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Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data {PART 10 of Research

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Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data
{PART 10 of Research Methodology}

“Research needs more competence, less 'excellence’ “

M S Sridhar
Former Head, Library & Documentation
ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore 560017
E-mail: mirlesridhar@gmail.com

Workshop on Research Methodology, 29 April 2023

Adichunchanagiri University, BGSIT, Centre for R&D and
NAIN Centre in Association with IEEE, Bangalore Section and
Mysore Subsection
 Research Methodology: overall synopsis
1. Introduction to Research & Research methodology
(PDF) Research Methodology Part 1 : Introduction to Research & Research

a r
h
Methodology (researchgate.net)
2. Selection, formulation and Refining research
r id
S
problem (PDF) Research Methodology: Part 2 - Selection and Formulation
S
of Research Problem (researchgate.net) (PDF) Fine tuning a research problem
(researchgate.net)

2 M
2A Literature Searching and Review. (PDF) Literature Review: Tips, Techniques
and Art of Searching (researchgate.net) (PDF) Importance and Issues of Literature Review in Research
(researchgate.net)

0 2
3. Research design, plan and praposal (PDF) Research
2
Methodology Part 3: Research Design, Plan and Proposal (researchgate.net)
©designs
4. Experimental (PDF) Research Methodology Part 4:
Experimental and Observational Studies (researchgate.net)
5. Sampling and sampling strategy or plan (PDF) Research
Methodology Part 5: Sampling and Sampling Strategy (researchgate.net) (PDF)
Sampling Strategy for Researchers * (researchgate.net)

M S Sridhar 2
 Research Methodology: overall synopsis
6. Measurement and scaling techniques
7. Data collection methods and techniques
8. Statistical techniques for processing and Analysis of
a r
h
data (PDF) Basic Statistics for Libraries and for Analysis of Research Data
id
r
(researchgate.net) (PDF) Basic Concepts of Statistics for Research and Business

S
(researchgate.net) (PDF) An Overview of Statistical Packages : Spreadsheet, Minitab
and SPSS (researchgate.net)
S
for mediocre theory”
2 M
9. Testing of hypotheses – “Better methods can’t make up

0 2
10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences. (PDF)
2
Interpretation of Data is Tricky and Challenging (researchgate.net) (PDF) Types of

©
Data (researchgate.net) ((PDF) Researchers' Data Dump: Know the Type of Data
before Collection (researchgate.net) PDF) Parametric and Non-parametric Tests
(researchgate.net) “Train PhD students to be thinkers not just
specialists”
11. Writing and communicating the research work

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 3

 Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Follows statistical processing of data & precedes
report writing (all these stages are interdependent)
• Keep in view a r
Ø Objectives and hypothesis
id h
Ø Scope and limitations S r
Ø Methodology (techniques, methods, etc.) S
M
Ø Precision and reliability (significance) desired
2
2
• The complex task / theme is divided into sub
0
2
themes and arranged on a logical order (chapter
scheme) ©
• Explaining summarised data through tables,
charts, diagrams and statistical tests
• Identifying extreme cases and tendencies
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 4
 Purposes of Processing Data
• Drawing inferences with conditions, if any
• Combining qualitative data and other external
a r
data in support to strengthen the inferences
id h
• Comparing with theory and other similar studies
S r
• Realisation of objectives and hypotheses
S
• Summarising the findings
2 M
2
• Discussing implications of the results and
0
findings 2
©
• Suggestions for further research and highlighting
unanswered questions, if any (after the
termination of the research an array of new
questions and problems are expected to arise)
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 5
 a r
id h
S r
I S
2 M
Some Basics of Processing Research Data
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 6

 Research Data
• Plan
• Collect
a r
• Clean
id h
• Analyse
S r
• Interpret
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 7

 Statistical techniques for Processing and Analysis
(Recapitulated from Part 8)

• Choosing the right statistical method depends on

a r
id h
– Type of Data
– Distribution shape of Data S r
S
M
– Size of sample (Small or large)
2
2
– Research questions to be answered
0
2
• Softwares can quickly process and provide
©
answer, if only right question is asked
• Basic knowledge of statistics is essential

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 8

 a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 9

 a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 10

 Parameters and Statistics
Descriptive measures that describe a POPULATION are called
PARAMETERS
Descriptive measures that describe a SAMPLE are called
a r
STATISTICS
id h
Greek letters are typically used to denote PARAMETERS
S r
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Symbols for Statistic S Parameter
M
-----------------------------------------------------------------
2
2
Mean x̅ μ
Variance
Standard deviation 2 0 s2
s
σ2
σ
Proportion ©
Product–moment correlation*
p
r
P
ρ
Rank–order correlation rs ρs
Size of group† n N
-------------------------------------------------------------------
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 11
 Parametric and Nonparametric tests

a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 12

 Parametric Tests are used when:
Normally distributed data
a r
Non-normal distribution but transformable
id h
r
Sample size is large enough to satisfy the Central Limit
S
Theorem
S
M
Require that the data be interval or ratio data
2
2
Nonparametric Tests are used when:
0
2
The above criteria are not met or if the distribution is
unknown
©
These test are used when analyzing nominal or ordinal data
Nonparametric test can also analyze interval or ratio data

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 13

Precision, Reliability, Significance Level and Confidence Interval
Other terms: p-value, α-value, margin of error, etc found in
research papers as well as while sampling and testing of data.
Two concepts very fundamental to all these are:
a r
Precision refers to the range within which the population
id h
r
parameter will lie in accordance with the reliability specified in
S
S
the confidence level (as a % of estimate +/- or as a numerical
quantity). In other words, range within which the answer may
vary and still be acceptable
2 M
0 2
Reliability (or Confidence Level) is expected percentage of
2
times that the actual value will fall within the stated precision
©
limits i.e., the likelihood that the answer will fall within that
range (acceptance region of the normal curve). Significance
Level is the likelihood that the answer will fall outside the
range (accepted region of the curve).
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 14
 Student Predicted Range of The chances (in %)
marks Prediction that the prediction
comes true
a r
h
id 4
1
A
2
75
3
0 S r 50.0
B <90 0 - 89S 99.9
C >70
2 M 71 - 100 95
D 70±5
0 2 65 - 75 98

2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 15

 Type I (α) and Type II (β) Errors

Decision Decision
a r
id h
H0 (Null
Hypothesis)
Accept H0
S rReject H0

S
True

2 M
Correct
decision
Type I error (α)

0 2
False 2 Type II error (β) Correct
© decision

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 16

 p and α
1. Decide the risk level we are willing to take, i.e., ‘how
much we are willing to risk being wrong’ is
represented by α and α = 1-p; p is confidence level
a r
id
and the converse is risk level α. If p is 0.95, i.e., 95% h
of being right, then the α is 5%, i.e., 0.05
S r
S
2. Compute standard deviation of data from Excel using
STDEV function
2 M
2
3. Execute CONFIDENCE formula by adding sample
0
2
size (which should be >30) α and STDEV
©
4. Now the AVERAGE ± CONFIDENCE value will
give the confidence interval
See example in next slide

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 17

 Example: Number of visitors to a library on 34 random
days
43 63 58 54 25 53 22 81 79
40 107 41 151 57 29 56
a
54 r 26

i d h
14
62
43
32
18
77
93
73
64
55
43 135
28 r
S 58
51 139

S
Average =AVERAGE(C2:C35)
2 M 59.52941

0 2
2
St Deviation =STDEV(C2:C35) 33.52451

Alpha © 0.05% 0.01% 0.1

CONFIDENCE(α, St
Confidence Dev, Sample size) 11.26863 14.80949 9.456931

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 18

 Normal distribution
Note: If x follows normal distribution and the area under the
normal curve is taken as 1, then, the probability that x is
within one standard deviation (s) of the mean is 68.27%,
two standard deviation of the mean is 95.45% and three
standard deviation of the mean is 97.73%.
a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 19

 Other basic concepts
Sample size determination
2.3.1 Determining Sample Size for a given Confidence Interval

r
2.3.2 Confidence-Interval Estimates of Population Parameters
2.3.3 Sample size determination from population proportion
h a
Probability and Probability Distributions
r id
2.7.1 Binomial distribution
S
2.7.2 Poisson distribution
S
2.7.3 Normal distribution
2 M
2
2.7.4 Z-score or Standardised Normal Deviation
0
2
Sampling theory, Sampling distribution and Standard error

©
2.8.1 Sampling Theory
2.8.2 Sampling Distribution
2.8.3 Use of z-test, t-test and Sandler’s A-test
2.8.4 Properties of sampling distribution
2.8.5 Sampling distribution of proportions (or percentages):
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10
 a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
Deductive statistics describe a
©
complete set of data whereas
Inductive statistics deal with a
limited amount of data like a
sample

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 21

 Statistic types
• Descriptive statistics ( & causal analysis) is
concerned with development of certain indices
from the raw data and causal analysis. Measures
a r
of central tendency and measures of dispersion are
id h
typical descriptive statistical measures
S r
S
• Inferential (sampling / statistical) Analysis is
M
concerned with process of generalisation through
2
2
estimation of parameter values and testing of
0
2
hypotheses, I.e., used for (a) estimation of parameter
©
values (point and interval estimates) to make known
predictions about the population) (b) testing of
hypothesis (using parametric / standard tests and
non-parametric / distribution-free tests) and (c)
drawing inferences
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 22
 Descriptive Statistics (Techniques)
ü provide macro and micro view of the data
ü help identifying errors and anomalies, if any, in the
data
a r
ü indicate and inform which inferential statistics will
id h
suit the data analysis
S r
Central tendency - Mean, median, mode, GM & HM
S
deviation & range 2 M
Dispersion - variance, standard deviation , mean

0 2
2
Asymmetry (Skewness) & Kurtosis (measure of the "tailedness“)

©
Relationship - Pearson’s product moment correlation,
Spearman’s rank order correlation, Yule's coefficient of
association
Others - One way ANOVA, Time series analysis,
Simple correlation, regression analysis, index numbers
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 23
 Example: 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 11 12 13
A. Central Tendency
1. Mean 9.27 C. Asymmetry
2. Median M 10 1. Skewness
a r
3. Mode Z 11 w.r.t. Mode
id h 1.73
B. Dispersion
1. Range 9 S r
w.r.t. Median 0.73
2. Coefficient of Skewness
2. Mean deviation 2.25 S w.r.t. Mode 0.66
3. Coefficient of MD 0.24
2 M w.r.t. .Median 0.8
4. Standard deviation 2.64
0 2
5. Coefficient of SD 0.28
2
7. Variance
©
6. Coefficient of variatio 28
6.97
8. Lower quartile 7
9. Upper quartile 11
10. Inter quartile range 4
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 24
 Example

a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 25

 Variety of Nomenclatures
• Two broad categories: Quantitative and qualitative
• Descriptive analysis - What happened.
a r
• Exploratory analysis - How to explore data
id h
relationships.
• Diagnostic analysis - Why it happened. S r
• Predictive analysis - What will happen. S
2 M
• Prescriptive analysis - How will it happen.
0 2
Correlation & causal analyses: An analysis of joint variation
2
of two or more variables is correlation analysis. Studying
©
how one or more variables affect another variable is causal
analysis.
Regression analysis deals with explaining functional relation
existing between two or more variables
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 26
 Predictive Analysis
1. Predictions about differences between two or
more groups or
a r
2. Predictions about relationship between two or
id h
more variables.
S r
S
T-Tests: To assess differences between groups in

Skewness
2 M
terms of Means, Standard deviations and

0 2
ANOVA: To assess differences between multiple
2
groups.
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 27

 Plenty of Methods of Analysis (17 essential for
engineering data)
(both qualitative and quantitative)
a r
Cluster analysis
d h
Content analysis
i
Decision trees
S r
Data Mining
Thematic analysis
Cohort analysis
S
Text analysis
Conjoint analysis
M Narrative analysis
2 Time series analysis
2
Regression analysis

2 0
Correspondence Analysis Grounded theory

©
Factor analysis analysis
Multidimensional Scaling Discourse analysis
Neural Networks

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 28

 a r
II
id h
Analysis of Data S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 29

 Analysis of Data
Analysis is not manipulative technique, but
complete acquaintance with the problems of
a r
designing research will make it easier
id h
Assumption: beyond accumulated data there is
something more important and revealing than S r
the facts and figures themselves S
2 M
Aim: to build an intellectual edifice in which
0 2
properly sorted and sifted facts and figures
2
©
are placed in their appropriate settings and
consistent relationships so that the general
inferences can be drawn from them

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 30

 Analysis of Data

A. Analysis and interpretation depend on type of

research and complexity of hypotheses a r
id h
B. Use of secondary data requires a different
secondary analysis S r
S
C. Ideal situations occur infrequently because of
M
appearance of an anomaly in empirical regularity
2
2
or absence of an empirical regularity
0
2
Both situations require analysis not anticipated
©
in the original research design

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 31

 Analysis of Data
Methods to analyse data depend on whether
research is qualitative or quantitative coupled
with personal and methodological a r
preferences and background of the researcher
id h
S
For quantitative data it is necessary to make surer
S
that measurements are stable and consistent
M
and there are no errors and bias
2
2
For qualitative analysis, how participants are
0
2
influenced by taking part in the research
©
process must be included together with an
awareness that how researcher’s own
experience and preferences contributed to
the project
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 32
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
• Qualitative research (sociology origin) emphaises on
interpretative analysis and understanding, while the
quantitative research the emphasis on causal analysis and
a r
predictive understanding (termed ‘positivism’)
id h
S r
• Quantitative studies have been employed inappropriately in
user studies without theoretical framework; Qualitative
S
studies are deployed to confront lack of theory of user
M
studies; Consequently, many findings have no immediate
2
utilization
0 2
2
• Use of qualitative method as a preliminary to quantitative
©
research to uncover the facts of everyday life to understand
the needs
• Both qualitative and quantitative approaches to be
combined to produce holistic view and robust data required
to triangulate and also to validate data
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 33
 Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research
• uses less structured • Generates statistics
instruments like leading to objective
interviews or focus explanation by statistical
a r
groups description and
id h
• uses convenience/ manipulation like
S r
purposive (non random) knowing trends/
S
samples
• Typically one or two
2 M
changes overtime and
comparing trends or
0 2
broad opening questions individual units
2
followed by a series of
©
follow up prompts or
sub-questions to frame
and focus the interview

M S Sridhar Research design, plan and proposal 34

 Deciding qualitative or quantitative research
• Relook at the five ‘Ws’ of problem selection
https://www.slideshare.net/mssridhar/research-methodology-part-2-selection-

r
and-formulation-of-research-problem
• Clues will start emerging about best form of inquiry
h a
• Look at the words you have used
r id
Ø ‘how many’, ‘test’, ‘verify’, ‘how often’ or ‘how
S
satisfied’, etc. suggest quantitative
S
2 M
Ø ‘discover’, ‘motivation’, ‘experiences’, ‘think/
thoughts’, ‘problems’, or ‘behave/ behaviour’, etc.
suggest qualitative
0 2
2
Ø If a combination of these words is written, combine
©
both qualitative and quantitative research, which is
called triangulation and it will enable counteracting
the weaknesses in both qualitative and quantitative
research
M S Sridhar Research design, plan and proposal 35
 Which Qualitative method?
• a meta-ethnographic style for social understanding
• a historical style for chronological understanding
• a conceptual style for epistemological understanding a r
id h
• The qualitative research process may be preceded
S
either by content analysis, discourse analysis or r
S
philosophical analysis, to identify and clarify the
questions to be addressed
2 M
2
• Communication components for content and
0
2
discourse analysis:
1. Message
©
2. Sender (participants)
3. Audience (interviews)

M S Sridhar Research design, plan and proposal 36

 Qualitative Data Analysis
Ø As a preparation for qualitative analysis of data,
it is necessary to produce what are called
a r
‘summary sheet / form’ for interviews, focus
id h
group discussions and other data recordings.
Ø The summary sheet should invariably contain S r
S
details like time, place, duration, participants, etc
2 M
in addition to contents and emerging themes.
0 2
Ø In addition, answers to open-ended questions,
2
field notes, memos written (as and when date is
©
collected) by self, etc have to be produced in a
format that can be easily analysed.

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 37

 Qualitative vs Quantitative
It is not fair to criticize qualitative approach as
‘unscientific’ or ‘unreliable’. Qualitative approach
a r
is necessary in some areas. On the other hand
id h
quantitative studies also have their own
limitations. S r
Limitations of quantitative studies: S
2 M
1. Qualitative touch/ value judgment based on
0 2
rich experience is necessary
2
©
2. Excessive / abuse and misuse of statistics
as a tool is possible (like hammer in the hand);
Excessive or over application and stretched
implications are dangerous
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 38
 Qualitative vs Quantitative
3. Cause and affect relationship is difficult to
establish:
a r
Obtrusive study (impact of Citation databases
id h
on citation behaviour of scientists – steep
S
increase in self-citations and mutual citations)
r
S
4. Utility of the findings are abnormally smaller
than results
2 M
0 2
5. Unfocused and vague findings due to domain
2
of universal set. In other words, lack of studies
©
on compact smaller subsets
Ideal is to explore the possibility of
complementary approaches in the same
project
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 39
 Statistics as double edged tool can be abused and
misused

a r
• Abuse: poor data coupled with sophisticated h
ir d results
statistical techniques to obtain unreliable
S with poor/
S
• Misuse: honest, hard facts are combined
M
inappropriate statistical techniques to create false
2
2
impressions and conclusions
0
2
© statistical techniques will
“data coerced with
surrender”

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 40

 Extracts from live examples illustrate importance
• America employs 70% of the world’s Nobel prize winners
• In 1900, 80% of the world’s Christians lived in Europe and the
United States; today 60% live in developed world
a r
id h
• One billion people in the developed countries contribute over half
r
of carbon dioxide emission where as the other half is by five
S
billion people in the rest of the world
S
2 M
• In 1970, America granted over half of the worlds Ph Ds in
science and engineering, but by 2010, the share will be just 15%

0 2
• Nokia 6680 mobile require 13 clicks to change ring tone
2
• Average owner of mobile hand set spends 471 minutes per month
©
and sends 39 text messages per month
• By the time a child becomes 18 years , it would have heard ‘NO’
about 1.5 lakh times (85 - 95%) and most of the rest are ‘neutral’
with a few hundred times ‘YES’
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 41
 Quantitative Data Anlaysis
Before undertaking analysis checking for no variations
in the way questionnaire is administered, no missing
a r
or ambiguous information and missing answers to
id h
code as ‘no answer’ (unwilling to answer +
accidentally missed) is necessary. Using user- S r
S
friendly computing software can reduce long and
M
laborious data input process, but any incorrect data
2
2
entry can cause serious errors in the result. If
0
2
screening of questionnaire is pre-planned, input
©
errors can be considerably reduced. Producing
table, charts and graphs is as easy as press a
button. However, a basic understanding of statistical
techniques and the software is a must.

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 42

 Processing and Analysis of Qualitative Data
Qualitative coding involves classifying data which are (i)
not originally created for research purpose and (ii)
having very little order.
a r
STEPS:
id h
S r
1. Initial formalisation with issues arising (build themes
& issues)
S
M
2. Systematically describing the contents (compiling a
2
list of key themes)
0 2
2
3. Indexing the data (note reflections for patterns, links,

©
etc.) in descriptions; interpreting in relation to objective;
checking the interpretation
4. Charting the data themes
5. Refining the charted material
6. Describing & discussing the emerging story
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 43
 Qualitative data analysis
• is a very personal process and two researchers
might analyse the same transcript in two different
processes
a r
• Much of this analysis is intuitive and reflective,
id h
but, it may also involve some form of counting,
S r
S
such as counting instances of turn taking and

which people speak of others. 2 M

their influence on the conversation and the way in

0 2
• carried out throughout data collection, I.e., might
2
©
start as the research progresses with continuous
reforming and reorganizing in the light of
emerging results
• On the other hand, analysis of quantitative data
has to wait till the data collection is complete
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 44
 Qualitative data analysis

Speech is seen as a performance, i.e, how it performs

an action rather than describes a specific state of affair a r
or specific state of mind
id h
Thus Qualitative analysis of data involves
S r
– Thinking about the data S
M
– Judging its value to the project
2
2
– Interpreting data to gain understanding of what is
0
going on
2
©
However the quantifiable part of the data can be
processed mechanically

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 45

 Conversion of Qualitative data into Quantitative

a r
id h
S r
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 46

 Using Computer for Qualitative Data Analysis
Generally, mechanical processing with computers may
stop researcher from becoming familiar with data, but
it enables locating words or phrases, making lists of
a r
words, alphabetizing, inserting keywords or
id h
comments, counting occurrences of words or
phrases, attaching numeric codes, etc.,
S r
Some
S
softwares may help in retrieving and analyzing texts

2 M
to build theory. Yet mechanical process cannot think
about, judge or interpret qualitative data.
0 2
Clear advantages of using computers in qualitative
2
analysis are in saving time, alleviating monotonous
©
talk, coping with moth multiple codes and over-
lapping codes, searching with multiple codes and
complex searches, locating items of predetermined
category, etc.

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 47

 Qualitative Data Analysis
Ø Types of qualitative data analysis can be thought of a
continuum with highly qualitative and reflexive
type of analysis as an on-going process at one end
a r
and qualitative data treated in a quantitative way,
id h
by counting and coding data
Ø Thematic and comparative analysis are examples forS r
highly qualitative data analysis S
M
Ø On the other hand, content analysis involves
2
2
mechanical processes like coding and counting can
0
2
be done only after completion of data collection and
©
hence it is more close to quantitative analysis in the
spectrum of qualitative data analysis
Ø Discourse analysis or conversational analysis falls
somewhere on the middle of the continuum of
qualitative analysis
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 48
 Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Thematic analysis involves analyzing data by theme.
It is highly inductive that the themes emerge from
the data and are not imposed upon it by the
a r
researcher. In this type, data collection and analysis
id h
take place simultaneously. Even background
S r
reading can form part of the analysis process. It is
S
also possible that the data collection tools like

2 M
interview schedule may get refined / modified in the
2
process of data collection.
0
2
2. Comparative analysis is closely related to thematic
©
analysis and both of them can be used in the same
project. In this type of analysis, data from different
people is compared and contrasted. The process
continues until the researcher is satisfied that no
new issues are arising.
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 49
 Qualitative Data Analysis
3. Content analysis is based on coding the qualitative
data and counting after all the data is collected. Each
transcript of qualitative data is systematically assigned
a r
alphabetic, numeric or alpha-numeric codes to specific
id h
S
predetermined categories can be listed or let the
r
characteristics within the text. For this purpose either

S
categories emerge from the data.This is a typical
M
analysis for answers to open-ended questions of large
2
surveys.
0 2
2
4. Discourse analysis or conversational analysis falls
©
somewhere on the middle of the continuum of
qualitative analysis. Here transcripts are examined for
patterns of speech to discuss how people talk about
particular subject, what metaphors are used, how they
take turns in conversation, and so on.
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 50
 5. Case Study
• Intensive, detailed/ comprehensive / complete /
exhaustive in-depth / intimate study of one or more
social units, incidents, individuals, institutions, etc
a r
covering all facets (limited units for intensive/very
id h
narrow focused study) emphasising detailed
S r
contextual analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions and their relationships S
M
• The study is extended over a period of time
2
2
(continuous) to ascertain the natural history of the
0
case/s
2
©
• Try to understand a complex issue or object and
extend experience or add strength to what is already
known; understand the complexity of factors and their
interrelationship for knowing causal factors

M S Sridhar Research design, plan and proposal 51

 Case Study
• It is complex because they generally involve
multiple sources of data, may include multiple
a r
cases within a study, and produce large amounts
id h
of data for analysis
• As qualitative research, deepens our perception S r
and gives clear insight S
2 M
• wide use of this qualitative research method as an
0 2
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
2
phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
©
boundaries between phenomenon and context
are not clearly evident; and in which multiple
sources of evidence are used

M S Sridhar Research design, plan and proposal 52

 Processing and Analysis of Quantitative Data
PROCESSING = Aggregation + compression
Computation of certain indices or measures,
searching for patterns of relationships, estimating
a r
values of unknown parameters, and testing of
id h
hypothesis for inferences
S r
S
Editing to clean: Field editing and Central editing

2 M
Coding to organise: Assigning to a limited number
of mutually exclusive but exhaustive categories or
classes 0 2
2
©
Classification: arranging data in groups or classed
on the basis of common characteristics
(i) By attributes ( statistics of attributes)
(ii) By class intervals (statistics of variables)
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 53
 Processing and Analysis of Quantitative Data
Data reduction:
Reduce large batches & data sets
(a) to numerical summaries, tabular & graphical a r
form
id h
(b) to enable to ask questions about observed
S r
patterns S
M
Data presentation – textual, tabular & graphical
2
Exploratory data analysis
0 2
2
Looking for relationships & trends
©
For large data (like survey) use of statistical
software is desired for easy and efficient
processing of data
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 54
 Diagrammatic/ Graphical Presentation
Ø quickest understanding of the actual situation to
be explained by data compared to textual or tabular
presentation
Ø translates quite effectively the highly abstract
ideas contained in numbers into more concrete and
easily comprehensive from
Ø may be less accurate but more effective than table
Ø tables and diagrams may be suitable to illustrate
discrete data while continuous data is better
represented by graphs
Note: Sample charts are constructed and presented
using data from previously presented tables.
Different types of data may require different modes
of diagrammatic representation
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 55
 Diagrammatic/ Graphical Presentation
Three important kinds of diagrams:
i) Geometric diagram
(a) Bar (column) chart: simple, multiple, and
component
(b) Pie
ii) Frequency diagram
(a) Histogram
(b) Frequency polygon
(c) Frequency curve
(d) Ogive or cumulative frequency curve
iii) Arithmetic line graph

Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 56

 Analysis of Data
1. Descriptive analysis [Uni-dimension analysis]
Largely the study of distributions of one variable
a r
(i) Central tendency - mean, median, mode, Geometric
id h
Mean (GM) & Harmonic Mean (HM)
S r
S
(ii) Dispersion - variance, standard deviation, mean
deviation & range
2 M
(iii) Asymmetry (Skeweness) & Kurtosis (peakedness)
0 2
2. Inferential analysis:2
©
A. Relationships association and correlation
B. Others

Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 57

 Example: 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 11 12 13
A. Central Tendency
1. Mean 9.27 C. Asymmetry
2. Median M 10 1. Skewness
a r
3. Mode Z 11 w.r.t. Mode
id h 1.73
B. Dispersion
1. Range 9 S r
w.r.t. Median 0.73
2. Coefficient of Skewness
2. Mean deviation 2.25 S w.r.t. Mode 0.66
3. Coefficient of MD 0.24
2 M w.r.t. .Median 0.8
4. Standard deviation 2.64
0 2
5. Coefficient of SD 0.28
2
7. Variance
©
6. Coefficient of variatio 28
6.97
8. Lower quartile 7
9. Upper quartile 11
10. Inter quartile range 4
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 58
 Analysis of Data
2. Inferential analysis:
Ø Joint variation of two or more variables is
a r
correlation analysis
id h
Ø How one or more variables affect another variable
is causal analysis S r
S
Ø Functional relation existing between two or more
variables is regression analysis
2 M
0 2
Ø Simultaneously analysing more than two variables
2
is Multivariate analysis
©
Ø Predicting dependent variable based on its
covariance with all concerned independent
variables is Multiple regression analysis

Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 59

 Relationships
• Correlation is to assess the relationship between
variables whereas Regression is to assess the
a r
causal relationship between variables
id h
• Visual inspection of correlational table and
scatter diagram indicates existence and direction S r
of relation S
2 M
• Correlation coefficient shows the magnitude as
0 2
well as direction of relationship
2
• Regression analysis shows the cause-and-effect
©
relationship, ie., independent variable (X) is the
cause and dependent variable (Y) is the effect
• Establishing the cause and effect relationship is the
most difficult task in the analysis of data
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 60
 Relationships: Bivariate & Multivariate Measures
A. Relationship
ØTo find relation of 2 or more variables
ØIf related, directly or inversely & degree of
relation
ØIs it cause and effect relationship ?
ØIf so, degree and direction
1. Association (Attributes/ qualitative data)
(I) Cross tabulation
(ii) Yule’s co-efficient of association
(iii) Chi- square test
(iv) Co-efficient of mean square contingency
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 61
 Relationships: Bivariate & Multivariate Measures

A. Relationship
2. Correlation (Quantitative data)
(I) Spearman’s (Rank) coefficient of correlation
(ordinal)
(ii) Pearson’s coefficient of correlation
(iii) Cross tabulation and scatter diagram
3. Cause and Effect (Quantitative data)
(I) Simple (linear) regression
(ii) Multiple (complex correlation & regression
(iii) Partial correlation

Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 62

 Relationships: Bivariate & Multivariate Measures
B. Other Measures / Techniques
1. Index number
2. Time series analysis
3. One way Analysis of Variation (ANOVA or F-Test)
4. ANOCOVA
5. Discriminant analysis
6. Factor analysis
7. Cluster analysis
8. Model building

Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 63

 Common Measures of Relationship
Measure Nature of Variables Comment
1. Pearson product Two continuous variables; interval or Relationship linear
moment ratio scale
2. Rank order or Two continuous variables; ordinal
Relationship nonlinear
Kendall’s tau scale
3. Correlation ratio, One variable continuous, other Purpose: to determine within-
(eta) either continuous or discrete group similarity
4. Intraclass One variable continuous, other Index of item discrimination
discrete; interval or ratio scale (used in item analysis)
5. Biserial, One variable continuous, other
Point biserial a) Continuous but dichotomised, or b)
true dichotomy
6. Phi coefficient Two true dichotomises; nominal or
ordinal series
7. Partial Correlation Purpose: to determine
Three or more continuous variables
relationship between two
variables, with effect of the held
constant
8. Multiple Three or more continuous variables Purpose: to predict one variable
correlation from a linear weighted
combination of two or more
Three or more continuous variables.;
independent variables
ordinal series
Purpose; to determine the
9.Kendall’s
degree of (say, interrater)
coefficient of
concordance agreement

Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 64

 Regression Analysis (Simple / Liner)
Ø Describes in quantitative terms the underlying
(cause & effect) relationship or correlation between
two sets of data (two variables)
a r
Ø Helps predicting value of dependent variable for
id h
a given / known value of independent variable
S r
regression equation of Y on X (simple / liner)
S
Y = a + bX
2 M
2
Y = Estimated value of Y for a give value of X
0
2
(where a and b are constants)
©
a = Parameter which tells at what value the
straight line cuts the Y axis
b = Slope or grdient of the regression line, i.e., unit
change in X produces a change of b in Y
Research Methodology 8 M S Sridhar, ISRO 65
 Hypothesis testing:
1. State the practical problem
Statement and comparison being tested in simple
words
1. Write the problem statistically
Null and alternate hypothesis, level of
confidence and power, degree of freedom
1. Find the statistical solution
Which test? Final numerical statistics, calculate
test statistic and/or p-value, compare test statistic
to tabulated value and/or p-value to Alpha risk
1. State the practical solution
Interpret the numerical result into meaningful
statement
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 66
 Example from an
Engineering Thesis:
Null Hypothesis
There is no significant
difference between the Hunt’s
and ID3 algorithm methods.
Alternative Hypothesis
There is a significant
difference between the Hunt’s
and ID3algorithm.
Level of Significance
The level may be fixed at 5%
Level of Significance.
Test Statistics
T-test can be carried out for
testing between Hunt’s and
ID3 algorithm.
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 67
 The test results show a T-statistics of -1.226 with 5
degree of freedom.
The two tailed p- value is greater than conventional 5%
of significance.
Therefore ,the null hypothesis is accepted. The alternate
hypothesis is rejected, which means that there is no
significant difference between Hunt’s and ID3 algorithm

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 68

 Analysis: final tips and cautions
Ø Facts and figures:
§ themselves do not make scientific sense
a r
§ are never simple
id h
§ are not free from context and are not equal
S r
S
§ involve subjective and objective elements in
M
varying degrees and combinations
2
2
§ Hence, a thorough, penetrating and
0
2
insightful knowledge of one’s data is
©
necessary for analysis
Ø Accuracy of arithmetic without ‘accuracy of
knowledge’ can lead to delusions of accuracy
Ø Analysis is painstaking but fascinating and soul
satisfying if done systematically and scientifically
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 69
 Analysis: final tips and cautions

Science requires that the data that is analysed and

Interpreted:
a r
(i) be reproducible
id h
S
(ii) be readily disposed to quantitative treatmentr
S
(iii) have significance for some systematic theory
and
2 M
2
(iv) serve as a basis for broader
0
2
generalisations beyond and immediate
©
context of the facts under study

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 70

 Steps in the analysis
1. Scrutiny
i. Critical examination of assembled material and data
ii. Allow your imagination to roam over all key elements
a r
of the study and data to see ramifications, contrasts
id h
and similarities
S r
iii. ask as many questions (even foolish questions) as
S
possible about the study and data to stir imagination
M
and induce new ways of looking at the problem and
2
data
0 2
2
iv. Read & reread, examine and reexamine data for
©
A. Getting a feel of the intrinsic complexity
B. Perceiving essential relationships, similarities
and differences
C. Checking & verifying the internal consistency and
completeness
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 71
 Steps in the analysis
D. Weighing the relative importance /significance
asessing the validity of categories, codes and
classes
a r
v. Ask specific questions about completeness,
objectivity, representativeness (of sample),
id h
S r
credibility, need for combining data from different
sources, contexts, etc.
S
2 M
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 72

 Steps in the analysis
2. Outline
• a blue print of the study
a r
• A classification of the major aspects of the
id h
assembled data & facts
S
• Aids visualising the whole study as well as the
r
relatedness of its various parts S
Steps:
2 M
0 2
– Preliminary Outline on loose sheets
2
©
– Logically sequence various subjects in the outline
– Consult an expert for frank and honest views
– Re-examine extraneous or unplanned findings
cropped up during the study for inclusion

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 73

 Steps in the analysis
3. Content analysis
• Systematic, objective and quantitative description of
the content of research data acquired through
a r
interviews, questionnaires, schedules, and other
id h
linguistic expression (written or oral)
S
• Familiarity with concepts and theory greatly aids
r
categorising research data S
M
• Considerable sorting & resorting and trial & error
2
2
arrangements of the data can lead to adoption of a
0
2
classification system. A category set is derived from
©
a single classification principle (criterion). Categories
should be exhaustive, mutually exclusive and clearly
defined (see Tabulation)
• In the process complexities and relationships not
previously noted seem to emerge
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 74
 Steps in the analysis
• Forms of content analysis
(i) Interaction process analysis
(ii) Value analysis (content according to various a r
values referred to in the behaviour units)
id h
(iii)Need sequence analysis (scores the changes S r
S
which occur in the data when the subject are

2 M
under the influence of induced need-states)
0 2
(iv) Symbolic analysis (‘latent meaning’ behind ‘
manifest’ content)2
©
• Irrespective of the form of analysis to which
qualitative data are subjected, an explicit
breakdown is required of sum totality into the
smallest possible units
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 75
 Steps in the analysis..

4. Analysis of cause-effect relationship

Establishing the cause and effect relationship is a r
the most difficult task in the analysis of data
id h
Association between attributes S r
Relationship between variables S
2 M
Direction (positive or negative)
0 2
Magnitude
2
©
Linear / Nonlinear
Cause and effect

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 76

 Steps in the analysis
5. Theoretical formulations and generalisations
Carefully refine the categories on which concrete
a r
facts are grouped.
id h
Give reasonable explanations of the relations
found. S r
Then, carefully theorise to help S
2 M
(i) understanding general factors which seem to
0 2
explain what has been studied and
2
(ii) to provide a theoretical conception which can
©
serve in turn as a guide for further research

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 77

 a r
id h
S r
III S
M
Interpretation and Drawing Inferences
2
0 2
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 78

 Interpretation of Data is Tricky and Challenging
1. The number of jail inmates (per lakh of population) in US,
China and India respectively are 730, 170 and 30
2. The number of pedestrians killed in road accidents by four
a r
wheelers and the number of cars per thousand population
id h
(about two decades ago) in a major city in USA, Germany
and India are: S r
USA S Germany India
Pedestrians killed

2 M5 40 75
Number of cars per 1000
population
0 2 950 500 100

2
3. Suppose the finding of a study is that 25% of traffic
©
accidents occur due to drinking alcohol and driving. This
means the remaining 75% are caused by those who drink
tea, coffee, cool drinks, etc. The conclusion could be that
those who do not drink alcohol cause three times as many
accidents as that of those who drink alcohol?
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 79
 Interpretation
• To expound the meaning, to draw inference by
ØValidation of hypotheses
ØRealisation of objectives with respect to
a r
ü Relationship between variables and process
id h
underlying the findings
S r
ü Discovering a fact
S
•
M
ü Establishing a general or universal law
To search for broader2meaning of research
findings: 0 2
Øby establishing2continuity of research
Øby linking©results of others and establishing some
explanatory concepts using relationships within the
data as well as results of other research, theory and
hypothesis
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 80
 Interpretation
• To Understand and explain what has been
observed in the study
a r
• To Provide theoretical conceptions to serve as
id h
a guide for further research
S r
S
• To open avenues of intellectual adventure
M
• To stimulate the quest for knowledge
2
2
• As ‘Post-factum’ interpretation translates findings
0
2
of exploratory research into experimental
research
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 81

 Need for Interpretation
1. For better appreciation of findings and make
others to understand the real significance of
findings
a r
2. To understand the abstract principles that
id h
work beneath findings
S r
S
3. To link findings and results with that of others
M
4. Arriving at generalisation after repeated testing
2
of hypothesis
0 2
2
5. To take decisions based on implications of
results ©
6. To predict concrete world of events
7. To maintain continuity in research i.e. is to
help further studies
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 82
 Tips and Precautions for Interpretation of Data
Ø Interpretation is an art and requires great skill and
dexterity acquired through patience and experience
Ø Seek guidance from experts, if required; Consult
a r
someone having insight into the study
Ø Make optimum use of data and techniques
id h
Ø No over or under or misinterpretation
S r
Ø No out of context interpretation S
M
Ø Look for generalization but no false or even broad
2
generalization
0 2
2
Ø No hurry, have patience; Wrong interpretation would

©
lead to inaccurate conclusions
Ø Be impartial, have correct perspective
Ø Look for relevance in extraneous information / data
Ø Make correct use of statistical measures
Ø Interpretation and analysis are highly interdependent
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 83
 Hints and Examples for Interpretation
1. Representativeness of the data
– Comparison of distribution of characteristics
a r
among population, sample and response
id h
population (see example in the next slide)
S r
S
2. Take note of nature of questions and types of
responses
2 M
2
– Dichotomous question with either or type
0
answers
2
©
– Multiple-choice questions which require only
one answer
– Multiple responses to multiple choice questions
– Open-end questions
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 84
 Frequency Distribution of Age
(Comparison of characteristics distribution among
population, sample and response sample)
Population
r
Response Population
a
Age in

id h
r
years No. % No. %

S
Upto 24
25-29
95
268
11.6
32.6 S 69
173
13.2
33.0
30-34 255
2
31.0M 165 31.5
35-39 151

0 2 18.4 85 16.2

2
40-44 39 4.7 27 5.1
45-49 6 0.7 1 0.2
50- & above 8 © 1.0 4 0.8

Total 822 100.0 524 100.0

Note: Excludes 15 not known cases under population and 11 not answered
cases under response population

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 85

 Hints and Examples for Interpretation
3. Handling and interpreting unanswered
–Not answered a r
id h
–Can’t answer
–Don’t know S r
S
–Don’t want to answer
2 M
2
– Distributing proportionately among other
0
categories
2
©
– Keeping as a separate category
– Estimating answers from other data
contained in questionnaire

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 86

 Hints and Examples for Interpretation
4. Representing the data (Interpretation of
Percentages)
a r
h
• Percentages (ratios & proportions) should be
id
any S r
computed in the direction of causal factor, if

S
2 M
• Percentage should run only in the direction in
which a sample is representative
0 2
2
• Do not average percentages ( without weighing
©
by the size of samples)
• Do not use very large percentages (e.g. 1200%
increase)
• Do not use too small a base (e.g. 33 1/3% for 1
inISRO
M S Sridhar, 3) Research Methodology 10 87
 Interpretation of correlation coefficients (r, rs)

a r
id h
< 0.2
0.2 - 0.4
Slight and almost negligible
Low or definite but small S r
0.4 - 0.7 Moderate or substantialS
0.7 - 0.9 2 M
High and marked
> 0.9 0 2
Very high / dependable
2
©

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 88

 Interpretation of Mean and standard deviation in
frequency table
Note: If x follows normal distribution and the
area under the normal curve is taken as 1, then,
a r
the probability that x is within one standard
id h
deviation (s) of the mean is 68.27%, two
standard deviation of the mean is 95.45% and S r
S
three standard deviation of the mean is 97.73%.
2
Example: µ=4.5 and s =0.5 means M
0 2
68.27% of observations fall between values
2
(µ+1s) 5 and 4.0 (µ-1s)
©
95.45% of observations, fall between values
5.5 (µ+2 s) and 3.5 (µ-2s)
99.73% of observations fall between values 6
(µ+3 s) and 3 (µ-3 s)
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 89
 Hints for Interpretation

• Chi-square test
a r
No (expected) frequency cell should have value
id h
less than 5 (use Yates correction formula)
• Hypothesis testing S r
S
2 M
Accepting null hypothesis on the basis of sample
information does not mean or constitute the
0 2
proof that Hypothesis is true. It only means
2
©
that there is no statistical evidence to reject it

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 90

 Hints for Interpretation
5. Logically ordering the data so that questions can
be raised and answered
a r
Cross tabulation of 2 or more attributes or
id h
variables is merely a formal and economical
method of arranging the data so that the logical S r
method of proof may be applied S
2 M
Cross tabulation is an approximation of the
0 2
controlled experiment, i.e., just thinking in terms of
cause and effect 2
©
Cross tabulation may lead to spurious
explanation. Examples: Family size v/s income
(valid). No. of automobiles owned v/s brand of
toothpaste preferred (spurious)
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 91
 Hints and Examples for Interpretation
6. Elaboration
ü Is a process which is limited only by the analyst
a r
(his ability, patience and purposes) and by the
nature of data.
id h
ü Check need for elaboration and what test S r
variable to apply S
M
ü Range of cross tabulations suggest test variables.
2
2
Every test variable selected constitute a
0
2
hypothesis identification and selection of test
©
variables depend on ingenuity of analyst and
his knowledge in the field
ü The study of deviant cases will also indicate the
kind of interpretations, exploration, or specification
which will improve the analysis
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 92
 Hints and Examples for Interpretation
6. Elaboration
ü Application of test variables / factors with three
a r
types of elaborations
id h
(ii) Explanation ( with antecedent variable) S r
(i) Interpretation (with test / intervening variable)

S
(iii) Specification (by specifying varying conditions)
2 M
(see next three slides for illustrations and examples)
0 2
2
Narrative (qualitative analysis) is a spoken or
©
written account of connected events, a story, can be
combined with data to present a powerful case about
a problem that exists, and potentially even a solution
to that problem
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 93
 Elaborations - Application of test factors
1. Interpretation: Introduction of a test or intervening
variable in the stratification process of cross tabulation
a r
subsequent in time to the independent variable. But
id
prior to the dependent variable for further interpretationh
S r
of an original relationship in terms of a third factor

S
Independent
variable
Test /

2 M
Intervening variable
Dependent
variable

0 2
Example: 2
©
Private Vs Public schooling and performance in
professional course
Test / intervening variable: Admission policy to private
PU colleges can be intervening variable
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 94
 Elaborations - Application of test Factors
2. Explanation:The observed relationship is explained in
terms of a third (test) factor called antecedent
variable which occurred earlier than the independent
a r
variable and it is related to both dependent and
id h
independent variables
S r
Antecedent
S
2 M
0 2
2
©IND DEP
Example: Negative correlation between economic status
& birth rate and ‘Education level’ as a third antecedent
variable explains the spurious correlation

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 95

 Elaborations - Application of test Factors
3. Specification: The process of describing the
conditions under which a particular relationship may
exist or not exist or may exist to a lesser or greater
a r
degree. I.o.w, the causal sequence is modified by
id h
S
specifying varying conditions under which the r
S
original correlation will exist in lesser or greater
degree
2 M
Example:
0 2
2
(i) Relationship between educational level and rank
©
in the army changed when the length of service was
introduced, i.e. relationship is greater for those who
entered army early than those who entered it later.
(ii) Per capita automobiles and number of pedestrians
killed
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 96
 To Recapitulate
• Representing data
1. Percentages, ratios & proportions
2. Mean & standard deviation
3. Correlation coefficients
4. Chi-square test
5. Hypothesis testing
• Logically ordering data
– Cross tabulations
– valid vs. spurious explanations
• Elaborations
– Interpretation - Test / intervening variable
– Explanation - Antecedent variable
– Specification - Specifying varying conditions
• Inferences
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 97
 Examples of Tables, Diagrams/ Charts to follow
Table 2.9: Frequency distribution of borrowed use of books of a library over four
years
No. Times borrowed No. of Books Percentage Cumulative
(Quantitative) (Quantitative) percentage

0 19887 57.12 57.12

1 4477 12.56 69.68
2 4047 11.93 81.61
3 1328 3.81 85.42
4 897 2.57 87.99
5 726 2.02 90.1
6 557 1.58 91.68
7 447 1.28 92.96
8 348 1.00 93.96
9 286 0.92 94.78
10 290 0.84 95.62
>10 1524 4.38 100
Total 34814
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 98
 References
1. Anderson, Jonathan, et. al. Thesis and assignment writing. New Delhi: Wiley, 1970.
2. Best, Joel. Damned lies and statistics. California: University of California Press,
2001.
3. Best, Joel. More damned lies and statistics; how numbers confuse public
issues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004
4. Body, Harper W Jr. et.al. Marketing research: text and cases. Delhi: All India
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Routledge, 1980.
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numbers. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press, 2004.
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(Schaum’s outline series).New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
18. Spiegel, Murray R and Stephens, Larry J. Statistics. 4 ed. (Schaum’s outlines series).
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information scientists.London: Library Association, 1990.
20. Slater, Margaret ed. Research method in library and information studies. London:
Library Association, 1990.
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 Presentations on Research Methodologies
Sridhar, M S. Importance, and Issues of Literature Review in Research. Revised from
Literature Review: Purposes, Processes and Issues”. A presentation made
on November 30, 2013 at workshop on 'Tackle a literature review' under the
series 'Publish or Perish‘ organised by Mysore University Library and Mysore
Librarians and Information Scientists Association (MyLISA).
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15347.14885
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346107565_Importance_and_Issues_of_Lite
rature_Review_in_Research
Sridhar, M S. LIS Education and Research in India: Some issues from the
practitioners’ perspective”. T B Rajashekar Memorial (11th) Lecture delivered
on 17 June 2016, NCSI-Net Foundation and J R D Tata Memorial Library,
IISc, Bangaluru. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18933.19688
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346486752_LIS_Education_and_Research_
in_India_Some_issues_from_the_practitioners'_perspective
Sridhar, M S. Research Methodology Part 1: Introduction to Research & Research
Methodology.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39168208_Research_Methodo
logy_Part_1_Introduction_to_Research_Research_Methodology

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 101

 Presentations on Research Methodologies
Sridhar, M S. Research Methodology: Part 2 - Selection and Formulation of Research
Problem.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15540.76161https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322488
351_Research_Methodology_Part_2_-
_Selection_and_Formulation_of_Research_Problem
Sridhar, M S. Research Methodology Part 3: Research Design, Plan and
Proposal.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361580091_Research_Methodolog
y_Part_3_Research_Design_Plan_and_Proposal
Sridhar, M S. Research Methodology Part 4: Experimental and Observational
Studies.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361583817_Research_Methodology
_Part_4_Experimental_and_Observational_Studies
Sridhar, M S. Research Methodology Part 5: Sampling and Sampling Strategy.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13514.85441
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361600778_Research_Methodology_Part_5
_Sampling_and_Sampling_Strategy
Sridhar, M S. Literature Review: Tips, Techniques and Art of Searching. National
Library Week, U R Rao Satellite Centre, Bengaluru, 23rd November 2022. (PDF)
M SLiterature Review: Tips, Techniques
Sridhar, ISRO andMethodology
Research Art of Searching
10 (researchgate.net) 102
 Publications on Statistics for Research
Sridhar, M S. Basic Statistics for Libraries and for Analysis of Research Data. January 2006.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39168094_Basic_Statistics_for_Libraries_and_for
_Analysis_of_Research_Data?_sg%5B0%5D=-L5f6SPpsOKiPUcgCPT0K_YP_l2Nzz-
e7R1wdp9J2Yg8y73a75PKRoIpwXxbuWUvrgUFN_Bg6V66ZjwfFm1n9npoV8jIGwiURe
wrzNe0.a8lQMrwQZ5dvTGwIpyQCgZNHdIQj_XU51qcEia0QUIPAjG3GB8W3p7xJD56o
pcVjMRoDN4KRya7TBK2qWS4SEA
Sridhar, M S. Basic Concepts of Statistics for Research and Business. June 2020.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24374.32326
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39168094_Basic_Statistics_for_Libraries_and_for
_Analysis_of_Research_Data
Open University study materials on Statistics for Research
“Statistical analysis of data”. SIM for MLISc course of KSOU.
“Statistical tools and techniques”. SIM for M. Phil Course (Course -1: Research
Methodology, Block 3: LIS research: tools and techniques, Unit 10) of IGNOU,
2010.
“Stastical Packages: An Overview (Spreadsheets, Minitab and SPSS)”. SIM for M.
Phil Course (Course -1: Research Methodology, Block 3: LIS research: tools and
techniques, Unit 12) of IGNOU, 2010.
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 103
 Briefs and Editorials on Research Methodologies
Sridhar, M S. Researchers' Data Dump: Know the Type of Data before Collection,
Researchers' Corner in J-Gate Newsletter, 3(9) September 2011.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630414_Researchers'_Data_Dump_Know_th
e_Type_of_Data_before_Collection
Sridhar, M. S. Selection and Formulation of Research Problem. Researchers'
Corner in J-Gate Newsletter, 3(9) September 2011.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630457_Selection_and_Formulation_of_Res
earch_Problem
Sridhar, M. S. Confidence Level and Confidence Interval. Researchers' Corner in
J-Gate Newsletter, 3(10) October 2011.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630198_Confidence_Level_and_Confidence
_Interval
Sridhar, M S. “What ails LIS research? (Guest Editorial)”, SRELS Journal of
Information Management, 47 (4) August 2010, 359-361.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221932038_Guest_Editorial_What_Ails_
Lis_Research
Sridhar, M S. “Role of statistical skills in communication (Guest Editorial)”, SRELS
Journal of Information Management, April 2011, v. 48 (2), 109-111.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221932035_Role_of_statistical_skills_in
_communication
M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 104
 Briefs and Editorials on Research Methodologies
Sridhar, M S. “Selection and formulation of a research problem“ Deccan Herald,
65 (330) 29 November 2012, DH Education, p 2.
Sridhar, M. S. Confounding Relations in Experimental Research. Researchers'
Corner in J-gate newsletter 4(5) May 2012.
Sridhar, M. S. Processing and Analysis of qualitative data. Researchers' Corner in
J-gate newsletter 4(9) September 2012.
Sridhar, M. S. Problems and Issues in Eliciting Data from People. Researchers'
Corner in J-Gate Newsletter, 3(12) December 2011.
Sridhar, M. S. Determining Sample Size for a given Confidence Interval.
Researchers' Corner in J-Gate Newsletter, 4(1) January 2012.
Sridhar, M. S. Parametric and Non-parametric Tests. Researchers' Corner in J-
Gate Newsletter, 3(11) November 2011.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630263_Parametric_and_Non-
parametric_Tests
Sridhar, M. S. Presentation of Statistical Data – Textual Presentation.
Researchers' Corner in J-Gate Newsletter, 4(3) March 2012.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630445_Presentation_of_Statistical_Data_-
Textual_Presentation?_sg%5B0%5D=645j2-
M SJvn87cay1tOFQ33IXk7CwU2wPPMCYFlSbwB8pphaefTcgF8W-u3OsJLliGSXwa60JX-
Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 105
 Briefs and Editorials on Research Methodologies
Sridhar, M. S. Interpretation of Data is Tricky and Challenging. Researchers'
Corner in J-gate newsletter 4(6) June 2012.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630520_Interpretation_of_Data_is_Tricky_a
nd_Challenging.
Sridhar, M. S. Four Steps to Tabular Presentation of Data. Researchers' Corner in
J-gate newsletter 4(7) July 2012.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630526_Four_Steps_to_Tabular_Presentatio
n_of_Data
Sridhar, M. S. Correlation Research: 1. Relation between Qualitative/Categorical
Attributes. Researchers' Corner in J-gate newsletter 4(8) August 2012.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630530_Relation_between_QualitativeCateg
orical_Attributes
Sridhar, M S. Fine tuning a research problem. December 2020.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18656.30728
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347437907_Fine_tuning_a_research_problem
Sridhar, M S. Types of Data. January 2014. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.34405.01766
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346081552_Types_of_Data

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 10 106

 Briefs and Editorials on Research Methodologies
Role of statistical skills in communication (Guest Editorial)”, SRELS Journal of
Information Management, April 2011, v. 48 (2), 109-111.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221932035_Role_of_statistical_skills_in_comm
unication
Sridhar, M S.“Errors are not just errors! (Guest Editorial)”, SRELS Journal of
Information Management, 47 (6) December 2010, 597-598.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224952171_Errors_are_not_just_errors?_sg%5B
0%5D=ij87m_J93BlhHhF0zWJOeEhyNIwpi9rgHC3u-p3oKRR8SU7mCHQ-
UP0wzJ2HBceY0YUkWMzQtGh75g-
d8oOqX7a9Q_XtVYNSWizLwuGj.qiHpLCI_YD48UbbOOtqI1kJCk9_NUju0zht3DR3D
MJSmuS5NKMBNJ_VMeeWW3Dm4ZYB2iz4kUZvvn9XbKwp1Ig
Confidence Level and Confidence Interval Researchers' Corner in J-Gate
Newsletter, 3(10) October 2011.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346630198_Confidence_Level_and_Co
nfidence_Interval

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