Module 1: Introduction to Unit Operations
and biological products/materials and includes, but is not
OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL PROCESS
ENGINEERING
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering refers to the
appUcation of engineering science and designs to the
processes and systems involved in the sustainable
production, post production and processing of safe food,
feed, fiber, timber and other agricultural and biological
materials and the efficient utilization, conservation, and
management of natural and renewable resources in order to
enhance human health in harmony with the environment.
Agricultural and biosystems consist of crops, forestry and
other plants, poultry, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture
resources and other animals, wildlife and other hving
things; From( RA 10915, Section 1 (a) )
Agricultural and Biosystems Power and Machinery refers to
farm power and machinery for the production, harvesting,
processing, storage, manufacture, preserving, transporting
and distribution of agricultural and biological
products/materials and includes, but is not Umited to,
tractors and their attachments, power tillers, seeders,
transplanters, windmills, harvesting machines, crop
protection and maintenance equipment, irrigation
equipment and accessories, greenhouses and other thermal
conditioning equipment, hvestock, poultry, fishery and
forest equipment, slaughtering equipment, meat/fishery and
crop processing equipment, post harvest machines such as
milling machines, dryers, threshers, grain and other
strippers, agricultural transport machinery and storage;
From( RA 10915, Section 1 (b) )
Agricultural and Biosystems Buildings and Structures refer
to buildings and structures for the production, harvesting,
processing, storage, manufacture, preserving, transporting
and
distribution of agricultural and biological products/materials
and includes, but is not limited to, silos and its components,
agricultural and biosystems machinery and equipment
sheds, farm houses, green/screen houses, poultry houses,
piggery houses, slaughterhouses, farm-to-market roads,
farm bridges, agricultural and biological products
storage/warehouse, buildings and structures for poultry,
livestock, fishery, and forestry production and processing,
kiln drying and lumber treatment structure, farm equipment,
farm supphes, and other structures such as self-feeders, and
soil and water conservation structures: ( RA 10915, Section
1 (d) )
Agricultural and Bio-Processing refers to local activity or
series of activities to maintain or raise the quality or change
the form or characteristics of agricultural, fishery, forestry
hmited to, cleaning, sorting, grading, treating, drying,
dehydrating, grinding, mixing, milling, canning, dressing,
slaughtering, freezing, pasteurizing, conditioning,
packaging, repacking, transporting of agricultural, fishery,
forestry and other biological products/materials; ( RA
10915, Section 1 (e) )
Scope of Practice of Agricultural and Biosystems
Engineering. - The practice of agricultural and biosystems
engineering within the meaning and intent of this Act shall
embrace, but not be Umited to, the following. ( RA 10915,
Section 5 )
Preparation of engineering designs, plans, specifications,
project studies, feasibility studies and estimates of irrigation
and drainage, soil and water conservation and management
systems and facilities, agrometeorological systems,
agricultural and biosystems power, and machinery,
agricultural and biosystems buildings and structures,
renewable/bio-energy systems and farm electrification,
agricultural and bio- processing and post harvest facUities
and system, agricultural and biological waste utilization and
management, agricultural and bio-information system,
agricultural and biosystems resource conservation and
management, and agricultural and bio-automation and
instrumentation system; ( RA 10915, Section 5 (a)
)
Supervision or management on the construction, operation,
and maintenance of irrigation and drainage, soil and water
conservation and management systems and facilities,
agrometeorological systems, agricultural and biosystems
power and machinery, agricultural and biosystems buildings
and structures, renewable/bio-energy systems and farm
electrification, agricultural and bio-processing and post
harvest facilities and system, agricultural and biological
waste utilization and management, agricultural and bio-
information system, agricultural and biosystems resource
conservation and management, and agricultural and bio-
automation and instrumentation system; ( RA 10915,
Section 5 (b) )
Preparation and evaluation of farm development plans, farm
suitability maps and land use maps/reports for agricultural,
livestock and poultry, fishery, aquaculture and forest
production and processing; ( RA 10915, Section 5 (i) )
(1) Agro-processing establishments such as rice mills, feed
mills, sugar mihs, coconut oh mills, fiber extraction
processing plants, meat processing plants, fish processing
plants, poultry and meat processing plants, food processing
plants and agricultural and fishery products storage
facihties; (2) Agro-industrial firms or estabhshments,
corporations and cooperatives and government entities
engaged in agricultural, hvestock, poultry and fishery
production and processing, the operation and maintenance
of plant/forest nurseries and parks, and other agricultural
and biosystems engineering endeavors;
26
(3) Financing and banking institutions engaged in providing
credit and financial assistance on agribusinesses which are
commercial in nature such as irrigation, post-harvest
facilities, agro-processing and storage, forest products,
aquaculture, food and fiber production facilities and
machineries; and (4) Consultancy firms, foundations,
nongovernment organizations and other organized groups
engaged in providing agricultural and biosystems
engineering services relative to management and
consultancy, training and extension, research and
development and/or the provision of irrigation, post-harvest
facilities, agro- processing and storage, forest products,
aquaculture, food and fiber production facilities and
machineries and soil and water conservation. (RA 10915).
Postharvest Losses for Grains
• The post-harvest system should be thought of as
encompassing the delivery of a crop from the time and
place of harvest to the time and place of consumption, with
minimum loss, maximum efficiency and maximum return
for all involved.
Diagram 1. Social conditions of production, distribution and
consumption (Source: Sigaut, 1979)
Main elements of the post-harvest system
• Harvesting. The time of harvesting is determined by the
degree of maturity. With cereals and pulses, a distinction
should be made between maturity of stalks (straw), ears or
seedpods and seeds, for all that affects successive
operations, particularly storage and preservation.
• Pre-harvest drying, mainly for cereals and pulses.
Extended pre-harvest field drying ensures good preservation
but also heightens the risk of loss due to attack (birds,
rodents, insects) and moulds encouraged by weather
conditions, not to mention theft. On the other hand,
harvesting before maturity entails the risk of loss through
moulds and the decay of some of the seeds.
• Transport. Much care is needed in transporting a really
mature harvest, in order to prevent detached grain from
falling on the road before reaching the storage or threshing
place. Collection and initial transport of the harvest thus
depend on the place and conditions where it is to be stored,
especially with a view to threshing.
• Post-harvest drying. The length of time needed for full
drying of ears and grains depends considerably on weather
and atmospheric conditions. In structures for lengthy drying
such as cribs, or even unroofed threshing floors or terraces,
the harvest is exposed to wandering livestock and the
depredations of birds, rodents or small ruminants. Apart
from the actual wastage, the droppings left by these
marauders often result in higher losses than what they
actually eat. On the other hand, if grain is not dry enough, it
is vulnerable to mould and can rot during storage.
• Moreover, if grain is too dry it becomes brittle and can
crack after threshing, during hulling or milling. This applies
especially to rice if milling takes place a long time (two to
three months) after the grain has matured, when it can cause
heavy losses. During winnowing, broken grain can be
removed with the husks and is also more susceptible to
certain insects (e.g. flour beetles and weevils). Lastly, if
grain is too dry, this means a loss of weight and hence a loss
of money at the time of sale.
• Threshing. If a harvest is threshed before it is dry enough,
this operation will most probably be incomplete.
Furthermore, if grain is threshed when it is too damp and
then immediately heaped up or stored (in a granary or bags),
it will be much more susceptible to attack from micro-
organisms, thus limiting its preservation.
• Storage. Facilities, hygiene and monitoring must all be
adequate for effective, long-term storage. In closed
structures (granaries, warehouses, hermetic bins), control of
cleanliness, temperature and humidity is particularly
important. Damage caused by pests (insects, rodents) and
moulds can lead to deterioration of facilities (e.g. mites in
wooden posts) and result in losses in quality and food value
as well as quantity.
• Processing. Excessive hulling or threshing can also result
in grain losses, particularly in the case of rice (hulling)
which can suffer cracks and lesions. The grain is then not
only worth less, but also becomes vulnerable to insects such
as the rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica).
• Marketing. Marketing is the final and decisive element in
the post-harvest system, although it can occur at various
points in the agro-food chain, particularly at some stage in
processing. Moreover, it cannot be separated from transport,
which is an essential link in the system.
Some basic definitions are needed before moving on to the
various types of loss.
• Grains and seeds. Cereals, pulses and oilseeds grown in
most climates and latitudes for human consumption. The
main cereals are wheat, maize, rice, barley, sorghum, millet,
oats and rye; pulses cover the various species of pea, bean,
broad bean and lentil; and oilseeds cover soya, groundnut,
sesame, rapeseed and sunflower.
• Post-harvest. If harvesting covers the period when the
various products grown are removed from the field, after
maturity, the post-harvest period runs from exit from the
field to the time of culinary preparation. For various
reasons, but especially to allow the straw and grain to dry
fully, harvesting may be delayed sometimes for months, as
happens particularly with maize and rice and in these cases,
some people prefer to speak of "post-production" in order to
indicate the link between harvesting and post-harvest
operations.
• Food loss. Food loss refers to total modification or
decrease of food quantity or quality which makes it unfit for
human consumption.
Types of losses
• Moisture content. In bio-chemical terms, organic
products are composed of dry matter and water. The
moisture content is the amount of free water within a given
product and is expressed either as a decimal proportion or a
percentage. For example, with cereals, a 13 percent
moisture content is considered a guarantee of satisfactory
grain preservation. In agriculture, moisture content or
humidity rate is usually indicated as a proportion of the
moist product; i.e. the moisture content is the proportion of
the weight of moisture to the total weight of dry matter and
moisture.
• Damage. Damage is a clear deterioration in the product,
e.g. broken or pitted grain, which affects more its quality
than its quantity and can in the long-term result in a definite
loss. Both damage and loss should be quantified in terms of
weight and cost.
• Direct and indirect losses. Direct losses occur when the
disappearance of a foodstuff is caused by leakage (for
example, spillage from bags) or consumption by pests
(insects, rodents, birds), whereas indirect losses occur when
a reduction in quality leads to the consumer's refusal to
purchase.
• Weight loss. While weight loss is easy to observe and
measure, it does not necessarily mean food loss, since it can
result simply from a reduction in moisture content. Moisture
loss during drying is therefore not a food loss. On the other
hand, an abnormal increase in weight through moisture
absorption following rainfall on stocks left in the open can
cause serious damage resulting in loss.
• Weight loss can be caused by leakage, during transport for
example, if sacks have holes or are insecurely attached. It is
often the result of prolonged infestation and consumption
by insects, rodents and birds or poor packaging. Weight loss
from pests is not immediately apparent and may deceive an
inexperienced purchaser. It can be checked by taking an
equivalent amount of clean, healthy cereal, milling the two
samples and weighing the flour from each. The poorer
sample will produce less flour. This method can also be
used to check whether the weight is really correct, for it is
easy to increase it by moistening the grain or adding foreign
bodies such as pebbles, earth or waste material.
• Quality loss. Quality criteria cover a wide range and are
concerned both with external features, shape and size and
with odour and taste. The cultural factors that can influence
diets and food habits must also be borne in mind.
• The cleanliness and healthy condition of a product are
primary concerns for the market and correspond to what is
referred to as a "sound, legal and merchantable" product in
commercial law. For example, if a trader takes a handful of
grain from a sack, he can quickly see if it releases dust and
work out if this is the result of insect infestation. Similarly,
a bad smell can arouse suspicions that rodents have been at
the grain, verifiable by the presence of rat or mouse
droppings and hair. Many other objects can be mixed in
with a foodstuff and reduce its value: bad grain, scraps of unit, we will take up some basic concepts and unit
straw or other plant residue, soil, pebbles, bits of glass, etc. operations that are important in food engineering.
All such objects are hard to remove but some of them
DIMENSIONS
represent a greater risk of contamination than others: the
soluble excreta of pests, oils, pesticides, pathogenic • In food processing, we will talk of several
organisms spread by rodents and toxins from fungi and parameters/quantities that make sense of when their
moulds. dimensions and units are known. A dimension defines a
physical entity, which can be observed and or measured,
• It goes without saying that the presence of foreign bodies,
quantitatively. For example, time, length, area, volume,
which can distort the weight of a batch being sold, also
mass, force, temperature, and energy are all considered
affects the quality and thus the market value of a product.
dimensions. A unit expresses the quantitative value of a
Unit Operation dimension. For example, length may be measured as metres,
centimetres, or millimetres. According to the selected unit,
INTRODUCTION
the magnitude would be different
Most food processing operations are designed to extend the
Primary dimensions
shelf-life of the product by reducing or eliminating
microbial activity. This general objective implies that the • length, time, temperature, mass, and force, express a
processing operation meets the minimum requirement of physical entity.
ensuring any human health safety concerns associated with
microbial activity. It must be acknowledged that most, if not
all, food processing operations will influence the physical
and sensory characteristics of the product. It is now a
common practice within the food industry to utilize Secondary dimensions
processing operations as an approach to enhance the • Area, Volume, Velocity, Pressure, Power, Force, Density,
physical and sensory characteristics of food products for Work.
better consumer acceptance.
AB Engineering units
The aims of the food processing are fourfold:
1. To extend the period during which a food remains
wholesome (the shelf life) by preservation techniques which
inhibit microbiological or biochemical changes and thus
allow greater time for distribution and home storage;
2. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of
attractive flavours, colours, aromas and textures in food
(collectively known as eating, sensory or organoleptic
quality); a related aim is to change the form of the food to
allow further processing (for example the pulping of fruits);
3. To provide the nutrients required for health (termed as
nutritional quality);
4. To generate income for the entrepreneur or
manufacturing company
All the food processing activities involve a combination of
procedures to achieve the intended changes to the raw
materials. These procedures are conventionally categorized
as unit operations, each of which has a specific, identifiable
and predictable effect on a food item. A number of unit
operations, same or different in nature form a process. The
combination and sequence of operations, same or different
in nature determines the nature of the final product. In this
Example
Length
• 132 m to in
3.28 𝑓𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
• 132𝑚 × × =
1𝑚 1𝑓𝑡 Rate of
Area
• 3 ha to 𝑖𝑛2 through
10000𝑚2 (100𝑐𝑚)2 1𝑖𝑛2 = 𝑖𝑛2
• 3ℎ𝑎 × × ×
1ℎ𝑎 1𝑚2 (2.54𝑐𝑚)2
 Volume
• 500 L to 𝑚3
1𝑚3
• 500L × 1000𝐿
= 𝑚3 Energy Balance
MODULE 2: Mass and Energy Balances Closed System
Lecture Guide The first law of thermodynamics, often referred to as the
law of energy conservation, is a fundamental principle in
Mass and Energy Balances
the field of thermodynamics. It states that an isolated
Mass can be Neither created nor destroyed, its composition system cannot create or destroy energy. Instead, it can only
can be altered from one form to another. chemical reaction change forms or be transferred from one part of the system
is the process, if there is no chemical reaction, no change in to another.
product composition.

Figure 1. Material balance in

evaporator
Figure 1. Closed, Open and Isolated
System

Figure 2. mass flowrate balance

Energy Balance in a closed System , Work.

Work – Interaction between system and sorroundings.
- Symbol, W
- Unit (J)
Sign Convention
- Work done by the system, Work is (+).
- Work done on the system, Work is (-).

MODULE 3: Application of Fluid Flows in AB

Materials
Introduction
Our experience suggests that most students from
geosciences, natural sciences, and other backgrounds are
not required to take a fluid mechanics class, and most
engineering students who took a fluid mechanics class
earlier may still need to reinforce their physical
understanding of the fluid mechanics concepts. Thereby,
this chapter is intended to provide readers with some basics
of fluid mechanics (particularly, in terms of physics) that
are essential to understand and appreciate flowthrough
geologic media.
Fluid Mechanics is the study of the forces on fluids. These
fluids can be either a gas or a liquid.
Fluid Mechanics includes both fluid statics (the study of
fluids at rest) and fluid dynamics (the study of fluids in
motion). Notice that the fluid mechanics serves as the
fundamental principles in a number of disciplines in science
and engineering. For instance, atmospheric science is built
upon fluid mechanics, as is cardiology – the study of the
blood flow through our veins and arteries. The study of the
infiltration of water and its subsequent movement in
unsaturated subsurface media (vadose zone hydrology) also
relies on fluid mechanics, as do studies of the movement of
groundwater in geologic media (groundwater hydrology). molecules gain enough energy to break away completely,
Other disciplines include surface hydrology (the study of and escape into the adjacent space. Finally, a threshold
movement of water on land surfaces, in canals and rivers, temperature is reached at which molecules throughout the
and in oceans, lakes, estuaries, etc.), and petroleum liquid are becoming energetic enough to escape. Then,
engineering that studies the movement of oil and gas in vapor bubbles form and rise to the surface, and the liquid
geologic reservoirs. becomes a gas. The molecules of a gas are free to move in
every possible way; a gas has neither a definite shape nor a
Examples also include hydraulics which studies fluid
definite volume but expands to fill any container in which it
motions in pipes or man-made conduits (conduit flow
is placed. Both liquids and gases are considered to be fluids.
systems). This chapter first introduces readers to the basic
Strictly speaking, there is no quantitative criteria onto
continuum assumption (i.e., volume averaging concept).
clearly distinguish solids from fluids.
Then, definitions of fluid properties and their units follow.
Nevertheless, a fluid is defined as a substance whose
Forces of static fluids and the relationship between forces
particles can move and change their relative position easily
and energies are discussed subsequently. The chapter then
in contrast to a solid. Specifically, a fluid is a substance that
examines fluid dynamics, in which the fixed and moving
deforms continuously without substantial resistance, when a
coordinate systems are introduced, the time derivatives
shear stress (explained later) is applied to it, no matter how
associated with these two coordinate systems are brought
small the magnitude of the applied shear stress is. A solid
forth, and fluid acceleration is investigated. Using force
can be defined as a material of which the shape or the
balance and acceleration concepts, we derive the Bernoulli
relative position of the constituent elements changes only
equation for flow through pipe; we elucidate its physical
by an insignificantly small amount, when forces acting on it
meaning in term of conservation of energy, which leads to
change, either in magnitude or direction. Thus, the
the concept of total, pressure, velocity, and potential heads.
distinction between solids and fluids is rather relative.
Head loss due to viscous forces ignored by the Bernoulli
While fluids can mean liquids or/and gas, in the context of
equation then explains the limitation of the equation for
understanding the basic processes of subsurface hydrology,
flow through real-world systems. Subsequently, the
we are typically interested in the liquid phase of water when
influence of the relative strength of the viscous force to the
we deal with problems related to water resources. Notice
inertia force of the fluid (i.e., Reynolds Number) is
that in certain cases we may have to deal with liquid and/or
discussed on flow behavior (i.e., laminar or turbulent flow).
gas phases of nonaqueous fluids in the case of groundwater
At the end, this chapter sets the stage for the discussion of
pollution problems.
flow through geologic media in next few chapters, which is
generally considered as laminar flow. Basic Formula Useful for fluids
Fluids and Solids
Discussion of the states of a matter is a way to explain the
definition of fluids and solids. The states of a matter are
also known as phases of the matter or states of an
aggregation, which are: solid, liquid, and gas. Under a solid
state, the molecules of matters are limited to only vibration
about a fixed position. This restriction gives the

Fluid Statics and Dynamics

material both a definite volume and a definite shape. Any
material under this condition is called solid phase. As some
energy is added to a solid, its molecules begin to vibrate
more rapidly until they break out of their fixed positions.
The solid then becomes a liquid. The molecules of a liquid
are free to move throughout the liquid, but are held from
escaping the liquid surface by the intermolecular forces.
This gives a liquid a definite volume, but no definite shape.
As more energy is added to a liquid, a small number of
 Q=0.061 kg/ sec
Viscosity
• It is the internal resistance of fluid to shear.
• The coefficient may be considered as the coefficient of
friction of fluid to fluid.

Reynolds Number
•Rate
Reynolds
of Flow is an English investigator who first demonstrate
the •finite existence
The rate of flow of of
fluidthe streamlined
is constant andinturbulent
at any point a system andflow.
there is no
accumulation or depletion of fluid within the system.
• Equation
• Formula
Re = D V d / µ
𝑄 = 𝐴1𝑉1ρ = 𝐴2 𝑉2ρ = ⋯ = 𝐴𝑛 𝑉𝑛ρ
where:
where: Q – mass flow rate, kg/s
A – cross-sectional area of pipe, m2 V –
Re – Reynolds number linear velocity of fluid,
D - inside diameter of pipe, ft of fluid, kg/m3
ρ– Density

V - average velocity of fluid, ft/sec

d– Specific weight, lb/ft3

µ - fluid viscosity, lb-s/ft^2

Example 2.
Example:
If fluid is SAE 30 oil at 20°C and L=7mm, What shear
1. What is the rate of flow of coconut oil in a 2- in. pipe if stress is required to move the upper plate at 3.5 m/s?
the velocity of the fluid is measured at 0.02 m/s? The Compute the Reynolds no. based on L. µ=0.440Pa-s and
specific weight of oil is 1500 kg/m3. ρ=888 kg/m^3.
Given: Inside diameter of pipe - 2 in. Given:
Fluid velocity - 0.02 m/s V = 3.5 m/s
Specific weight of fluid - 1500 kg/m3 Required: Mass flow D = 7 mm
rate
µ = 0.44 Pa-s
Solution: Q = A V d
ρ = 888 kg/m3
Q=¿ ¿¿
Find: NR
Solution:
NR = Dvρ / µ
1m m kg
(7 mm × )(3.5 )( 888 3 )
NR = 1000 mm s m
0.44 Pa−s
NR = 49.4 Examples of Conduction
 Why does crushed ice melt faster than ice cubes?
Answer: Because the exposed area is larger
Module 4: Application of Heat Transfer in AB Materials
 Why do you save money by turning down the
Principles of Heat Transfer thermostat in cold weather?
 Heat transfer is one way of transferring energy to a Answer: Because the temperature difference
body (work is the other) (between inside and outside) is smaller
 Occurs only when there is a
temperature difference between the
two bodies (heat flows from hot to Convection
cold)
• Warm air (water) rises and cool air (water) sinks
 Occurs through three processes: conduction,
convection, and radiation • Why? Because warm air (water) is less dense and “floats”
on cooler air (water)
From Hot to Cold • The rising of warm air (water) creates circulating
 Heat energy is transferred when there is a convection currents
difference in temperature
 In an isolated system heat flows from hot to cold • Convection can occur in any gas or fluid
until both bodies are at the same temperature
𝑸𝒄 = 𝒉𝒄𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒇)

The Three Types of Heat Transfer Examples of Convection
 Conduction: Heat is transferred through a material
• The sea breeze is caused by differences in temperature
(e.g. insulation or glass)
between the ocean and the shore
 Convection: Heat is transferred by air or water
currents (e.g. ocean currents) • In fact, all weather and ocean currents are caused by
 Radiation: Heat is transferred when a convection
hot body emits radiation (e.g. infrared
radiation given off by a fire) • A draft in a cold room is caused by convection currents
Conduction from air leaking through a window or door
Conduction depends on the following: • A “rolling boil” in a pot is the result of convection
 Type of Material: thermal conductivity (e.g. metal
spoons transfer heat better than plastic)
 Temperature Difference
 Area (e.g. a thin stirring stick transfers less heat Radiation
than a thick spoon) • Radiation results in heat being emitted “at the speed of
 Thickness (the distance heat has to travel) light”
• Radiated heat requires no medium (e.g. air) and can
propagate through empty space
• Heat is emitted as electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light)
• Here, radiation does not refer to the emissions of
radioactive substances.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
𝑸𝒆 = 𝜺𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒
Qe= Rate which energy emitted
𝜀= Emissivity
𝜎= Stefan-Boltzmann Law Constant A= Area
T= Absolute temperature

Examples of Radiation
• A hot burner on a stove or a fire emits large amounts of
infrared and a smaller amount of visible radiation
•Mammals (~40° C) emit mostly infrared radiation
• Our sun (~6000° C) emits a large amount of visible light
• Incandescent lights (regular light bulbs) have heated
filaments that emit visible light
Example of Heat Transfer
• A radiator works by circulating steam through a series of
pipes, where it condenses and releases heat
• Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and
radiation