LEARNING OUTCOMES

Candidates should be able to:

✓ Define the terms ecosystem and niche

✓ Explain that biodiversity can be assessed at different levels, including:
• the number and range of different ecosystems and habitats
• the number of species and their relative abundance
• the genetic variation within each species
✓ Explain the importance of random sampling in determining the biodiversity of an area
✓ Describe and use suitable methods to assess the distribution and abundance of organisms in an area, limited to
frame quadrats, line transects, belt transects and mark-release-recapture using the Lincoln index
✓ Use Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation to analyse the relationships between two
variables, including how biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution and abundance of species
✓ Use Simpson’s index of diversity (D) to calculate the biodiversity of an area, and state the significance of
different values of D
 Ecosystem
✓ Species do not exist by themselves in their own isolated environment, they interact with other species forming communities
✓ These communities interact with each other and the environment they live in, forming ecosystems
✓ An ecosystem is a relatively self-contained community of interacting organisms and the environment they live in, and interact with
✓ There is a flow of energy within an ecosystem and nutrients within it are recycled
✓ There are both living (biotic) components and non-living (abiotic)components within an ecosystem
✓ Ecosystems vary greatly in size and scale
o Both a small pond in a back garden and the open ocean could be described as ecosystems
o A human being could also be described as an ecosystem; there are thousands of species of bacteria living on and in every person
✓ Ecosystems vary in complexity:
o A desert is a relatively simple ecosystem
o A tropical rainforest is a very complex ecosystem
✓ No ecosystem is completely self-contained as organisms from one ecosystem are often linked to organisms from another
o For example, birds are able to fly long distances to feed from multiple ecosystem

Example of an ecosystem
✓ A forest is a perfect example of a complex ecosystem.
✓ There is a large community of organisms including trees, birds, small and large mammals, insects and fungi.
✓ The non-living components of the ecosystem include:
# the soil, dead leaves, water from the rain and streams, the rocks and any other physical or chemical factors.
✓ The non-living components of the ecosystem influence the community of organisms.
 Niches
✓ The place where a species lives within an ecosystem is its habitat
✓ The role that species plays within an ecosystem is its niche
o It encompasses where in the environment the organism is, how it gets its energy and how it interacts with other species and its physical environment
o This is how an organism fits into the ecosystem

Example of a niche
✓ A dung beetle occupies a very specific niche within its ecosystem.
✓ Dung beetles have learned to exploit the dung of animals as a resource and they have a characteristic behaviour of rolling the dung into balls
before transporting it to their underground burrow for storage as food.
✓ Their behaviour within their ecosystem has many knock-on effects on the environment and other organisms living in it.
✓ The burrows and tunnels that they create turns over and aerates the soil and the buried dung releases nutrients into the soil both of which
can benefit other organisms like plants.
✓ The transportation of the dung underground by the beetles also helps to keep fly populations under control.

✓ Biodiversity can be thought of as a study of all the
variation that exists within and between all forms of
life
✓ Biodiversity looks at the range and variety of genes,
species and habitats within a particular region
✓ It can be assessed at three different levels:
o The number and range of different ecosystems
and habitats
o The number of species and their relative
abundance
o The genetic variation within each species
✓ Biodiversity is very important for the resilience of
ecosystems, in that it allows them to resist changes
in the environment
Ecosystem or habitat diversity
✓ This is the range of different ecosystems or habitats
within a particular area or region
✓ If there is a large number of different habitats within
an area, then that area has high biodiversity
• A good example of this is a coral reef. They are
very complex with lots of microhabitats and
niches to be exploited
✓ If there is only one or two different habitats then an
area has low biodiversity
• Large sandy deserts typically have very low
biodiversity as the conditions are basically the
same throughout the whole area
Biodiversity
Species diversity
✓ An ecosystem such as a tropical rainforest that has a very high number of different species would
be described as species-rich
• Species richness is the number of species within an ecosystem
✓ Species diversity looks at the number of different species in an ecosystem, and also the evenness of
abundance across the different species present
• The greater the number of species in an ecosystem, and the more evenly distributed the number of
organisms are among each species, then the greater the species diversity
• For example, an ecosystem can have a large number of different species but for some species, there may
only be 3 or 4 individuals. As a result, this ecosystem does not necessarily have high species diversity
✓ Ecosystems with high species diversity are usually more stable than those with lower species
diversity as they are more resilient to environmental changes
• For example in the Pine forests of Florida, the ecosystem is dominated by one or two tree species. If a
pathogen comes along that targets one of the two dominant species of trees, then the whole population
could be wiped out and the ecosystem it is a part of could collapse
Genetic diversity
✓ The genetic diversity within a species is the diversity of alleles and genes in the genome of species
✓ Although individuals of the same species will have the same genes they will not necessarily have
the same alleles for each gene
✓ Genetic diversity is measured by working out the proportion of genes that have more than one
form (allele) and how many possible alleles each gene has
✓ There can be genetic differences or diversity between populations of the same species
• This may be because the two populations occupy slightly different ranges in their habitat and so are subject
to slightly different selection pressures that affect the allele frequencies in their populations
✓ Genetic diversity within a single population has also been observed
• This diversity in a species is important as it can help the population adapt to, and survive, changes in the
environment
• The changes could be in biotic factors such as new predators, pathogens and competition with other species
• Or the changes could be through abiotic factors like temperature, humidity and rainfall
 Random Sampling
✓ Measuring the different levels of biodiversity within an ecosystem can be a tasking job
✓ Finding out which species live in an ecosystem and the size of the populations requires the identification and cataloguing of all organisms present to build a
species list
✓ This is possible for areas that are very small or where the species are very large like trees
✓ However, for larger and more complex ecosystems like rainforests, it is simply impossible to find, identify and count every organism that exists there
✓ When this is the case different samples of the area can be taken and used to make an estimate for the total species numbers in the area

Sampling
✓ Sampling is a method of investigating the abundance and
distribution of species and populations
✓ There are two different types of sampling:
• Random
• Systematic
✓ In random sampling the positions of the sampling points are
completely random or due to chance
• This method is beneficial because it means there will be no bias by the
person that is carrying out the sampling that may affect the results
✓ In systematic sampling the positions of the sampling points are
chosen by the person carrying out the sampling
• There is a possibility that the person choosing could show bias towards Random sampling differs from systematic sampling
or against certain areas when choosing sample sites on an island
• Individuals may deliberately place the quadrats in areas with the least
species as these will be easier and quicker to count
• This is unrepresentative of the whole area
✓ When a sampling area is reasonably uniform or has no clear pattern
to the way the species are distributed then random sampling is the
best choice
 Testing for Distribution & Abundance
✓ The distribution of a species describes how it is spread Results from quadrats
throughout the ecosystem ✓ The results from the quadrats can be used to calculate the predicted frequency and density of a species
✓ The abundance of a species is the number of individuals of within an area
that species ✓ Species frequency is the probability that the species will be found within any quadrat in the sample area
• The number of quadrats that the species was present in is divided by the total number of quadrats and
✓ The distribution and abundance of a species in an area can then multiplied by 100
be assessed using different practical methods: • For example, if bluebells were found in 18 out of 50 quadrats the species frequency would be (18/50) x 100
o Frame Quadrats = 36%
o Line and Belt Transects ✓ Species density indicates how many individuals of that species there are per unit area
o Mark-release-capture • The number of individuals counted across all quadrats is divided by the total area of all the quadrats
• For example, if 107 bluebells were found across 50 quadrats that are 1m2 each the species density would
be 107/50 = 2.14 individuals per m2
Frame quadrats ✓ It can sometimes be difficult to count individual plants or organisms. When this is the case percentage
✓ Some ecosystems are very complex with large numbers of cover of the species within the quadrat can be estimated instead
different species of different sizes • The quadrat is divided into 100 smaller squares. The number of squares the species is found in is
✓ For the sake of logistics, sampling is often used to estimate equivalent to its percentage cover in that quadrat
• For example, if grass is found in 89 out of 100 squares in the quadrat then it has a percentage cover of 89%
the distribution and abundance of species
✓ When carrying out sampling, square frames called quadrats
can be used to mark off the area being sampled
✓ Quadrats of different sizes can be used depending on what is
Percentage cover of grass
being measured and what is most suitable in the space the in a quadrat – There may
samples are being made in be some squares lacking
✓ Quadrats must be laid randomly in the area to avoid any species and other
sampling bias squares with multiple
species overlying one
o This random sampling can be done by converting the sampling
another. Therefore the
area into a grid format and labelling each square on the grid
total percentage cover of a
with a number single quadrat can be over
o Then a random number generator is used to pick the sample or under 100% sometimes
points
✓ Once the quadrat has been laid on the chosen sample point
the abundance of all the different species present can be
recorded
 Testing for Distribution & Abundance
Line & belt transects
✓ Throughout some areas, there can be changes in
the physical conditions
• For example, there may be changes in altitude, soil
pH or light intensity
✓ When investigating the species distribution in these
kinds of areas systematic sampling is more
appropriate
✓ Methods using transects can help show how
species distribution changes with the different
physical conditions in the area
• A transect is a line represented by a measuring tape,
along which sample are taken
✓ For a line transect:
• Lay out a measuring tape in a straight line across the
sample area
• At equal distances along the tape record the identity
of the organisms that touch the line. For example,
every 2m
• This produces qualitative data
✓ For a belt transect: A line transect and belt transect is carried out in the field
• Place quadrats at regular intervals along the tape
and record the abundance of each species within
each quadrat
• This produces quantitative data
 Testing for Distribution & Abundance
Mark-release-capture
✓ The methods above are only useful for stationary organisms
✓ Different methods are required for estimating the number of individuals in a population of mobile animals
✓ The mark-release-capture method is used in conjunction with the Lincoln Index
✓ For a single species in the area:
o The first large sample is taken. As many individuals as possible are caught, counted and marked in a way that won’t affect their survival
o They are returned to their habitat and allowed to randomly mix with the rest of the population
o When a sufficient amount of time has passed another large sample is captured
o The number of marked and unmarked individuals within the sample are counted
o The proportion of marked to unmarked individuals is used to calculate an estimate of the population size
o The formula for the calculation is:
N = n1 x n2 / m2
o Where:
N = population estimate, n1 = number of marked individuals released
n2 = number of individuals in the second sample (marked and unmarked), m2 = number of marked individuals in the second sample

Worked example: Lincoln index with mark-release-recapture

Scientists wanted to investigate the abundance of leafhoppers in a small grassy meadow. They used sweep nets to catch a large sample of
leafhoppers from the meadow. Each insect was marked on their underside with non-toxic waterproof paint and then released back into the
meadow. The following day another large sample was caught using sweep nets.
✓ No. caught and marked in first sample (n1) = 236
✓ No. caught in second sample (n2) = 244 Exam Tip
✓ No. of marked individuals in the second sample (m2) = 71 You will be provided with the formula for Lincoln’s index in the
Using the equation: N = n1 x n2 / m2 = 236 x 244 / 71 = 811 exam. You need to be able to carry out the calculation to
N (estimated population size) = 811 estimate population size from mark-capture-release data, as
you could be asked to do this in the exam.
 Pearson's Linear Correlation
✓ When recording the abundance and distribution of species in an area different trends may be observed
✓ Sometimes correlation between two variables can appear in the data
• Correlation is an association or relationship between variables
• There is a clear distinction between correlation and causation: a correlation does not necessarily imply a causative relationship
• Causation occurs when one variable has an influence or is influenced by, another
✓ There may be a correlation between species; for example, two species always occurring together
✓ There may be a correlation between a species and an abiotic factor, for example, a particular plant species and the soil pH
✓ The apparent correlation between variables can be analysed using scatter graphs and different statistical tests

Correlation between variables

✓ In order to get a broad overview of the correlation between two variables the data points for both variables can be plotted on a scatter graph
✓ The correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength of the relationship between variables
✓ Perfect correlation occurs when all of the data points lie on a straight line with a correlation coefficient of 1 or -1
✓ Correlation can be positive or negative
• Positive correlation: as variable A increases, variable B increases
• Negative correlation: as variable A increases, variable B decreases
✓ If there is no correlation between variables the correlation
coefficient will be 0
✓ The correlation coefficient (r) can be calculated to
determine whether a linear relationship exists between
variables and how strong that relationship is

Different types of correlation in scatter graphs

 Pearson's Linear Correlation
Pearson linear correlation
✓ Pearson’s linear correlation is a statistical test that determines whether there is linear correlation between two variables
✓ The data must:
• Be quantitative
• Show normal distribution
✓ Method:
• Step 1: Create a scatter graph of data gathered and identify if a linear correlation exists
• Step 2: State a null hypothesis
• Step 3: Use the following equation to work out Pearson’s correlation coefficient r

• Where:

✓ If the correlation coefficient r is close to 1 or -1 then it can be stated

that there is a strong linear correlation between the two variables
and the null hypothesis can be rejected
 Pearson's Linear Correlation
Worked Example
A student used quadrats to measure the
abundance of different plant species in
their garden. They noticed that two
particular species seemed to occur
alongside each other. They plotted a scatter
graph and the data they collected had no
major outliers and showed roughly normal
distribution.
Scatter graph showing the linear correlation
between the abundance of species A and B. It
shows linear correlation and so is suitable for
analysis by Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
Investigate the possible correlation using Pearson’s
linear correlation coefficient.

Null hypothesis: There is no correlation between the abundance of species A and species B.
Steps to calculate the correlation coefficient:
Step 1: Calculate xy
Step 2: Calculate x̅ and y̅ (means of x and y)
Step 3: Calculate nx̅y̅ o n = 10 as there are 10 quadrat samples.
Step 4: Find ∑xy o The sum of x x y (∑xy) = 2114
o n x mean of x x mean of y = nx̅y̅ = 2060
Step 5: Calculate standard deviation for each set of data Sx and Sy
o Sx = 2.16 and Sy = 3.02
Step 6: Substitute the appropriate numbers into the equation o Substitute values into the equation above:

o As the value of r lies close to 1, the null hypothesis can be rejected. There is a positive correlation between the
abundance of species A and species B
Exam Tip
You will be provided with the formula for Pearson’s linear correlation in the exam. You
need to be able to carry out the calculation to test for correlation, as you could be
asked to do this in the exam. You should understand when it is appropriate to use the
different statistical tests that crop up in this topic, and the conditions in which each is
valid.
Spearman's Rank Correlation Worked Example
A student conducted an experiment using quadrats to
✓ If there is an apparent relationship between two
measure the abundance of different plant species in a
variables but the data does not show a normal
neglected allotment. They wanted to see if there was
distribution, Pearson’s linear correlation
correlation between the abundance of species C and
coefficient should not be used
D. When they looked at their data and plotted a scatter
✓ Spearman’s rank correlation determines whether
graph they saw some correlation.
there is correlation between variables that don’t
Investigate the possible correlation using Spearman’s rank
show a normal distribution
correlation coefficient.
✓ Method: Scatter graph showing the correlation between the
Step 1: Create a scatter graph and identify possible abundance of species C and species D
As the data was not normally distributed they decided to use Spearman’s
linear correlation rank correlation coefficient. Step 1: Rank each set of data (rank 1 being the
Step 2: State a null hypothesis Null hypothesis: there is no correlation between the abundance of species smallest data figure)
Step 3: Use the following equation to work out A and species B. Step 2: Find the difference in rank between the two
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient r • n = 10 as there are 10 quadrat samples species, D
Step 3: Square the difference in rank, D2 (= 6)
Step 4: Substitute the appropriate numbers into the
equation (remember n = 10)

• Where:
• rs = spearman’s rank coefficient
• D = difference in rank
• n = number of samples
Step 5: Refer to a table that relates values of rs to
Step 4: Refer to a table that relates critical values of
probability. Look for the 0.05 probability level with n =
rs to levels of probability
10
✓ If the value calculated for Spearman’s rank is
greater than the critical value for the number
of samples in the data ( n) at the 0.05
probability level (p), then the null hypothesis
can be rejected, meaning there is a correlation o As Rs = 0.964, it is greater than the critical value of
between two variables 0.65. The null hypothesis can be rejected, there is
genuine positive correlation between the
abundance of species A and B
Exam Tip
You will be provided with the formula for Spearman’s rank correlation in the exam. You
need to be able to carry out the calculation to test for correlation, as you could be asked
to do this in the exam. You should understand when it is appropriate to use the different
statistical tests that crop up in this topic, and the conditions in which each is valid.
Correlation does not always mean causation. Just because there is a correlation
between the abundance of species A and species B it does not mean that the presence
of species A causes the presence of species B.
 Simpson's Index
✓ Once the abundance of different species in an area has
Worked Example
been recorded the results can be used to calculate the
species diversity or biodiversity for that area Samples of different insect species in a back garden were collected using sweep nets and
✓ Species diversity looks at the number of different species identification keys. Use the data to calculate Simpson’s Index.
in an area but also the evenness of abundance across the The results and working out are seen in the table below. The figures have been rounded
different species
✓ Simpson’s index of diversity (D) can be used to quantify
to three decimal places for columns 3 and 4
the biodiversity of an area
D = 1 – 0.172 = 0.828
Simpson’s index ✓ As the value of D is much
✓ The formula is: closer to 1 than 0, it can be
said that this is a relatively
high value for biodiversity.

✓ Where: Exam Tip

Remember, you will be
o n = total no. of organisms for a single species provided with the formula
o N = total no. of organisms for all species for Simpson’s Index in the
✓ To calculate Simpson’s Index: exam. You need to be able to
carry out the calculation to
Step 1: First step is to calculate n / N for each species test for correlation, as you
Step 2: Square each of these values could be asked to do this in
Step 3: Add them together and subtract the total from 1 the exam. This also means
you should understand when
✓ The possible values of D are significant:
it is appropriate to use the
o The value of D can fall between 0 and 1 different statistical tests, and
o Values near 1 indicate high levels of biodiversity the conditions in which each
o Values near 0 indicate low levels of biodiversity is valid.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Candidates should be able to:

✓ Discuss the meaning of the term species, limited to the biological species concept, morphological species
concept and ecological species concept
✓ Describe the classification of organisms into three domains: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya
✓ State that Archaea and Bacteria are prokaryotes and that there are differences between them, limited to
differences in membrane lipids, ribosomal RNA and composition of cell walls
✓ Describe the classification of organisms in the Eukarya domain into the taxonomic hierarchy of kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus and species
✓ Outline the characteristic features of the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia
✓ Outline how viruses are classified, limited to the type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) and whether this is single
stranded or double stranded
 Definitions of Species
✓ Scientists have been classifying organisms into species for
hundreds of years, in order to investigate the diversity of life that
exists today and in the past Naming species
✓ There is difficulty in determining whether new organisms
discovered belong to an existing species, or a new one ✓ Species are often given common names, but in order to avoid
✓ This is because the most widely accepted definition of a species is: confusion about what group of organisms scientists are talking
o A group of organisms with similar morphological and about, all species are given a two-part scientific name using the
physiological features that able to breed together and binomial system
produce fertile offspring
✓ This is the biological species concept, and is reliant on ✓ This naming convention was developed and established by the
determining whether interbreeding produces fertile offspring – Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus in the 18th Century
this is difficult and time-consuming to determine in practice ✓ The first part of the name is the genus that the species belongs to;
✓ However there are other discriminating factors that scientists can
this is a group of very similar organisms
use to group similar organisms together
✓ The second part of the name is specific and unique to a single group
of organisms that are identified as a species (and occasionally there
Morphological species concept
may be a third name)
✓ In the past, most scientists described organisms by their physical
features (morphology) as these can be more easily observed ✓ The binomial name is always italicized in writing (or underlined if it
✓ They group together organisms that share many physical features is not possible to italicise)
that distinguish them from other species
✓ This is the morphological species concept ✓ For example:
o The most commonly known yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae
o It is common to abbreviate the genus name: S. cerevisiae
Ecological species concept
✓ When there is a population of similar organisms living in the same o Saccharomyces paradoxus is another species of that is a member of
area at the same time, they can be described as an ecological the same genus as cerevisiae
species
✓ This is the ecological species concept
 The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya
✓ Taxonomy is the practice of biological classification
✓ It involves placing organisms into a series of categories or taxa
✓ By grouping organisms into taxa it can make them easier to
understand and remember
✓ There are several different ranks or levels within the hierarchical
classification system used in biology
✓ The highest rank is the domain
✓ Cell type has a major role in the classification of organisms into
the three domains; but do not confuse cell types and domain
o Prokaryotic cells are easily distinguishable in that they lack a
nucleus
o Eukaryotic cells have compartmentalised structures, with at least
their genetic material segregated from the rest of the cell in a
nucleus
✓ Based upon molecular analysis of RNA genes in particular,
scientists have realised that using cell type to classify organisms
is insufficient, and that prokaryotes could be divided into two
separate groups (domains)
The taxonomic classification system with the three domains
✓ The three domains are:
o Archaea (prokaryotes)
o Bacteria (prokaryotes)
o Eukarya (eukaryotes)
 The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya
Archaea
✓ Organisms within this domain are sometimes referred
to as the extremophile prokaryotes, archaea were
first discovered living in extreme environments, but
not all archaea do
✓ Archael cells have no nucleus (and so are prokaryotic)
✓ They were initially classified as bacteria until several
unique properties were discovered that separated
them from known bacteria, including:
o Unique lipids being found in the membranes of their
cells
o No peptidoglycan in their cell walls
o Ribosomal structure (particularly that of the small
subunit) are more similar to the eukaryotic ribosome
than that of the bacteria
✓ Archaea a similar size range as bacteria (and in many
ways metabolism is similar between the two groups)
✓ DNA transcription is more similar to that of
eukaryotes
✓ Example: Halobacterium salinarum are a species of
the archaea domain that can be found in
environments with high salt concentrations like the
Dead Sea
Bacteria
✓ These are organisms that have prokaryotic cells which contain no nucleus
✓ They vary in size over a wide range: the smallest are bigger than the largest
known-viruses and the largest are smaller that the smallest known single-
celled eukaryotes
✓ Bacterial cells divide by binary fission
✓ Example: Staphylococcus pneumoniae is a bacteria species that causes
pneumonia
Eukarya
✓ Organisms that have eukaryotic cells with nuclei and membrane-bound
organelles are placed in this domain
✓ They vary massively in size from single-celled organisms several micrometres
across to large multicellular organisms many-metres in size, such as blue
whales
✓ Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis
✓ Eukaryotes can reproduce sexually or asexually
✓ Example: Canis lupus also known as wolves
Exam Tip
It might be worth refreshing your knowledge on the defining features
of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells before tackling this new topic!
 The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya
Differences between Archaea & Bacteria
✓ Domains are the highest taxonomic rank that exist within the hierarchical classification
system of organisms
✓ Initially, all organisms within the Archaea domain were classified as Bacteria
✓ Then several unique features possessed by Archaea were discovered that separated
them from both Bacteria and Eukarya
✓ The main differences between Archaea and Bacteria are seen in:
# Membrane lipids # Ribosomal RNA # Cell wall composition

Membrane lipids
✓ The membrane lipids found in the cells of Archaea organisms are completely unique
✓ They are not found in any bacterial or eukaryotic cells
✓ The membrane lipids of Archaea consist of branched hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by ether
linkages
✓ The membrane lipids of Bacteria consist of unbranched hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by
ester linkages

Ribosomal RNA
✓ Both Archaea and Bacteria possess 70S ribosomes
✓ The 70S ribosomes in Archaea possess a smaller subunit that is more similar to the subunit found in
Eukaryotic ribosomes than subunits in Bacterial ribosomes
o The base sequences of ribosomal RNA in Archaea show more similarity to the rRNA of Eukarya than
Bacteria
o The primary structure of ribosome proteins in Archaea show more similarity to the ribosome proteins in
Eukarya than Bacteria

Composition of cell walls

✓ Organisms from the Bacteria domain have cells that always possess cell walls with peptidoglycan
✓ Organisms from the Archaea domain also have cells that always possess cell walls, however these do
not contain peptidoglycan
 Eukarya

✓ The hierarchical classification system of organisms in biology is

used to organise and group similar organisms together so that
they can be more easily understood
✓ There are several taxonomic ranks that exist
✓ Species is the lowest taxonomic rank in the system
o Similar species can be grouped in a genus
o Similar genuses can be grouped in a family
o Similar families can be grouped into an order
o Similar orders can be grouped into a class
o Similar classes can be grouped into a phylum
o Similar phyla can be grouped into a kingdom
o Similar kingdoms can be grouped into a domain
✓ Domains are the highest taxonomic rank in the system
✓ There are a few different rhymes that exist to help you
remember the different ranks in the taxonomic classification
system. You can always make up your own but the one below is
The hierarchical classification system – The higher ranks contain
super helpful!
more organisms with less similarity between them. The lower
✓ The first letters of all the different ranks below the domains can ranks contain fewer organisms with more similarity between them
be remembered as:
o Kings Play Chess On Fancy Gold Squares
o Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
 Eukarya
Classification of an organism in the Eukarya domain ✓ A wolf is an example of an organism in the Eukarya
domain
✓ Just like the other domains, Eukarya contains the taxonomic ✓ It can be classified further into its kingdom,
hierarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and phylum, class, order, genus and species
species ✓ A wolf belongs to the following taxonomic groups:
o Domain: Eukarya
o Kingdom: Animalia
o Phylum: Chordata
o Class: Mammalia
o Order: Carnivora
o Family: Canidae
o Genus: Canis
o Species Canis lupus

•The Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is another

example of an organism in the eukarya
domain
•It is a colourful flowering plant
•It belongs to the following taxonomic
groups:
• Domain: Eukarya
• Kingdom: Plantae
• Phylum: Angiospermae
• Class: Dicotyledonae
• Order: Malvales
• Family: Malvaceae
• Genus: Hibiscus
• Species: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
The classification system is organised within the eukarya domain
– Note there are missing groups at each rank
Exam Tip
The name of a species always consists of two words: the genus and
species. This means when provided with the Latin name of a species you
are automatically provided with information about the last two taxonomic
ranks that the organism belongs to. Remember this when being asked to
show or explain the classification of an organism in the exam.

✓ The domain Eukarya can be divided into 4 kingdoms:
o Protoctista
o Fungi
o Plantae
o Animalia
✓ Organisms from each of the four kingdoms have
distinct characteristics and features, but share
similarities in that they have cells with membrane-
bound nuclei separating genetic material from the
cytoplasm, and compartmentalisation within their
cells as a result of the presence of other organelles
Kingdoms
Kingdom Protoctista
✓ All Protoctista are eukaryotic, and this broad group of cellular life encompasses all
eukaryotic cells that do not belong to the other three eukaryotic kingdoms
✓ Members of this kingdom show great diversity in all aspects of life including
structure, life cycle, feeding and trophic levels and well as modes of locomotion
✓ Protoctists can exist as single-celled organisms or as a group of similar cells
✓ A group of Protoctista known as protozoa possess cells similar to animal cells
• Their cells have no cell wall
✓ Another group of Protoctista known as algae possess cells similar to plant cells
• Their cells have cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts
✓ Stentor roseli is a protoctist that has flagella all over its body which help it feed and
move

The four kingdoms within the Eukarya

domain: protoctista, fungi, plantae and
animalia
 Kingdoms
Kingdom Fungi
✓ The oldest organism in the world is thought to be a
fungus aged somewhere between 1500 – 10,000 years
old
✓ All fungi are eukaryotic cells
✓ The cells of fungi:
o Possess non-cellulose cell walls (often made of the
polysaccharides chitin and glucans
o Don’t have cilia
✓ Fungi are heterotrophs:
o They use organic compounds made by other organisms as
their source of energy and molecules for metabolism
o They obtain this energy and carbon by digesting
dead/decaying matter extracellularly or from being
parasites on living organisms
✓ Fungi reproduce using spores that disperse onto the
ground nearby
✓ Fungi have a simple body form:
o They can be unicellular (like the common baker’s yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
o Some consist of long threads called hyphae that grow from
the main fungus body (mycelium)
o Larger fungi possess fruiting bodies that release large
numbers of spores
The structure of a fungus with its hyphae, mycelium and fruiting
✓ The mould found on bread is actually a fungus: bread
bodies
mould fungus Rhizopus nigricans

Kingdom Plantae
✓ Plants are multicellular eukaryotic organisms
✓ Plant cells:
o All have cell walls composed of cellulose
o Possess large (and usually permanent) vacuoles that
provide structural support
o Are able to differentiate into specialized cells to form
tissues and organs
o Possess chloroplasts that enable photosynthesis (not all
plant cells have chloroplasts)
o Can sometimes have flagella
✓ They are autotrophs
o This means they can synthesize their organic compounds
and molecules for energy use and building biomass from
inorganic compounds
✓ Plants have complex body forms
o They have branching systems above and below the
ground
✓ Bristlecone pines are found in the USA, it is estimated
that some of them could be 3000 years old
Kingdoms
Kingdom Animalia
✓ Animals are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms
✓ Animal cells:
o Are able to differentiate into many different specialised cell types that
can form tissues and organs
o Have small temporary vacuoles (for example, lysosomes)
o Have no cell walls
o Sometimes have cilia
✓ They are heterotrophs
o They have a wide range of feeding mechanisms
✓ They have a wide range of body forms:
o Communication within their complex body forms takes place through a
nervous system and chemical signalling
✓ Blue whales are the largest living animal species
 Viruses
✓ Viruses are microorganisms that can only be seen using an electron microscope
✓ They have no cellular structure (and so are acellular and no metabolism
✓ Viruses hijack the DNA replication machinery in host cells
✓ The energy viruses need for replication is provided by respiration in the host cell
✓ Viruses possess none of the characteristic features used for classifying organisms so they sit outside of the three-domain classification system
✓ There is a wide-ranging debate as to whether viruses should be classified as ‘living’ or ‘non-living’ based on their inability to carry out the defining features of
life outside of a host cell

Classification of viruses
Classifying viruses by their genetic material
✓ Viruses are classified according to the type of nucleic acid
(RNA or DNA) their genome is made from, and whether it is
single-stranded or double-stranded
✓ In cellular organisms like animals and plants, DNA is
always double-stranded and RNA is usually always single-
stranded
✓ However, in viruses, DNA and RNA can be either single-
stranded or double-stranded
✓ As a result, there are four groups of viruses that exist:
o DNA single-stranded viruses
o DNA double-stranded viruses
o RNA single-stranded viruses (this is the type of genome of
SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19
pandemic)
o RNA double-stranded viruses
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Candidates should be able to:

✓ Explain why populations and species can become extinct as a result of:
• climate change • competition • hunting by humans
• degradation and loss of habitats
✓ Outline reasons for the need to maintain biodiversity
✓ Outline the roles of zoos, botanic gardens, conserved areas (including national parks and marine parks), ‘frozen
zoos’ and seed banks, in the conservation of endangered species
✓ Describe methods of assisted reproduction used in the conservation of endangered mammals, limited to IVF,
embryo transfer and surrogacy
✓ Explain reasons for controlling invasive alien species
✓ Outline the role in conservation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

✓ Extinction is when a species comes to an end or
dies out
✓ Extinction is a natural biological process that
happens on planet earth and studies of fossils
and ancient DNA have shown that million of
species have gone extinct in the past
✓ Mass extinction events have also occurred in
the past where a very large number of species
went extinct at one time
• The rate of extinction during these periods are
very high
✓ Past mass extinctions were likely caused by
major and sudden shifts in the environment
such as an Ice Age or an asteroid hitting the
earth
✓ Scientists have been studying the current rates
of extinction in recent years and many believe
that the earth is undergoing a current mass
extinction with humans being the main cause
✓ Possible reasons for extinction include:
• Climate change
• Competition
• Introduction of species
• Hunting by Humans
• Degradation and loss of habitats
Reasons for Extinction
Climate change
✓ The large scale burning of fossil fuels by humans in recent years has led to a large increase in
the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect
✓ The increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has had several knock-on
effects on ecosystems around the world
• There has been an increase in the mean global temperature
• Sea levels are rising
• Ocean temperatures and acidity are rising
• Ice caps are melting
✓ These knock-on effects have massively changed the habitats of some species, so much so
that some are no longer able to survive in the new environmental conditions
• For example, polar bears are struggling to survive as more of their habitat melts away earlier each
year. The earlier melting of the ice caps means they have to swim further to reach seal populations
that they hunt for food
Competition
✓ When there is a limited supply of resources within an area competition between individuals
for the same resource can occur
✓ The resources could be food, water, habitat and reproductive mates
✓ Competition can exist within species and between species
✓ Competition reduces the population size of a species
• For example, millions of years ago there were many different species of wild dog that lived in North
America. When several cat species spread from Asia into North America there were high levels of
competition between these carnivores. As a result, there are only nine species of wild dog that exist
in North America today
✓ Competition with humans has become a major problem for some species in the last 100
years as humans have taken their food, water and habitat

Introduction of species
✓ When humans colonised new land they
would often exchange animal and plant
species between their home country and
the new land
• These introduced species are non-native
• Non-native species can be highly
problematic as they often have no natural
competitors, predators or pathogens that
help limit population growth
• Without these natural population checks,
non-native species can massively
increase in number
• The large numbers of non-native species
can negatively affect the native species
through factors such as competition and
disease
✓ Grey squirrels have led to the decimation
of the red squirrel population in the UK
• Grey squirrels were introduced to the UK
in 1876
• They quickly grew in numbers
• The larger grey squirrels compete with
red squirrels for food
• They also carry and transmit a disease
known as squirrelpox which is fatal to red
squirrels
Reasons for Extinction
Hunting by humans
✓ In the past humans would have hunted, killed and ate wild animal species in order to
survive
✓ Nowadays most of the meat that humans consume comes from domesticated livestock
like cattle, sheep and chicken
✓ The evolution of livestock has negated the need for many humans to hunt wild animals
• Some humans in underdeveloped countries still have to hunt animals for survival
✓ The hunting of wild animals is still common and has become a sport for some individuals
• The rarer and more vulnerable species are often more desirable for a sport hunter
✓ If too many individuals within a species are killed then the population can become so
small that it is no longer able to survive
Degradation & loss of habitats
✓ This is the main cause of species extinction
✓ Over recent years humans have aggressively destroyed animals habitats by cutting
down forests, draining wetlands and polluting the water, soil and air
✓ This is highly problematic as species are adapted to survive within their specific habitat
that has particular environmental conditions
✓ Without their habitat organisms will not get the resources they need to survive
✓ As their habitat area gets reduced a species will:
• Search for other suitable habitats
• Compete with others for the remaining habitat
✓ Eventually the range of habitat can become so small or non-existent that a species is not
able to survive and goes extinct
Exam Tip
All of the factors above explain how the population of a species can dramatically
decrease and become very small. It is worth thinking about why small populations are so
much more vulnerable to extinction.
Several things are happening at the genetic level. A smaller population has increased
levels of inbreeding, which reduces the genetic variation in the population. Genetic
drift has a larger impact on a small population leading to an even further decrease in
genetic variation. As we know from natural selection genetic variation is important as it
allows a species to adapt and survive environmental change; it improves its fitness. So a
small population has a lower fitness meaning increased mortality and decreased
reproduction.

✓ Biodiversity is the range and variety of
genes, species and habitats within a
particular region
✓ It is made up of three components:
• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecosystem diversity
✓ Global biodiversity has a major impact
on humans and all other species on the
planet
✓ There are many reasons for maintaining
biodiversity:
1.Moral and ethical 2. Ecological
3. Environmental 4.Economic
5. Aesthetic 6. Agricultural
Moral & ethical reasons
✓ Many people believe that humans have
a moral obligation to prevent the
manmade loss of biodiversity
✓ Humans share the planet with millions
of others species and they have no right
to cause the extinction of other species
✓ As humans are the most intelligent
species on the planet the responsibility
falls upon their shoulders to protect and
value all of the organisms on the planet
Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity
Ecological reasons
✓ Biodiversity has a major effect on the stability of an ecosystem
• A more diverse ecosystem is better able to survive and adapt to environmental changes or threats
✓ For example, if the temperature of a species-rich lake rises due to global warming:
• Some species of fish in the ecosystem are unable to cope with the change while others can
• The fish that are able to cope will survive, reproduce and keep contributing to the ecosystem
✓ Within communities there are keystone species that have a larger impact on the ecosystem than others
✓ When these species are lost there are several knock-on effects
✓ Bush elephants in the African savannah are a keystone species
• They graze in a very extreme way, knocking over and eating several species of tree
• This destruction of vegetation actually helps to maintain the ecosystem
• Elephant dung also provides a habitat for many important fungi and insect species
• When elephants were legally hunted for their ivory, their numbers reduced and scientists observed a major negative
impact on the savannah
Environmental reasons
✓ Humans need diverse ecosystems because of the essential environmental services they provide
✓ Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help to reduce the greenhouse effect
and climate change
✓ Microorganisms digest and break down the masses of organic waste that are produced by
larger organisms
✓ Humans have irrigation and drinking water thanks to the transpiration of plants and their
contribution to the water cycle
✓ Different fungi and bacteria species are a major part of the nutrient cycle that allows for
nutrients to reenter the soil for further plant growth
✓ Plants are producers in food webs. They are both a direct and indirect energy source for
humans through fruit, vegetables and meat
 Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity
Economic reasons Aesthetic reasons
✓ Ecosystems have a lot of economic value ✓ Humans find great joy and pleasure in the beauty of nature
✓ It provides inspiration for creatives such as photographers,
✓ Many of the medicines used today have originated from plants, fungi and
poets, musicians and artists
bacteria ✓ There is a strong argument for preserving biodiversity because
• For example the cancer-fighting drug paclitaxel is sourced from Pacific and Himalayan Yew Trees
of its aesthetic benefits
• The Himalayan Yew has declined in numbers due to over-harvesting for fuel and medicine
• Due to the large number of drugs that have already been sourced from nature it is reasonable to
assume that there are other drugs, yet to be found in nature, that could be used in the future
✓ Ecotourism a major source of income for many countries
• Many tourists travel to and spend money in National parks so they can see wildlife
• Increased tourism in a country contributes to the economy and provides jobs
✓ Ecosystems have also made major contributions to the field of science and technology
• The specific enzyme used in DNA sequencing was first discovered in thermophilic bacterium
found in a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park, USA

Agricultural reasons
✓ Most of the crops that humans grow are very uniform with low genetic
diversity
✓ The wild relatives of crops can provide a source of genetic diversity to rescue
crops that are affected by disease or other disasters
✓ Many of the wild relative species are under threat due to habitat destruction
and climate change
✓ All of the world’s potato crop comes from a single species
• This lack of species diversity makes the crop highly susceptible to disease
• There are over 100 species of wild potatoes that grow in the Andes
• These Andean species act as a source of alleles for disease resistance
• These alleles have been introduced to the potato crop through gene technology
and interbreeding
 Methods of Conservation
✓ An endangered species is a species that is being threatened with extinction
✓ Conservation of endangered species can be approached in several different ways
✓ Ideally a species should be kept in their natural habitat as all the support systems they need to
maintain life already exist there
• National parks and marine parks are examples of conservation methods that do this Galapagos Islands
✓ When it is not possible to do this endangered species can be captured and placed in captivity for
conservation efforts ✓ A large proportion of the land and water
• Zoos and botanic gardens take part in conservation programmes surrounding the Galapagos Islands is
✓ Scientists have also come up with several methods to try and ensure the long-term survival of protected.
endangered species through frozen zoos and seed banks
✓ Humans are not allowed to travel to many
Conserved areas of the islands in the National park and
✓ National parks are areas within countries where the wildlife and environment are protected fishing is illegal in the Marine park areas.
✓ Governments control these areas and pass legislation to ensure their protection ✓ Management of these areas is shared
✓ There are several restrictions between locals and conservation experts.
• Humans access is strictly controlled
✓ Since it was established over 50 years ago,
• Industrial activities such as agriculture and building are tightly regulated
there have been strong efforts made to
• Hunting is limited or completely prohibited
remove invasive species and increase native
✓ Marine parks are protected areas of water that have been set up for the conservation of
endangered marine ecosystems and species
species.
• They also have restrictions to prevent overfishing and pollution ✓ Rats and goats are captured and removed
✓ Public engagement with conservation efforts is important for long term success: and the alien plant species elephant grass is
• National and Marine parks can attract thousands of tourists each year which increases money and dug up and destroyed while giant tortoises
awareness for the conservation effort are being reintroduced.
• Involving members of the local community in the management of protected areas can provide jobs and
increase acceptance of the parks
• Some of the profits made from parks can be used to improve the health and education standards in the
nearby communities to illustrate the benefits of having such areas nearby
 Methods of Conservation
Conservation in captivity
✓ Zoos can also contribute towards the conservation of endangered animal species
✓ Captive breeding programmes can breed individuals of a species so their offspring can be released into the wild
✓ Zoos are an invaluable resource for scientific research
• Scientists are able to closely study animal’s genetics, behaviours and habitat needs
✓ There are some problems with zoos and their role in conservation:
• Captive breeding of small species populations can reduce genetic diversity
• Certain animal species will not breed in captivity
• Not all zoos can provide adequate habitats for animals with specific needs
✓ There are stories of both success and failure when it comes to zoos and conservation:
• The oryx is an antelope-like species that was saved from extinction and reintroduced into the wild in Africa thanks to zoos and captive breeding
programmes
• Pandas have been in captive breeding programs for over 60 years and not a single panda has been reintroduced into the wild
✓ Botanic gardens are the plant equivalent of zoos
✓ They use cuttings and seeds collected from the wild to establish a population of the endangered species in captivity
✓ Methods of tissue culturing and cloning can also be used to obtain large numbers of plants from a small sample size
✓ The captive population can be used in the future for reintroduction into habitats where they have become rare
✓ Research is a major role of botanic gardens
• They investigate reproduction and growth in different plant species so that they can be grown in captivity
• If the plants original habitat no longer exists they try to find suitable new habitats
✓ Both zoos and botanic gardens are instrumental to education
• They help to raise awareness of vulnerable, endangered species and conservation efforts worldwide
 Methods of Conservation
Storing genetic material for Conservation
✓ If a species becomes extinct in the wild then traditional conservation
methods are no longer useful
✓ New technology has provided ways of storing the genetic material of
endangered species so that it is not lost forever
✓ Frozen zoos store genetic material from animals (eggs, sperm, tissue
samples etc) at very low temperatures so that they can be kept for a very
long time
• Ideally samples are collected from different individuals of the same species to
maintain the gene pool
• The temperature used is roughly -196oC
• A large amount of genetic material can be stored in a relatively small space
• In the future genetic materials from extinct animal species could be used to
breed and reintroduce a species through IVF and genetic engineering
• The San Diego Zoo in the USA has frozen zoo facilities
✓ A seed bank is a facility that conserves plant diversity by drying and
storing seeds in a temperature controlled environment
• Usually, seeds of the same species are collected from different sites to
maintain the gene pool
• If the plant species goes extinct then the seeds can be used to grow them again
• Seeds can only be stored for so long. After a certain period of time the stored
seeds are grown into plants and fresh seeds for storage are taken from those
plants
• The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway has almost 1 million species of plant
seed. It is located in the Arctic Circle with ideal environmental conditions
• Many organisations send seeds from crop plants to be stored there for
safekeeping
✓ Some plants have seeds that can not be frozen such as coffee and cocoa
plants
• In order to preserve the genetic diversity of these plants successive generations
must be grown or tissue cultures taken
Exam Tip
Remember all of the conservation efforts made to stop a species going extinct
is pointless if they don’t have a natural habitat to return to. Conserving whole
ecosystems is essential for the long term survival of species.
Areas like tropical rainforests and coral reefs have exceptional biodiversity but
they are currently under threat from industrial development, pollution and
exploitation.

✓ Endangered mammals tend to have small and isolated
populations
✓ Small populations are prone to inbreeding and inbreeding
depression
• Inbreeding depression is the reduction in fitness of a
population due to breeding between closely related
individuals and the resulting increased homozygosity
✓ When populations are isolated it can also be difficult for
individuals to find suitable reproductive mates
✓ Previously large mammals were transported between zoos
in captive breeding programs
• Advantage: Humans were able to monitor the health of
the mother and foetus
• Disadvantage: It was highly expensive and unreliable as
sometimes individuals would refuse to mate
✓ Science has come up with several solutions for inbreeding
and the lack of reproductive mates in endangered
mammals
IVF
✓ In vitro fertilization involves the fertilization of an egg
outside of the female body
• For example in a test tube or petri dish
✓ Method:
• A needle is inserted into the female’s ovaries and eggs
are extracted
• The eggs are kept in a culture medium for a short amount
of time
• Male semen is mixed with the eggs so fertilization can
occur
• Several zygotes form and develop into embryos
• The embryos are placed in a culture for several days
• The embryos are transferred either into the mother, or
another female
✓ IVF allows is advantageous over natural mating as it allows
humans to control and confirm fertilization of the embryo
Assisted Reproduction
Embryo transfer
✓ Pregnancies are high risk for females; complications can arise which in some cases prove fatal
✓ Since the population numbers of an endangered species are already very low each reproductive
female is of very high value and importance
✓ Embryo transfer can be used to avoid the risks of pregnancy for the vulnerable female so that she
can provide many eggs for multiple offspring
✓ Method:
• An egg belonging to a female of the vulnerable species is fertilized by the sperm belonging to a male of the
same species
• A zygote forms which develops into an embryo
• After fertilization, the embryo is taken from the uterus of the female and transferred to a surrogate female
• The embryo develops to full term and the offspring is born
✓ The surrogate mother can be from another non-vulnerable species
✓ This technique has been used to try and conserve populations of several different species of African
antelope
Surrogacy
✓ A surrogate is any female that becomes pregnant with the embryo from another female and carries
the embryo to full term
✓ Surrogate mothers require hormone treatment before they receive an embryo
• The hormones ensure that her uterus is in the right condition for the embryo to embed
✓ There are multiple ways in which the embryo might have been conceived:
• Naturally
• Artificial insemination (semen from the male is injected into the uterus of the female)
• IVF
✓ A surrogate female can be the same or different species to the biological mother of the embryo
• If it is a different species it needs to be closely related to ensure compatibility of the embryo and uterus
Exam Tip
Sometimes eggs and sperm are frozen so that they can be used at a later date.
Egg cells have a high water content so the internal membranes of eggs can be
damaged by the freezing and thawing process.
 Controlling Invasive Species
✓ A species that has moved into an ecosystem where it was previously unknown is an invasive species
✓ An invasive species can occur naturally as a result of a species migrating or expanding their habitat but most recorded
incidents of invasive species have been caused by humans
✓ In the past humans have:
• Knowingly collected and traded species between countries via ships
• Unknowingly provided transport for invasive species to a new ecosystem
• Introduced alien species deliberately as biological control for pests
✓ Japanese knotweed is the UK’s most invasive non-native plant species
• There are several natural population controls that exist for Japanese knotweed in its natural habitat in Japan. The irregular climate and
the deposits of volcanic ash over the ground limit its growth
• A German botanist brought the plant to the UK in the 19th century because he admired its beauty
• As the UK does not possess the same environmental factors the plant was able to grow unchecked. Since the 1800s it has spread
across the UK and become a major problem
• It grows at a rapid rate, breaking up tarmac and blocking out all sunlight for the native plant species
 Controlling Invasive Species
Problems with invasive alien species
✓ The biological process of evolution often brings balance to an ecosystem
✓ Through evolution the environment a species lives in strongly influences the adaptations that the species evolve to live in
that environment
✓ A non-native invasive species will have evolved adaptations for survival in different environmental conditions so when they
are introduced into the new ecosystem this can upset the balance
✓ In a new ecosystem invasive species will have little or none of the natural population controls that existed in their previous
ecosystem:
• They will have no natural predators or competitors
✓ As a result they are able to increase in number at a rapid rate
✓ This can affect the processes within an ecosystem
• Competition may occur between invasive species and native species that occupy a similar niche with the native species getting
displaced or pushed to extinction. It could be competition for things such as prey, soil nutrients, light and space
• Many invasive species can be over successful predators causing a massive decline in their prey species
• Invasive species can introduce new diseases, to which the native species have no natural immunity
• The biodiversity of an ecosystem is negatively impacted which reduces its productivity
✓ Humans can also feel the knock on effects of an invasive species taking over an ecosystem
• The spread of novel diseases and irritants of the skin / respiratory system directly affect human health
• The economy of a country can be severely impacted by the costs of trying to control invasive species and their negative effects
• In the past travel has been brought to a standstill by invasive species, with some plant species prone to blocking up waterways
 Controlling Invasive Species

The Cane Toad in Australia

In the early 1900s, there was a major problem with the sugarcane crop in Australia. An insect pest was destroying the crop and causing major
economic losses for many farmers. It was decided that the non-native cane toad (from Hawaii) should be introduced so that it could act as a
biological control. After a short period of time the numbers of cane toads increased rapidly due to a lack of natural predators and they spread
into other habitats outside of the sugarcane plantations. This had a knock on effect on other species:
✓ The cane toad is toxic when eaten. The northern quoll, which is an endangered marsupial carnivore, declined steeply in numbers as they
preyed on the cane toad
✓ Other amphibian species face increased competition for food and resources
✓ The eggs of ground-nesting birds are often eaten by cane toads
 Role of IUCN & CITES in Conservation
✓ International cooperation is essential if conservation is to be successful
✓ There are several agreements and authorities that exist within and between countries with the aim of protecting and conserving species
worldwide

IUCN
✓ The International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) is described as “the global
authority on the status of the natural world and
the measures needed to safeguard it”
✓ One of the duties that the IUCN carries out is
assessing the conservation status of animal and
plant species around the world
• The IUCN has their own classification system
• There are several different categories and levels
that a species can fall into depending on their
population numbers and the threats and risks to
those populations
• Scientists use data and modelling to estimate
which category each species should be in The IUCN classification system of species – Scientists are continually
updating and reviewing the conservation status of species
✓ Animals that are on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species™ can be seen online as this
list is made public
 Role of IUCN & CITES in Conservation

CITES
✓ The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) is a global agreement that has been signed
by over 150 countries
✓ Its aim is to control the trade of endangered species and their associated products
• For example, elephants and their ivory tusks
✓ CITES categorizes endangered and vulnerable species into three appendices:
• Appendix I : species that are endangered and face the greatest risk of extinction (for example, the red panda)
• Appendix II: species that are not currently endangered or facing extinction, but will be unless trade is closely controlled (for example, the venus fly trap)
• Appendix III: species included at request of the country that is regulating trade of the species and trying to prevent its overexploitation (for example,
the two-toed sloth in Costa Rica)
✓ There are different trading regulations that apply to each appendix:
• For species in appendix I: all trade in the species and their associated products is banned
• For species in appendix II: trade is only granted if an export permit has been issued by the involved countries
• For species in appendix III: permits are required for regulated trade. Permits are easier to come by for species in this appendix
✓ Scientists are continuously adding new species and reviewing the status of species already in the database
✓ There are several concerns about the efficacy of CITES listings
• When the trade of a certain endangered species becomes illegal, its price increases
• The increased economic value of the species can be a major incentive for people to break the law