones to
membrane-bound receptors
– hormone receptor complex
initiates a response inside the
cell (G proteins, cAMP, protein
kinase)

ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS

• After lipid-soluble hormones MEMBRANE-BOUND RECEPTORS
diffuse across the plasma AND SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION
membrane and bind to their
receptors, the hormone- • Membrane-bound receptors
receptor complex binds to DNA have peptide chains that are
to produce a response anchored in the phospholipid
bilayer of the plasma
• Hormone-response elements – membrane
where receptors that bind to
DNA who have fingerlike • Membrane-bound receptors
projection that recognize activate responses in two (2)
ways

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 o Some receptors alter the messengers, leading to a
activity of G proteins at cascade effect and ultimately
the inner surface of the amplification of the hormonal
plasma membrane signal
o Other receptors directly
alter the activity of
intracellular enzymes

MEMBRANE-BOUND RECEPTORS
THAT ACTIVATE G PROTEINS
• G proteins consist of three (3)
subunits
o Alpha (a) – largest
o Beta (ß)
o Gamma (y) – smallest
• In the inactive state, a guanine
diphosphate (GDP) molecule is
bound to the (a) subunit of each
protein
• Active state, guanine
triphosphate (GTP) is bound to
the (a) subunit
• After a hormone binds to the
receptor on the outside of a
cell, the receptor changes
shape

G PROTEINS THAT INTERACT WITH

ADENYLATE CYCLASE
• Activated (a) subunits of G
proteins can alter the activity of
enzymes inside the cell

SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION
• Hormones that stimulate the
synthesis of second
messengers can produce an
almost instantaneous response
because the second
messenger influences existing
enzymes
• Each receptor produces
thousands of second

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 derived from embryonic
oral cavity
o Posterior pituitary – an
extension of the brain;
composed of nerve cells
• Hormones from the pituitary
gland control the functions of
many glands in the body, such
as the ovaries, the testes, the
thyroid gland, the adrenal
cortex
• Secretes hormones that
influence growth, kidney
function, birth, and milk
production by the mammary
glands
• “master gland”
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONAL CONTROL OF
HORMONES
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS • Hypothalamic-pituitary portal
system – capillary beds and
• Pituitary gland/ Hypothalamus veins that transport the
– small gland about the size of releasing and inhibiting
pea hormones
o Controls the functions of
many other glands HORMONES OF ANTERIOR
o Secretes hormones that PITUITARY
influence growth, kidney
function, birth, milk
• Growth hormone – affects body
growth by stimulating protein
production
synthesis by increasing gene
• Hypothalamus – an important expression
autonomic nervous system and o Breakdown of lipids
endocrine control center of the
brain located inferior to the
o Released of fatty acids
from cells
thalamus
o Increase blood glucose
• Infundibulum – a stalk that level
connects the pituitary gland o Pituitary dwarf –
and the hypothalamus deficiency in GH
• Divided into two (2) parts: although normally
o Anterior pituitary – made proportioned
up of epithelial cells

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 o Gigantism – excess GH; o Increases sensitivity to
exaggerated bone LH in males
growth occurs
o Acromegaly – HORMONES OF PITUITARY GLAND
abnormally large facial • Antidiuretic hormone –
features and hands conserves water; constricts
o Part of the effect of blood vessels
growth hormone is o Syndrome of
influenced by a group of inappropriate ADH
protein hormones called (SIADH)
insulin-like growth o Diabetes insipidus –
factors large production of dilute
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone – urine
promotes synthesis and • Oxytocin – swift birth; increase
secretion of thyroid hormone uterine contraction; increase
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone – milk letdown
increase secretion of o Also known as the love
glucocorticoid hormones hormone
o Increases skin
pigmentation
• Melanocyte stimulating
hormone – increases melanin
production in melanocytes
• Luteinizing hormone – promote
ovulation and progesterone
production on ovary
• Interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone – promotes
testosterone synthesis and
support for sperm cell
production in testis
• Follicle-stimulating hormone –
promotes follicle maturation
and estrogen secretion in ovary
o Promotes sperm cell
production in testis
• Prolactin – promote
development of breast during
pregnancy
o Stimulates milk
production and prolongs
progesterone secretion

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 THYROID GLAND
• Thyroid gland – made up of two
lobes connected by a narrow
ban called the isthmus
• Lobes are located on each side
of the trachea, just inferior to
the larynx
• Main function of thyroid
hormones is to secrete thyroid
hormones, which bind to
nuclear receptors in cell and
regulate the rate of metabolism
in the body
• Synthesized and stored within
the gland in numerous thyroid
follicles, which are small
spheres with walls composed
of simple cuboidal epithelium

HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND

• Calcitonin – decreases rate of
bone breakdown; prevents
large increase in blood Ca2+
levels
• Thyroid hormone – increases
metabolic rates
o Essential for normal
process of growth
• Thyroxine/Tetraiodothyronine
– contains four iodine atoms
• Triiodothyronine – contains
three iodine atoms

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• Isthmus – narrow band that o Increases rate of bone
connects the two lobes of the breakdown by
thyroid gland osteoclasts
• Thyroid follicles – where o Increases vitamin D
thyroid hormones are synthesis (essential for
synthesized and stored maintenance of normal
blood calcium levels)
• Goiter – excess TSH; low in
iodine diet DISEASES OF PARATHYROID
GLAND

DISEASES OF THYROID GLAND

• Hyperparathyroidism
(Hypocalcemia) – abnormally
• Hypothyroidism – lack of high rate of PTH secretion
thyroid hormones o Tumor
• Cretinism – congenital absence o Muscle weakness
of thyroxine in infants o Soft, easily deformed
• Myxedema – accumulation of bones
fluid and other molecules in o Prone to kidney stone
subcutaneous tissue in adults formation
• Hyperthyroidism – elevated • Hypoparathyroidism
rate of thyroid hormone (Hypocalcemia) – abnormally
secretion low rate of PTH
• Grave disease – o Surgery
hyperthyroidism that results o Frequent muscle cramps
when the immune system or tetanus
produces abnormal proteins o Respiratory arrest
• Exophthalmia – bulging of the o CHVOSTEK’s sign and
eyes TROSSEAU sign

PARATHYROID GLAND ADRENAL GLANDS

• Embedded in the posterior wall • Two (2) small glands located
of the thyroid gland superior to each kidney
• Secretes a hormone called • Has an inner part called the
parathyroid hormone (PTH) adrenal medulla
o Essential for the • An outer part called the adrenal
regulation of blood cortex
calcium levels
HORMONES IN ADRENAL MEDULLA
HORMONES OF PARATHYROID
GLAND • Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
– fight-or-flight hormones
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) – o increases cardiac output
increase Ca+ levels in the
blood
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 o increases blood flow to converted to
skeletal muscles and angiotensin II
heart ▪ Angiotensin II
o increases release of causes smooth
glucose and fatty acids muscle in blood
into blood vessels to
o prepare body for constrict, and
physical activity angiotensin II acts
on the adrenal
HORMONES IN ADRENAL CORTEX cortex to increase
aldosterone
• Aldosterone secretion
(Mineralocorticoids) –
regulates water balance
o Cortisol (Glucorticoids) –
increase fat and protein
o Increases rate of Na breakdown
transport into body
o Increase of K excretion ▪ Increase glucose
synthesis from
o Helps regulate blood amino acid
volume and blood levels
of K+ and Na+
▪ Increase blood
nutrient levels
o Aldosterone is the
primary ▪ Inhibit
mineralocorticoid inflammation &
immune response
o Changes in blood
pressure indirectly affect ▪ Helps the body in
the rate of aldosterone stressful situation
secretion by providing
energy source
o Low blood pressure
causes the release of a ▪ Cortisone –
protein molecule called artificial cortisol;
renin (protein molecule anti-inflammatory
that acts as an enzyme) effect
from the kidney • Androgens – male sex
▪ Causes a blood hormone; stimulates the
protein called development of male sexual
angiotensinogen characteristics
to be converted to o In adult males, most
angiotensin I androgens are secreted
▪ Then, a protein by the teste s
called o In adult females, the
angiotensin- adrenal androgens
converting influence the female sex
enzyme causes drive
angiotensin I to be

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 the blood levels of nutrients,
DISEASES OF ADRENAL GLAND especially glucose
• Addison’s disease – o Insulin – secreted by
hyposecretion of adrenal beta cells
cortex hormones o Glucagon – secreted by
• Cushing’s disease – tumor in
alpha cells
middle cortex o Somatostatin – secreted
by delta cells
• Hyperaldosteronism –
hyperactivity of outer cortex • It is important to maintain blood
glucose levels within a normal
• Hirsutism – masculinization range
(inner cortex)
o Below-normal causes
the nervous system to
THYMUS malfunction because
• Thymosin – promotes immune glucose is the nervous
system development and system’s main source of
functions energy
o Helps the development ▪ When blood
of certain WBC (T-cells) glucose
• Thymus lies in the upper part of decreases, other
the thoracic cavity tissues rapidly
break down lipids
PINEAL GLAND and protein to
provide an
• Melatonin – inhibits secretion alternative energy
of gonadotropin releasing source
hormone (this inhibits
reproduction) o Blood glucose are too
high, kidneys produce
o Biological clock (day and large volumes of urine
night cycle) containing substantial
• Pineal gland is a small, amounts of glucose
pinecone-shaped structure ▪ Dehydration can
located superior and posterior result
to the thalamus of the brain
• The hormone insulin is
PANCREA, INSULIN, AND DIABETES released from the beta cells
primarily in response to the
• Part of the pancreas consists of elevated blood glucose levels
pancreatic islets, which are and increased parasympathetic
dispersed throughout the stimulation associated with
exocrine portion of the digestion of a meal
pancreas o Decrease insulin =
• The islets secrete three (3) decreasing blood
hormones, which help regulate glucose levels and from
stimulation of the

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 pancreas by the o Responsible for the
sympathetic division of growth and development
the nervous system, of the male reproductive
which occurs during structures, muscle
physical activity enlargement, growth of
• Major target tissues for insulin body hair, voice
are the live, adipose tissue, changes, male sexual
muscles, and the area of the drive
hypothalamus that controls
appetite, called the satiety OVARIES
• Estrogen and Progesterone –
aid in uterine and mammary
gland development and
function, external genitalia
structure, secondary sexual
characteristics, sexual
behavior, menstrual cycle
o Prostaglandins –
mediate inflammatory
responses
DISEASES ▪ Increase uterine
• Diabetes Mellitus – much urine contractions and
+ sweetened ovulation
o Type 1 – occurs when
too little insulin is
secreted from pancreas
o Type 2 – caused by
insufficient number of
insulin receptors
• Hyperglycemia – high blood
glucose level
• Polyphagia – increased
appetite/eating
• Polyuria – excessive urination
volume
• Polydipsia – excessive thirst

TESTES
• Secrete sex hormone
• Produces sperm cells
• Testosterone – main hormone
in male

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 OTHER HORMONES
• Erythropoietin – acts on bone
marrow to increase the
production of RBCs
• Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (HCG) –
stimulated production of
estrogen and progesterone

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Age-relate changes to the
endocrine system include a
gradual decrease in the
secretion of some, but not all,
endocrine glands
• Some of the decreases in
secretion may be due to the
fact that older people
commonly engage in less
physical activity

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