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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL
COMMUNICATION
Chemical messengers – allow cells to
communicate with each other
Secretion – controlled release of chemicals
from a cell
Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that
originally secreted it; WBCs during an
infection
2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby
cells; WBCs during allergic reactions
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an
adjacent cell
4. Endocrine – secreted into the
bloodstream by certain glands and
cells
Functions of the Endocrine System (MC3I2
WHUT)
1. Metabolism.
2. Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients.
3. Control of reproductive functions.
4. Control of food intake and digestion.
5. Ion regulation.
6. Immune system regulation.
7. Water balance.
8. Heart rate and blood pressure
regulation.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release.
10. Tissue development.
Characteristics of the Endocrine System
Endocrine System – composed of endocrine
glands + endocrine specialized cells
Hormones – chemical messenger that is
secreted into the blood
Target tissues – effectors; specific site
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) +
krino (secrete); ductless glands that directly
secretes their products into the blood stream.
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their
secretions to the outside of the body; drains
their secretions through a duct to the outside of
the body or into a holloworgan
Endocrinology – study of the endocrine
system
HORMONES
• Hormones are chemical messengers
that are secreted directly to the blood
stream by endocrine glands or
specialized endocrine cells.
• From the blood stream, they travel to
the effectors or target cells to produce
a response.
Components of Hormones
Receptor site - location on a cell where
hormone binds (lock)
Target tissues - group of cells that respond to
specific hormones
Specificity - specific hormones bind to
specific receptor sites
• Hormones influence their target cells
by chemically binding to specific

protein receptors, a property termed as
selectivity.
• In the occurrence of excess hormones
in the blood stream, the receptors of
the target-cell decrease,
phenomenon called downregulation
that makes the cell less-sensitive to the
hormone.
• Insufficient amounts of hormones in
the blood causes the target-cells’
receptors to multiply, an effect called
up-regulation which makes the cell
more-sensitive to the hormones.
How does this work?
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine
glands directly into bloodstream
2. Hormones travel to all parts of body
3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site
(lock) on target tissue
4. Response occurs
How does hormones cause change?
• Alter cell activity of target tissues by
increasing or decreasing cell’s normal
processes
• Change permeability of cell
membrane by opening or closing ion
channels
• Synthesis of proteins
Chemical Nature of Hormones
1. Lipid-Soluble - includes steroids and
eicosanoids
2. Water-Soluble– includes proteins;
peptides, amino acids; most common.
Control Of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation of Hormone Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of
chemicals; response to certain levels
of substance in the blood.
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2. Neural Stimuli – nervous system;
neurons response to an action potential
and release neurotransmitters and/or
neuropeptides to stimulate endocrine
a cells.
❖ Releasing hormones is a term
used for hormones of
hypothalamus because it
stimulates hormone secretion
of other endocrine cells
3. Hormonal Stimuli – hormones; the
hormone secreted by an endocrine
gland stimulates the release of other
hormones
❖ Tropic hormones are
produced from the anterior
pituitary gland that causes
other endocrine gland to
release hormones.
Inhibition of Hormone Release
• A process that occurs to counteract the
stimulating effect of three types of
stimuli: humoral, neural, and
hormonal.
1. Humoral inhibition - opposes and
counteract the effect of humoral
stimulus
2. Neural inhibition: inhibitory
neurotransmitters prevents the
endocrine gland from secreting its
hormone
3. Hormonal inhibition: certain
hormones block the release of other
hormones.
❖ Inhibiting hormones are
produced by the
hypothalamus to prevent the
pituitary gland to release
tropic hormones.
Negative Feedback Loop
• Regulates hormone secretion by the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland
• Increased amounts of target gland
hormones in the bloodstream decrease
secretion of the same hormone and
other hormones that stimulate its
release.

Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
A. Negative feedback
❖ Blood conc. of hormone declines
❖ More hormone is secreted
❖ If max. set point is exceeded
❖ Hormone production is halted
B. Positive feedback
❖ Tropic hormones stimulate the release
of other hormones
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of
Action
Receptors – where hormones exert action by
binding to proteins
Receptor site – the portion of each receptor
molecule where a hormone bind
Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to
one type of receptor
Target tissue – the responding tissue based on
the hormone released
Classes of Receptors
1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
❖ Interaction with cell DNA to regulate
transcription.
2. WSH bind to membrane bound
receptors.
❖ Hormone receptor complex initiates a
response inside the cell (G proteins,
cAMP, protein kinase).
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONES
Hypothalamus
• Portion of the diencephalon of the
brain, forming the floor and part of the
lateral wall of the third ventricle;
region below the thalamus.
• Major link between the nervous and
endocrine systems.
• Termed as the endocrine control
center of the brain
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• Major link between the nervous and
endocrine systems.
What Hormones Does It Produce and What
For?
❖ Termed as the endocrine control
center of the brain
❖ Produces nine different hormones.
Anterior Pituitary
1. Growth hormone (GH)
• Affects body growth by stimulating
protein synthesis by increasing gene
expression
• Breakdown of lipids
• Release of fatty acids from cells
• Increases blood glucose levels
Pituitary dwarf – deficiency in GH although
normally proportioned
Gigantism – excess GH; exaggerated bone
growth occurs
Acromegaly – abnormally large facial features
& hands
Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Promotes synthesis and secretion of
thyroid hormone
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Increases secretion of glucocorticoid
hormones
• Increases skin pigmentation
4. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
• Increases melanin prod. in
melanocytes
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Promotes ovulation and progesterone
production on ovary
• Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
(ICSH)
• Promotes testosterone synthesis and
support for sperm cell prod. in testis
6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Promotes follicle maturation and
estrogen secretion in ovary
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• Promotes sperm cell prod. in testis • In 50% of the cases, it has a third lobe
7. Prolactin called pyramidal lobe that extends
• Promote development of breast during superiorly to the isthmus
pregnancy
• Stimulates milk prod. and prolongs
progesterone secretion
• Increases sensitivity to LH in males
8. Antidiuretic hormone
• Conserves water
• Constricts blood vessels
• Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH
(SIADH)
• Diabetes Inspidus – large prod. of
dilute urine
9. Oxytocin
• Swift birth
• Increases uterine contractions
• Increases milk letdown
Pituitary Gland
• A small gland about the size of a pea
• Controls the functions of many other
glands
• Secrets hormones that influence
growth, kidney function, birth, milk
prod.
• Formerly called “Master Gland”

1. Calcitonin
• Decreases rate of bone breakdown
• Prevents large increase in blood Ca2+
3 portions of PG levels
• Anterior pituitary gland 2. Thyroid hormones
(adenohypophysis)- produces eight • Increases metabolic rates
hormones; has five cell types that • Essential for normal process of growth
produce a specific hormone Thyroxine / Tetraiodothyronine - contains
(somatotrophs, thyrotrophs, four iodine atoms
gonadotrophs, lactotrophs, and ❖ Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR)
corticotrophs.) ❖ Enhance actions of catecholamines
• Posterior pituitary gland ❖ Regulate development of nervous and
(neurohypophysis) - stores two bone tissues
hormones; Posterior pituitary gland Triiodothyronine – contains three iodine
stores and release two hormones, atoms
produced by the hypothalamus. Isthmus – narrow band that connects the two
Thyroid Gland lobes of the thyroid gland
• A shield-shaped organs located Thyroid follicles – where thyroid hormones
inferior to the larynx. are synthesized and stored
• Typically, it has two lobes, located Goiter – excess TSH; low in iodine diet
laterally to the trachea. Hypothyroidism – lack of thyroid hormones

Cretinism – congenital absence of thyroxine
in infants
Myxedema – accumulation of fluid and other
molecules in subcutaneous tissue in adults
Hyperthyroidism – elevated rate of thyroid
hormone secretion
Graves’ disease – hyperthyroidism that results
when the immune system produces abnormal
proteins
Exophthalmia – bulging of the eye
Parathyroid Gland
• Four, small, round structures that are
partially embedded in the posterior
surface of the lateral lobes of the
thyroid gland.
• Chief/principal cells in the parathyroid
gland produce the parathyroid
hormone (PTH) or parathormone.
1. Parathyroid hormone
• Increase Ca+ levels in the blood
• Increases rate of bone breakdown by
osteoclasts
• Increases vit. D synthesis (essential for
of normal blood calcium levels)
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Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia) –
abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
❖ Tumor
❖ Muscle weakness
❖ Soft, easily deformed bones
❖ Prone to kidney stone formation
Hypoparathyroidism (Hypocalcemia) –
abnormally low rate of PTH; surgery
❖ Surgery
❖ Frequent muscle cramps or tetanus
❖ Respiratory arrest
❖ CHVOSTEK’s sign & TROSSEAU
sign
How does it produce hormone?
❖ PTH and calcitonin have an
antagonistic effect and are both
regulated via negative feedback
system as initiated by the serum
calcium level.
❖ ↑Ca in blood = inhibits PTH secretion
❖ ↓Ca in blood = stimulates PTH
secretion
Adrenal Gland
• Two, flattened pyramidal glands
located superior to each kidney.
• Divided into two portions: adrenal
cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla
(inner).
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Adrenal Medulla
1. Epinephrine (Adrenalin) &
Norepinephrine
• Fight-or-flight hormones
• Increases cardiac output
• Increases blood flow to skeletal
muscles & heart
• Increases release of glucose and fatty
acids into blood
• Prepares body for physical activity
Adrenal Cortex
3 ZONES THAT PRODUCE HORMONE
❖ Functions include: protein and lipid
1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids)
breakdown, glucose formation
• Regulates water balance
(gluconeogenesis), stress resistance,
• Increases rate of Na transport into anti-inflammatory response, and
body immune suppresion.
• Increase rate of K excretion ❖ Androgens, mainly
Renin – protein molecule that acts as an dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA),
enzyme stimulates axillary and pubic hairs
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System formation, female libido, and is
(RAAS) – helps the body to address responsible for post-menopausal
decreasing blood volume estrogen production.
2. Cortisol (Glucocorticoids) ❖ All female estrogen comes from
• Increase fat & protein breakdown androgen.
• Increase glucose synthesis from amino ❖ ACTH governs the regulation of
acids androgens.
• Increase blood nutrient levels II. Adrenal medulla is a modified
• Inhibit inflammation & immune sympathetic ganglion of the SNS.
response ❖ Instead of producing
• Helps the body in stressful situations neurotransmitters, the chromaffin
by providing energy sources cells of theadrenal medulla secrete
Cortisone – artificial cortisol; anti- hormones: Epinephrine and
inflammatory Norepinephrine.
effect ❖ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
3. Androgens has a direct control over the secretion
• Male sex hormone; stimulates the of epinephrine and norpinephrine that
dev’t of male characteristics enhance the effect of SNS.
• Increases female sex drive ❖ During stressful situation or exercise,
Addison’s disease – hyposecretion of adrenal the hypothalamus stimulates the
cortex hormones sympathetic preganglionic neurons to
Cushing’s disease – tumor in middle cortex stimulate chromaffin cells to produce
Hyperaldosteronism – hyperactivity of outer epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Cortex THYMUS
Hirsutism – masculinization (inner cortex) • A bilobed gland,
What does it produce and what for? roughly triangular in
I. Adrenal cortex has three zones that shape, located in the
produces different hormones: superior mediastinum,
❖ Glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol behind the sternum
(hydrocortisone), regulates between the lungs.
metabolism and resistance to stress.
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What hormones does it produce and what for? What hormone does it produce and what
• It produces the hormones: thymosin, for?
thymo-humoral factor (THF), thymic • A (alpha) cells = produce glucagon to
factor (TF), and thymopoietin. All of increase glucose level in the blood and
which promotes the maturation of T to stimulate insulin production.
cells • B (beta) cells = produce insulin to
1. Thymosin increase glucose uptake of cells;
• Promotes immune system thereby, lowering blood glucose level.
development and function It also inhibits glucagon production.
• Helps the dev’t of certain WBC (T- • D (delta) cells = produce somatostatin
cells) that inhibits glucagon and insulin
Pineal Gland secretion. It also slows down
• A small, pinecone-shaped structure nutrients’ absorption in the intestines.
located superior and posterior to the • F cells = produce pancreatic
thalamus of the brain. polypeptide which inhibits
What hormone does it produce and what for? somatostatin secretion.
• It produces the hormone melatonin.
Melatonin is thought to have two
functions:
❖ 1. Sleep-wake cycle
❖ 2. Inhibits the functions of the
reproductive system
1. Melatonin
• Inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (thus inhibits
reproduction)
• Biological clock (day & night cycle)
Pancreas
• Both endocrine and exocrine gland.
• Located in the first curve of the
duodenum and is consist of head, tail,
and body.
• Endocrine tissues are called endocrine
islets which include: A cells, B cells,
D cells, and F cells

1. Insulin
• Secreted by beta cells
• Increases uptake and use of glucose
and amino acids
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• Released in response to elevated blood

glucose level & parasympathetic
stimulation
2. Glucagon
• Secreted by alpha cells
• Increases breakdown of glycogen and
release of glucose into the circulatory
system
• Released in response to low blood
glucose level OVARIES
Glycogen – stored glucose in muscles & liver 1. Estrogen & Progesterone
Acidosis – reduced pH of body fluids • Aid in uterine and mammary gland
Satiety center – area of the hypothalamus that development and function, external
controls appetite genitalia structure, secondary sexual
Diabetes mellitus – much urine + sweetened characteristics, sexual behavior,
❖ Type 1 – occurs when too little insulin menstrual cycle
is secreted from pancreas 2. Prostaglandins
❖ Type 2 – caused by insufficient no. of • Mediate inflammatory responses
insulin receptors • Increase uterine contractions and
Hyperglycemia – high blood glucose levels ovulations
Polyphagia – increased appetite/eating OTHER HORMONES
Polyuria – increased eating 1. Erythropoietin
Polydipsia – excessive thirst • Acts on bone marrow to increase the
Gonads prod. of RBCs
• Gonads are organs that produce 2. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
gametes and secretes sex hormones. • Stimulated prod. of estrogen &
Female: ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone
progesterone Male: testes synthesize
testosterone
• Estrogen and progesterone is
responsible for development and
function of the female reproductive
organs and other female sexual
characteristics
• Cyclical release of estrogen and
progesterone regulates the menstrual
cycle.
• These two hormones promote
development of mammary glands and
deposition of adipose tissue in breast,
hips, and thighs during puberty.
TESTES
1. Testosterone
• Aids in sperm cell prod.
• Maintenance of functional
reproductive organs, secondary sexual
characteristics, sexual behavior