BUOYANCY

1.0 Introduction

A fluid exerts a force on any object submerged in it. Such a force due to a fluid in equilibrium is
known as the buoyancy or the upthrust. It is often necessary to determine buoyancy in many
engineering applications as in the design of ships, boats, buoys etc.

The buoyancy has a magnitude equal to the weight of the displaced volume of fluid. It acts
upwards through the centre of gravity of the displaced volume of fluid which is known as the
centre of buoyancy. This result is often known as the Archimedes principle and can be proved
as follows:

When an object is submerged in a fluid in equilibrium an equal volume of fluid is displaced. This
volume of fluid was in equilibrium under the action of its own weight and the resultant thrust
exerted on it by the surrounding fluid which is the same as the buoyancy on the submerged
object. Hence the buoyancy should be equal in magnitude to the weight of the displaced volume
of fluid and act upwards through its centre of gravity.

Alternatively, considering the object ABCD

submerged in a fluid in equilibrium as
shown in Figure 1, F E
A
Horizontal thrust on

surface ABC = Thrust on left hand side

of AC D
 B
= F (say)

surface ADC = Thrust on right hand side

of AC C
= F
Figure 1
 Total horizontal thrust on ABCD =0

Downward thrust on surface BAD = Weight of fluid volume BADEF

Upward thrust on surface BCD = Weight of fluid volume BCDEF
 Total upward thrust on ABCD = Weight of fluid volume (BCDEF-BADEF)
= Weight of fluid volume ABCD
= Weight of the displaced volume of fluid

This result is not restricted to a fluid of uniform density.

1
On a body of volume V, submerged in a
fluid of density ρ in equilibrium, the
buoyancy U = Vρg, where g = Acceleration Density ρ
due to gravity, and acts through the centre
of buoyancy B as shown in Figure 2.
U = Vρg
The position of the center of buoyancy B B
depends on the shape of the displaced
Volume V
volume of fluid. For a fluid of uniform
density, it is at the centroid of the displaced
volume of fluid. It should be distinguished
from the centre of gravity G of the
submerged object, the position of which
depends on the way its weight W is Figure 2
distributed as illustrated in Figure 3.

U U
B G B
W G
W

Figure 3

1.2 Bodies Submerged in Two Immiscible Fluids

A body submerged in two immiscible fluids

of densities ρ1 and ρ2 (>ρ1) is shown in
Figure 4. The buoyancy U1 on the volume U1 = V1ρ1g
V1 submerged in the upper fluid acts B1
through its centre of buoyancy B1 and the Density ρ1
buoyancy U2 on the volume V2 submerged Density ρ2
in the lower fluid acts through its centre of
B2 U2 = V2ρ2g
buoyancy B2 as shown in Figure 4. Volu
me
Total buoyancy U = U1+U2
V
= V1ρ1g + V2ρ2g Figure 4

U does not pass through the centroid of the volume V1+V2.

If the upper fluid is a gas and the lower fluid is a liquid, the buoyancy due to the gas is neglected
in many engineering applications. Also, when a body is weighed, the buoyancy due to
atmospheric air is usually neglected.

2
1.3 Equilibrium of Submerged Bodies

1.3.1 Fully Submerged Bodies

The forces acting on a fully submerged

body are the weight W acting through the
centre of gravity G and the buoyancy U
acting through the centre of buoyancy B as
shown in Figure 5. U
If U = W, the body will be in equilibrium. B
G
If U > W, the body will rise until its average W
density becomes equal to that of the
surrounding fluid or it reaches a floating
position on the free surface of the fluid.
Figure 5
If U < W, the body will move downwards in
the fluid.

1.3.2 Floating Bodies

G
For a floating body to be in vertical W
equilibrium, the buoyancy U on the
submerged volume should be equal to the U=W
weight W of the body and B and G should Volu B
be on the same vertical line as shown in me
Figure 6. V
Figure 6

1.4 Stability of Submerged Bodies

Stability or the type of equilibrium is of major importance to a floating body.

When a body is given a small displacement and then released, if it returns to its initial
equilibrium position, it is said to be in stable equilibrium. If it moves further away from the initial
equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium. If it remains at the displaced position,
it is said to be in neutral equilibrium. The three types of equilibrium of a body are illustrated in
Figure 7.

Stable equilibrium Unstable Neutral equilibrium

equilibrium

Figure 7

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1.4.1 Stability of Fully Submerged Bodies

The equilibrium position of a fully MR

submerged body in which the centre of =
buoyancy B is above the centre of gravity U=W W
G is shown in Figure 8(a). The buoyancy U
acts through B and the weight W ( = U )
U=W
acts through G.
B B
As B and G remain at fixed positions =
G =G
relative to the body, an angular W =
W W
displacement θ, as shown in Figure 8(b), = W θ
produces a restoring moment MR which W = W
tends to restore the body at its initial W =
equilibrium position. Hence the body is W
Equilibrium Displaced
stable equilibrium.
position position
MR = W(GB)sinθ (a) (b)
Figure 8
= W(GB)θ for small values of θ.
Mo
=
U=W W
When B is below G, the equilibrium and
displaced positions of the body are shown in G G
Figure 9. W =
= WB B
An overturning moment Mo is produced at W U= = W =
the displaced position as shown in Figure W W W
9(b) which tends to move the body further θ =
away from the initial equilibrium position. = W
Hence the body is in unstable equilibrium. W
Equilibrium Displaced
When B  G , the equilibrium and displaced position position
positions of the body are shown in Figure (a) (b)
Figure 9
10.

As no unbalanced moment is produced

when the body is displaced, it remains in U=W
equilibrium at the displaced position. Hence
the body is in neutral equilibrium. U=W
It can be concluded that the stability of a B G B G
fully submerged body depends on the = = =
W
relative positions of B and G as summarized W W
= W
below: θ W
W
= =
Stable equilibrium B above G W W
Equilibrium Displaced
Unstable equilibrium B below G
position position
Neutral equilibrium B  G (a) (b)
Figure 10

4
1.4.2 Stability of Floating Bodies

The equilibrium position of a floating body of G

weight W acting through the centre of gravity G W
is shown in Figure 11(a). The buoyancy U (=W)
acts through the centre of buoyancy B. B
U=W
The displaced position of the body, when it
undergoes a small angular displacement θ is
shown in Figure 11(b). The submerged volume (a) Equilibrium position
remains unchanged but its shape changes MR
during displacement and as a result the centre
of buoyancy moves from B to B . The centre of M
gravity G usually remains fixed relative to the
body.
G
The line of action of U through B intersects the U=W
axis BG at point M which is defined as the
metacentre. It has been found that, for small B W B
displacements M is fixed in position relative to
B
the body. The distance GM, measured upwards θ
from G, is known as the metacentric height.

For the body shown in Figure 11(b), M is above (b) Displaced position
G (or GM > 0) and a restoring moment MR is
produced at the displaced position. Hence the Mo
body is in stable equilibrium.
U=W
MR = W (GM) Sinθ = W (GM)θ for small θ and G
hence GM is a measure of the stability of a M W
floating body.
B B
For the floating body shown in Figure 11(c), M
is below G or GM < 0 and an overturning θ
moment Mo is produced at the displaced
position. Hence the body is in unstable
equilibrium. (c) Displaced position

If M coincides with G or GM = 0, in a floating W

body, no unbalanced moment is produced
when it is given an angular displacement as G M
shown in Figure 11(d) and hence the body is in U=W
neutral equilibrium.

It can be concluded that the stability of a

B B
floating body depends on the relative positions B
of the metacentre M and the centre of gravity G θ
or the metacentric height GM.
(d) Displaced position
Stable equilibrium M above G GM > 0
Unstable equilibrium M below G GM < 0
Neutral equilibrium M  G GM = 0 Figure 11

5
1.5 Determination of Metacentric Height

1.5.1 Experimental Value

The metacentric height of a floating body can be determined experimentally by shifting a known
weight by a known distance and measuring the angle of tilt.

The initial equilibrium position of a floating body of total weight W acting through the centre of
gravity G is shown in Figure 12(a). W includes a movable weight P at G1. The buoyancy U (=W)
acts through the centre of buoyancy B.

When P is shifted by a distance x, the tilted equilibrium position of the body is shown in
Figure 12(b). The new centre of gravity G and the centre of buoyancy B are shown in
Figure 12(b).

P U=W
x
P
G G
G
W

B B B
U=W B
θ W

(a) (b)
Initial equilibrium position Tilted equilibrium position

Figure 12

Considering the shift in centre of gravity,

W (GG)  Px  0(W  P )
Px
GG 
W

But GG  (GM) tan  (GM) for small θ

Px Px
 (GM)  and GM 
W W

As M is fixed in position for small θ

Limit Px
GM 
 0 W

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1.5.2 Theoretical value

It is often necessary to determine the

metacentric height of a floating body before it is
constructed. If the shape of the submerged
volume is known, the metacentric height can
theoretically be determined.
A O C
A floating body is shown in Figure 13. The
buoyancy U acts through the centre of B
buoyancy B as shown in Figure 13(a). B has
U
shifted to B at the displaced position shown in
Figure 13(b). The metacentre M is also shown (a)
in Figure 13(b). Equilibrium position
As the submerged volume remains unchanged
during angular displacement,
U
Volume of fluid OCC = Volume of fluid OAA A M
C A
A O C
 xtanθdA =  xtanθdA
O O x C
C A B B Area dA
 xdA  O xdA
O
= 0
θ
C O

O xdA  A xdA = 0 (b)

Displaced position
C

 xdA
A
= 0 O
C


But xdA = First moment of area of the
A
waterline plane (AOC) about the
axis of rotation (OO)
Area dA
= Ax
x
where
A= Area of the waterline plane
x =Distance to the centroid from OO

 Ax = 0

x = 0

Hence OO is the centroidal axis of the O

waterline plane. (c)
Plan view
Figure 13

7
U moves from B to B due to the removal of the weight of fluid volume OAA and the addition of
the fluid volume OCC .

For small θ

C A

 
U (BB)  ( xdAg )x  ( xdAg )x
O O

C A

O

Vg(BB)  g  x 2 dA  x 2 dA
O 
 where V = Submerged volume

C O

O

Vg(BB)  g  x 2dA  x 2dA
A 

C 
 A

V (BB)    x 2 dA

C

 x dA = Second moment of area of the waterline plane about the centroidal axis OO
2
But
A
= I (say)

V (BB)  I
I
BB 
V
But BB  (BM)
I
BM 
V
BM is known as the metacentric radius.

This result is restricted to small angular displacements-usually up to about 80 and the restriction
is particularly important when the sides of the floating body are not vertical.

As the position of B can be determined for known shapes of submerged volume, the above
expression for BM can be used to determine the metacentric height GM. For known positions of
G, GM is given by,

GM = BM – BG

The tilting of a floating body about

longitudinal and transverse axes are known Pitching
as rolling and pitching respectively. For a
typical cross section of a floating body, as
shown in Figure 14, the second moment of
Rolling
area for rolling is smaller than that for
pitching. Thus the metacentric height for
rolling is less than that for pitching and it is
important to check the stability considering Figure 14
the rolling of the floating body.

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1.6 Time Period of Oscillation

When a floating body in stable equilibrium is given an angular displacement, it tends to oscillate
about its equilibrium position.

A floating body in stable equilibrium is shown in Figure 15(a). The buoyancy U acts through the
centre of buoyancy B and the weight W acts through the centre of gravity G. As it is in stable
equilibrium, the metacentre is above M. When it is oscillating, a displaced position is shown in
Figure 15(b) at which the centre of buoyancy has shifted to B .

U=W

M M
O O
G G
W
B A B
B
U=W
θ
W
(a) (b)
Equilibrium position Figure 15 Displaced position

As there is no resultant horizontal force acting on the body, G does not move horizontally during
oscillations. The buoyancy and hence submerged volume remains constant during oscillations
and therefore O does not move vertically. Thus the body oscillates about A (instantaneous
centre of rotation). For small oscillations, A is close to G and it can be assumed that the body
oscillates about G.
..
G T  I
..
 W (GM)Sin   IG  where IG = Moment of inertia of the floating body about G

For small oscillations Sin   

d 2 d 2 W (GM)
 W (GM)  I G and 2
 
dt 2 dt IG

As the oscillations describe a simple harmonic motion, the time period of oscillation T can be
expressed as,

W (GM)
T  2 /
IG
W = Mg and IG is usually expressed as IG=Mk2 where M =Total mass and k = Radius of
gyration

2k
T 
g (GM)

9
It has been found that there is better agreement between the theoretical and experimental
values of T for rolling than for pitching of floating vessels. In practice, the viscosity of the liquid
introduces damping action which suppresses oscillations unless further disturbances cause new
angular displacements.

Increasing the metacentric height gives greater stability but reduces the time period of
oscillation. Thus a floating vessel is less comfortable for passengers and is subjected to high
stresses which may damage its structure. Typical values of metacentric height of a floating
vessel may be in the range 0.3 m to 1.2 m.

1.7 Effect of Liquid Cargo

The stability of a floating vessel carrying liquid with a free surface is adversely affected by the
movement of the centre of gravity of the vessel when it undergoes an angular displacement.

1.7.1 Liquid Cargo in a Single Compartment

A vessel floating in a liquid of density ρ is shown in Figure 16(a). It carries a liquid of density ρ1
in a single compartment. The total weight W acts through the centre of gravity G and the weight
of liquid cargo acts through G1. When the vessel tilts by an angle θ, as shown in Figure 16(b),

N U=W

G G G
W
B B B
U=W G1
G1 G1

θ W

(a) (b)
Equilibrium position Figure 16 Displaced position

The (restoring) moment produced at the displaced position MR = W(NM)Sinθ

Hence NM can be considered as the effective metacentric height.

Reduction of metacentic height = GN

NM = GM – GN

GG
GN 


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Considering the shift in G,

W (GG)  W1 (G1G1 )  (W  W1 )0

Vg(GG)  V1 1g(G1G1 )

Considering the similarity between the shift in G, GG and the shift in B, BB in section 1.5.2, it
can be shown that,
I
G1G1   1
V1

 I 
Vg(GG)  V1 1g  1 
 V1 
 I
GG  1 1 
 V

1 I1
GN 
 V

where W = Total weight

W1 = Weight of liquid cargo
V = Total submerged volume
V1 = Volume of liquid cargo
I1 = Second moment of area of the free surface of liquid cargo about its axis of
rotation

1.7.2 Liquid Cargo in Many Compartments

If the liquid cargo is contained in n compartments, as shown in Figure 17, considering the ‘I th’
compartment, the shift in the centre of gravity GG can be determined as follows:

N U=W

G G G
W
B B B

G1
U=W G1 G1

θ W

(a) (b)
Equilibrium position Figure (17) Displaced position

11
 n
W (GG)   W (G G )
i 1
i i i

n
Vg(GG)    gI  
i 1
i i

 n
GG 
V   I 
i 1
i i

  I 
1
GN 
V i 1
i i

It can be shown that the reduction of metacentric height GN is less when the liquid cargo is
contained in many smaller compartments than when contained in one large compartment.
Hence the stability of a floating vessel carrying liquid cargo can be improved by dividing the
large compartment carrying liquid cargo into many smaller compartments.

Ex: If a rectangular pontoon of length L and width B contains a liquid of density ρ1 in a single
compartment across the width of the vessel,

1 I1 1 I  (LB 3 / 12)
GN  (GN) 1    1
 V  V  V

If the compartment is divided into ‘n’ equal compartments,

n
 L(B / n ) 3   1 (LB 3 / 12)  1
  I  
1 1 1 1
GN  (GN) n  n( 1I1 )  n1   2    2 (GN) n
V V V  
i i
i 1  12  n V  n

For n > 1, (GN)n < (GN)1 hence stability is improved.

12