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THE- Endocrine- System

Anatomy and Physiology (Cebu Doctors' University)

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM > secreted by neurons that activate

on adjacent cell
> travels short distances
2 Major Communication in the body:
4.) Endocrine
1.) Neuronal System
> secreted into the blood by
2.) Endocrine System specialized cells

Endocrine System Functions of the Endocrine System

- uses chemical messengers 1. Metabolism
(hormones) that are released into the blood
2. Control of food intake and digestion
- endo = within; krino = to secrete
3. Tissue Development
Hormones = circulate through the blood
stream to target tissues 4. Ion Regulation
Chemical Messengers = allow cells to 5. Water Balance
communicate with each other to regulate
body activities 6. Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Regulation
7. Control of Blood Glucose and Other
Nutrients
4 Classes of Chemical Messengers
8. Control of Reproductive Functions
1.) Autocrine
9. Uterine Contractions and Milk Release
> secreted by cells in a local area;
influences the activity of the same cell from 10. Immune System Regulation
which it was secreted
> e.x. WBCs, Prostaglandins Chemistry of Hormones
2.) Paracrine > Entire basis of a hormone’s interaction
> act locally on neighboring cells with its target is dependent on the
hormone’s chemical nature
> secreted by one cell type into the
extracellular fluid and affect surrounding > Two chemical categories: Lipid-soluble
cells Hormone and Water-soluble Hormone

> e.x. Histamine, Somatostatin,

Eicosanoids

a.) Lipid-soluble Hormone

3.) Neurotransmitters - small in size
- bound to binding proteins

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- without binding proteins = easily - Metabolites and other molecules in

degraded the bloodstream can directly stimulate the
release of some hormones
- removed by conjugation
2.) Neural Stimuli
b.) Water-soluble Hormone
- neurons release a neurotransmitter
- large in size into a synapse with hormone-producing cells
- dissolved directly into plasma - some neurons secrete chemical
without binding proteins messengers directly into the blood when
- tend to diffuse from the blood into they are stimulated, making these chemical
tissue paces more slowly messengers hormones, which are called
neuropeptides
- fenestrated (porous)
- short half-life - specialized neuropeptides stimulate
hormone secretion from other endocrine
cells and are called releasing hormones, a
Control of Hormone Release term usually reserved for hormones from the
hypothalamus
 Negative Feedback
- The hormone’s secretion is 3.) Hormonal Stimuli
inhibited by the hormone itself once - occurs when a hormone is secreted
blood levels have reached a certain that, in turn, stimulates the secretion of other
point and there is adequate hormone hormones
to activate the target cell
- Self-limiting system - e.x. hormones from the anterior
pituitary gland, called tropic hormones, that
 Positive Feedback stimulate the secretion of another hormone
- When stimulated by a
tropic hormone, promote
the synthesis and Major Endocrine Glands
secretion of the tropic
hormone in addition to 1. Pituitary Gland 6. Pineal
stimulating their target 2. Thyroid Gland 7. Thymus
cell
- This stimulates further 3. Parathyroid Gland
secretion of the original 4. Adrenal Gland
hormone
- Self-propagating system 5. Pancreas
Three (3) Types of Stimuli Hypothalamus
1.) Humoral Stimuli - an important autonomic nervous system
and endocrine control center of the brain
- refers to body fluids, including
blood - regulate the secretion activities of the
pituitary gland in response to other
hormones, sensor information

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- neurons produce neurohormones which are - acromegaly = hypersecretion after

transported to the anterior pituitary gland long bone growth has ended
- Releasing Hormone = stimulate
APGH
a.2 Prolactin (Ovary and mammary glands;
- Inhibiting Hormone = decreasing APGH Testes)
- stimulates milk production
PITUITARY GLAND
- a.k.a. hypophysis a.3 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, ACTH
(Adrenal Cortex)
- size of a grape
- regulates endocrine activity of the
- hangs by a stalk called infundibulum adrenal cortex
- excretes 9 major peptide hormones - increases the secretion of a
- also secrets hormones that influence hormone form the adrenal cortex called
growth, kidney function, birth, and milk cortisol
production by the mammary glands - required to keep the adrenal cortex
- master gland from degenerating
- increases skin pigmentation at high
concentrations
a.) Anterior Pituitary Gland
- glandular tissue
a.4 Thyroid-stimulating Hormone, TSH
- made up of epithelial tissues derived from (Thyroid)
the embryonic oral cavity
- a.k.a. Thyrotropic Hormone
- 6 Hormones: 2 affect non-endocrine
targets, 4 stimulate hormones - influence growth and activity of the
thyroid
- act as second messenger systems
- increases thyroid hormone
- regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly secretion
negative feedback
- stimulate growth of the thyroid
gland
a.1 Growth Hormone (Most Tissues) - Gonadotropic Hormone = regulates
- stimulates the growth of bones, hormonal activity of the gonads
muscles, and other organs by increasing
gene expression
a.5 Follicle-stimulating Hormone, FSH
- hyposecretion = dwarfism (Follicles in ovary; Seminiferous tubules)
- hypersecretion = gigatism - promotes follicle maturation and
estrogen secretion in ovary

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- promotes sperm cell production in - Diuresis = urine production

testis
- causes the kidney to reabsorb more
a.6 Luteinizing Hormone, LH (Ovary; water from forming urine
Testes)
urine Blood volume
- triggers ovulation
- Vasopressin = causes constriction
- causes ruptured follicles to close of arterioles
after releasing of eggs and forms the corpus
luteum - Diabetes Insipidus

- stimulates testosterone productions > hyposecretion of ADH

in males > increase of urine output
- refers to as Interstitial Cell-
stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
THYROID GLAND
- hyposecretion of FSH and LH, the
ovaries and testes decrease in size, which - located at the upper portion of the trachea
will lead to sterility - made up of two lobes connected by a
narrow band called Isthmus

b.) Posterior Pituitary Gland -one of the largest endocrine glands

- not an endocrine gland

- storage area a.) Thyroid Hormone (Most cells of the
body)
- consists of two active iodine-containing
b.1 Oxytocin (Uterus and Mammary thyroid hormones
Glands)
> Thyroxine (T4)
Stimulates:
- tetraiodothyronine
- powerful contractions of the uterine
muscles; increases uterine contractions > Triiodothyronine (T3)

- let-down reflex (milk rejection) Metabolic rate

- induce/hasten labor Heat Production

- stop postpartum (after birth) Protein Synthesis (essential for normal

bleeding (constriction of placental blood growth & development)
vessels) - Iodine = integral component of T3 and T4
molecules; humans must consume an
adequate amount of iodine in the diet to
b.2 Anti-diuretic Hormone, ADH (Kidney) support thyroid T3 and T4 regulation
- conserves water; constricts blood
vessels
Homeostatic Imbalance:

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Hypersecretion > No thyroid gland

- Increase in metabolism, temperature, heart
rate, blood pressure, appetite
b.) Calcitonin (Primarily Bone)
- Hyperactivity
- parafollicular cells
- Muscle tremors
- Hypocalcemic Hormone
- Weight loss
- Decrease blood calcium causing bone
- Diarrhea disposition
- Irritability, Insomnia - Antagonist to parathyroid
> Grave’s Diseases – bulging of eyes - Decrease rate of bone breakdown
- exopthalamus
> Tumors – thyroid gland; pituitary gland PARATHYROID GLAND
>Thyroiditis – inflammation - tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
gland
> Thyroid storm (enlarged thyroid gland) –
abnormality of thyroid due to - 2 cell types: chief cells and oxyphils
overproduction of T4 and T3 molecules
- secretes parathormone/parathyroid
hormone (hypercalcemic hormone)
Hyposecretion >stimulates osteoclasts
- Decrease in metabolism, temperature, heart >stimulates kidneys and intestines
rate, blood pressure, appetite
>raise calcium levels in the blood
- Sluggishness
> Myxedema – swollen face (fluid
distribution is affected) Homeostatic Imbalance:

> Goiter >Hypoparathyroidism

- due to the decrease of iodine - inactive PTH gland

- thyroid gland enlarges, unable to - accidental removal/alteration during

respond to the thyroid-stimulating hormones surgery

- increase of TSH levels (no effect to

thyroid hormones, hence, enlargement) >Hypocalcemia
> Cretinism – dwarfism but body - Tentany (uncontrollable rapid muscle
proportions remain childlike spasms)
> Pituitary insufficiency - Laryngospasm
> Neuronal Hypothyroidism - Flaccid cardiac muscles
>Hashimoto disease

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- Positive (+) Trousseau’s Sign - decrease in Na, increase in K in blood =

increase in aldosterone
-Chvostek’s sign – poke side of eye (+ if
flicker) - secretes potassium
>Hyperparathyroidism - more sensitive to changes in blood
potassium level than sodium
- adenoma
b.) Glucocorticoids
- tumors
- cortisol and cortison
- hyperplasia
- help provide energy by stimulating the
- unknown causes increase breakdown of protein and lipids
- helps regulate blood nutrient levels
>Hypercalcemia - promotes metabolic, developmental or
- kidney stones/Ca+ deposits anti-inflammatory responses
- weak bones - promote cell metabolism

- muscular weakness - hyperglycemic hormone

- increase in contraction of cardiac muscles - long-term stressor
> Gluconeogenesis – synthesis of new
glucose from amino acids (liver)
ADRENAL GLAND
- anti-inflammatory
Three (3) Layers
1. zona glomerulosa – mineralocorticoids
c.) Adrenal Androgens
2. zona fasciculata – glucocorticoids
- “weak androgen”
3. zona reticularis – sex hormones
- most androgens are secreted by the
reproductive system
Adrenal Cortex - secreted by zona reticularis
a.) Mineralocorticoids - Females: pubic, sex drive, axillary hair
- mainly aldosterone growth

- regulates mineral concentration in blood - Males: negligible effects compared to

testosterone
- regulates water and electrolyte balance
- receptor that mediates renin & aldosterone
Homeostatic Imbalance:
- inhibited by atrial natriuretic
>Hyposecretion of Glucocorticoid
- target organ: kidneys
- (Mineralocorticoid)
Cause: removal of gland/loss of function

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>Addison Disease -“moon face”

-decrease in aldosterone and cortisol -Buffalo Hump
Symptoms:
-Hyponatremia (Decrease in Na) >Hypersecretion of Adrenal Androgens
-Hyperkalemia (Increase in K) Cause: Tumor in gland
-Acidosis -Hypermasculinization
-Decrease in BP -Females:
-Polyuria (Increase in Urine Output) - Hirsutism (excessive facial & body hair)
-Tremors and Tetany of Skeletal Muscles - acne
-Hypoglycemia - Increase of sex drive
-Decrease of immune system - Decrease of breast size
-Loss of appetite/Nausea - Loss of regular menstruation

>Hyposecretion of Adrenal Androgens Adrenal Medulla

-Females: Pubic and Axillary Hair - activation of the sympathetic nervous
system
- chromaffin cells secrete catecholamines:
>Hypersecretion of Aldosterone epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine
Cause: tumor in gland/aldosteronism (20%)

Symptoms: Increase in water and Na - fight-or-flight

Retention - short-term stressor
- Increase in BP Cause: Vasoconstriction, Bronchodilation,
- Edema Increase in HR and RR, and increase in
blood glucose
Hypokalemia – heart arrhythmias
- blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and
skeletal muscles
>Hypersecretion of Glucocorticoid
Cause: crushing syndrome a.) Epinephrine
-Hyperglycemia - metabolic activities
-Decrease in immune system - branchial dilator
-Destruction of tissue proteins - blood flow to skeletal muscle and the heart
-Muscle Atrophy

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b.) Norepinephrine Insulin

- peripheral vasoconstriction - decrease blood glucose levels by
stimulating glucose transport into body cells
- blood pressure
(Hypoglycemic) secreted when blood
- precursor to epinephrine glucose has increased (like after a meal)
-Major target tissues: liver, adipose tissue,
>Hypersecretion skeletal muscles, satiety center within the
hypothalamus of brain
-sweating
-nervousness
>Diabetes Mellitus – inability to regulate
blood glucose
>Hyposecretion Type 1 – insulin-dependent; insulin
- not problematic injections; too little insulin
Type 2 – not insulin-dependent; too few or
defective receptors
PANCREAS
Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans) –
triangular gland Glucagon

- regulates nutrients in the blood, primarily - antagonist hormone of insulin

glucose - promotes release of glucose
- surrounded by a well-developed capillary
- has exocrine and endocrine cells Somastatin
- released by the delta cells in response to
>Acinar Cells (exocrine) – produce and food intake
transport enzymes where they assist in the - inhibits the secretion of insulin and
digestion of food glucagon
- inhibits gastric tract activity
Islets consist of 3 Cell Types
a.) alpha – secretes glucagon THYMUS GLAND
(hyperglycemia)
-upper part of the thoracic cavity
b.) beta – secretes insulin (hypoglycemia)
-aids in development of T-cells
c.) delta – somastatin (inhibition of both
insulin and glucagon) - Thymosin Hormone (Immune tissues)

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-human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

-human placental lactogen (HPL)
PINEAL GLAND -relaxin
- small pinecone-shaped
- superior and posterior to the thalamus of >HCG
the brain
- produced during early stages of pregnancy
- Melatonin hormone (Hypothalamus)
- like LH = stimulate the ovaries to continue
>sleep-wake cycle producing estrogen and progesterone so that
the lining of the uterus is not shed off
>puberty
- 3rd month, placenta assumes role of
producing estrogen and progesterone
Gonads:
Testes: >HPL
-male - prepare breats for lactation
-testosterone (growth & development of
male reproductive)
>Relaxin
-muscle enlargement
- pelvis and pubic symphysis to relax and is
-voice changes (deepens) more flexible
-sex drive

STOMACH & SMALL INTESTINES

Ovaries: -gastria
-female -intestinal gastrin
-progesterone -secretin
-estrogen (growth & development of female -cholecystokinin
reproductive)
- menstrual cycle
KIDNEYS
-female sexual characteristics
-erythropoientin is secreted by kidneys in
response to the decrease of O2 levels in
OTHER HORMONES kidneys (hypoxia)
PLACENTA -targe: bone marrow
-produces hormones that maintain the -effect: increase of RBC production
pregnancy and play role in baby delivery

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HEART
-Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)
-secreted in response to elevated BP
>Kidneys: inhibits Na+, reabsorption and
renin secretion
>Adrenal Cortex: inhibits aldosterone
secretion

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