ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NATURAL FIBER-REINFORCED

WASTE PLASTIC HYBRID COMPOSITE FOR 3D-PRINTED PARTITION WALL

By

HENOK DEREJE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

NOVEMBER 2023
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The goal of sustainable development is to maintain the resources available now so that the same
advantages and opportunities remain available in the future. This concept of sustainability has m
otivated the need to eliminate or reduce waste, publicize the concept of reuse, and stimulate the r
ecycling of discarded products [1]. The UN's 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals
calls for the establishment of sustainable infrastructure and services to address challenges like
excessive energy use, solid waste production, water depletion, and greenhouse gas emissions
across various industries [2]. Furthermore, waste plastic has grown substantially because 79
percent of all plastics created to date have accumulated in dumps or been landfilled, allowing them
to linger in the environment for extended periods. If the current pace of output continues, statistical
extrapolation predicts that 12 billion metric tons of plastic will be accumulated in landfills by 2050
[3]. Particularly because of the increasing demand in developing nations such as Ethiopia, global
plastic production has experienced significant growth in recent decades [4]. Therefore, the existing
plastic waste management options are incapable of effectively handling the plastic waste
generated, and the techniques for disposing of waste plastic have evolved into valuable
commodities.

The essential utilization of plastics in contemporary society, coupled with inadequate handling
primarily through landfilling, is causing widespread chaos worldwide [5]. The sole feasible
approach to mitigate the resulting pollution is by minimizing disposal and maximizing the practice
of reuse and recycling [6]. Even though post-consumer plastic is no longer acceptable, [7] there is
an urge for novel plastic decontamination approaches, such as recycling important materials and
using upcycling methods. Recycling waste plastic to generate building and construction materials
is one of the proposed projects. Because it is the largest industry in numerous nations and the
largest consumer of raw materials, the construction industry is a potential sector where waste
plastic can be beneficially employed for numerous applications. Waste plastic can be utilized in
civil construction as an aggregate in cementitious and asphalt mixtures, filler, insulation, and so
on.Despite the huge potential for employing waste plastic in construction, its use and developme
nt remain underappreciated.
These days, additive manufacturing (AM), commonly known as 3D printing, is a popular way of
rapid prototyping that has caught the attention of everyone, from entrepreneurs to industries. [8]

It is a new manufacturing process that involves using computer software (CAD) to command
machines to build the desired material layer by layer. Because of its potential and benefits, such as
design freedom and short production times [9, 10], additive manufacturing has gained in
popularity. This technology has advanced significantly over the last decade, revolutionizing the
production process. 3D printing technical advancements have benefitted the aerospace,
automotive, medical, and food industries [8-11]. With minimal advancement over the last century,
3D printing has recently been used in the building business. This blending of 3D printing and the
construction business is commonly referred to as "construction 3D printing" [9]. Construction 3D
printing is described as "joining materials to produce constructions from 3D model data" [1]. The
construction 3D printing period began in 1997 with one research and one patent. Pegna from
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute was the first to apply 3D printing technology to construction in
1997 [10]. Khoshnevis, from the University of Southern California, published a patent named
"Additive fabrication method" the same year. The technology was later dubbed "Contour Crafting"
in 2001 [11]. Following these efforts, new automated construction technologies were created. 3D
printing saves time, human labor, and waste while enabling mass customization [11, 18].

AM is classified as a multistep process and a single-step process by ISO/ASTM 52900. Binder

jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, and powder bed fusion are
different processes. There are three types of 3D printing technologies accessible based on the
materials utilized in the AM process: liquid-, solid-, and powder-based AM. Liquid-based AM
techniques include stereolithography (SL), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and polyjet.
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a type of AM that is based on solids. Powder-based
AM includes powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing (3DP), metal, laminated engineered net
shaping (LENS), selective laser sintering (SLS), and electron beam melting [19]. FDM is the most
often used technique for printing fiber-reinforced polymer composites [20]. The printed
composites will have a minor void creation between the deposition lines, which is one of the main
limitations of the FDM technology [21]. This void generation in the additive printing process can
be used to the advantage of acoustic applications, as acoustic absorption panels require a small
number of pores or voids to absorb sound waves effectively [22]. To get the desired output with
enhanced qualities, the filaments used in the AM process must be durable and resistant [23]. Many
materials have been employed in the additive manufacturing technique. Pure polymers, polymer
matrix composites, polymer ceramic composites, nanocomposites, and fiber-reinforced
composites are some materials that have been used in practice [20]. Natural fiber-reinforced
composite (NFRC) filaments have recently acquired attention in AM because they are inexpensive,
highly biodegradable, and have minimal environmental consequences [28]. Synthetic fibers have
a higher carbon footprint over their whole life cycle [20], but bio-based polymers have lower
environmental implications and can be used as an alternative to petroleum-based polymers [21].

Because of recent research efforts, the production of composite filaments from natural fibers such
as hemp, flax, and bamboo has improved dramatically [25]. These filaments have better
mechanical properties, a smaller environmental effect, a wider range of applications, and low cost
[30]. Natural fiber composites have acquired popularity as a viable alternative to traditional
polymer-based filaments as the global emphasis on eco-friendly solutions and decreasing
manufacturing's carbon footprint has expanded [31]. One of the most intriguing advancements in
this sector is the use of natural fiber composite filaments in AM techniques [32]. This novel
technique combines the benefits of sustainable natural fibers with the versatility and precision of
additive manufacturing technologies [23]. The creation of composite filaments from natural fibers
has advanced significantly because of recent research efforts [34].

Traditional construction materials, beyond their environmental impact, pose a significant threat to
workforce health and are becoming increasingly expensive. The health hazards associated with
traditional materials, particularly cement, present a pressing concern. This is a huge factor in
developing countries such as Ethiopia, where the foreign expenses related to importing materials
contribute to the rising costs of construction. In response to the growing imperative for sustainable
construction practices, this thesis embarks on a transformative exploration into the development
of a Natural Fiber-Reinforced Waste Plastic Hybrid Composite designed explicitly for Sustainable
3D-printed Partition Wall. The feature of this hybrid composite lies in its composition, integrating
two unique natural fibers, rice husks and wheat straw. The integration of rice husks and wheat
straw into the composite takes center stage, leveraging their unique properties. Rice husks, known
for their strength and thermal insulation capabilities, complement the fibrous resilience of wheat
straw. [30] This will not only repurpose agricultural waste, but also harness the specific strengths
of each natural fiber.

1.2 Motivation

The pressing concerns in construction, especially in emerging nations like Ethiopia, necessitate
attention. Environmental concerns, including the high carbon footprint of traditional materials like
cement, motivate the exploration of a "Natural Fiber-Reinforced Waste Plastic Hybrid Composite"
as an eco-friendly alternative. Health risks associated with conventional materials, coupled with
the economic burden of importing certain raw materials for cement production, underscore the
need for locally sourced and cost-effective solutions. The increasing cost of cement and other
building materials in the country adds urgency to finding more affordable alternatives.

The integration of 3D printing technology presents an opportunity to merge advanced construction

techniques with innovative, sustainable materials. Leveraging abundant agricultural waste, such
as "rice husks and wheat straw," not only addresses environmental issues but also contributes to
local resource utilization. Additionally, waste plastic, a significant environmental concern,
becomes a central focus for sustainable solutions in construction. Beyond technical aspects, the
thesis is motivated by a broader goal of fostering social impact, aiming to create resilient and
inclusive communities through accessible and safe housing solutions. Ultimately, this research
seeks to contribute valuable insights to academic discourse and pave the way for a more sustainable
future in construction practices.

1.3 Problem Statement

Within Ethiopia's construction landscape, the predominant reliance on traditional materials,

particularly cement, poses significant challenges with environmental degradation, soaring costs,
and health hazards. Compounding these issues is the underutilization of abundant agricultural
waste, such as "rice husks and wheat straw," exacerbating environmental concerns and hindering
sustainable practices. The industry's struggle to source locally available alternatives further
impedes progress in addressing these complex challenges of environmental impact, health risks,
and economic burdens.

Moreover, the proliferation of plastic materials, driven by their inherent properties such as
lightweight construction, durability, ease of production, cost-effectiveness, and design flexibility,
contributes to escalating environmental concerns [22]. The disposal of plastic waste, compounded
by its non-biodegradable nature, creates environmental pollution, particularly in developing
countries like Ethiopia grappling with a shortage of proper waste disposal sites. Recognizing the
need for transformative approaches, this thesis acknowledges that plastic waste, when processed
effectively, can be repurposed into sustainable construction materials through the fabrication of
filaments. However, the existing challenge lies in achieving the desired mechanical characteristics
in recycled plastic [14].

The advent of 3D printing technology presents a unique opportunity to address these challenges
and explore uncharted territories in sustainable construction practices. Despite the transformative
potential, the synergy of advanced 3D printing techniques with sustainable materials, particularly
a Natural Fiber-Reinforced Waste Plastic Hybrid Composite, remains largely unexplored. This
thesis aims to fill this critical gap by providing a comprehensive solution tailored for Sustainable
3D-printed Wall Panels. By doing so, it aspires to usher in a new era in the construction industry,
offering innovative, eco-friendly alternatives that mitigate environmental impact, health risks, and
economic burdens.

1.4 Objectives

1.4.1 General Objective

The main objective of this research thesis is to develop Natural Fiber-Reinforced Waste Plastic
Hybrid Composite for Sustainable 3D-printed wall Panels.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this research thesis are:

 To enhance the mechanical properties of recycled plastic for the proposed application by
developing composite materials with natural fiber reinforced.
 To characterize the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the proposed composite
material.
 To check the printability of natural fiber-reinforced waste plastic and characterize the
mechanical and morphology properties of the 3D printed sample.
 To investigate the influences of fiber content on blended recycled plastics.
1.5 Scope

The scope of this study is focused on the development and characterization of a Natural Fiber-
Reinforced Waste Plastic Hybrid Composite for Sustainable 3D-printed wall Panels. It entails a
thorough investigation and determination of the appropriate ratios of natural fiber and waste
plastics for the composite. Creating and characterizing recycled post-consumer HDPE and PET
reinforced with natural fiber for use as 3D-printed partition walls is the aim of this work. Various
waste plastics will be gathered to fulfill the study's purpose. The collected waste plastic will be
then sorted and separated, and it will then be shredded, cleaned, and dried. The strength, durability,
and thermal qualities of the composite are evaluated by extensive mechanical testing and a
systematic blending of the materials with an emphasis on cost-effectiveness, environmental
sustainability, and structural integrity.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is crucial for the construction industry in Ethiopia and beyond, presenting an innovative
solution to waste plastic challenges through the development of a hybrid natural fiber-reinforced
waste plastic composite for a Sustainable 3D-printed partition wall. Research directly addresses
environmental sustainability concerns associated with plastic waste, offering an eco-friendly
alternative to traditional materials. Additionally, it addresses health issues related to conventional
construction materials such as cement, prioritizing the well-being of construction workers and
occupants. The local-sourced and cost-effective nature of the proposed composite improves
economic resilience by reducing the dependence on expensive imported materials. The integration
of 3D printing technology introduces a transformative leap in construction practices, laying the
foundation for future advancements. By efficiently utilizing abundant agricultural waste, the study
promotes resource sustainability and contributes valuable information on both the practical and
academic aspects of sustainable construction practices.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

While this study strives to contribute insights into sustainable construction practices, it is important
to recognize certain limitations. The research is context-specific, focusing on the development of
a Natural Fiber-Reinforced Waste Plastic Hybrid Composite for Sustainable 3D-printed Wall
Panels. Findings may not universally apply to other construction materials or applications. The
study does not encompass the optimization of 3D printing parameters, and its applicability
assessment primarily relies on laboratory testing rather than extensive field application
considerations. Time constraints, external variables, and resource availability also pose limitations,
influencing the depth and breadth of the research. Acknowledging these constraints is essential for
a nuanced interpretation of the study's outcomes and for guiding future research in the realm of
sustainable construction materials.

1.8 Organization of Thesis

This thesis work is organized into five chapters.

Introduction: The opening chapter introduces the background, motivation, problem

statement, objectives, significance, and limitations of the study. It sets the stage for the
subsequent chapters, outlining the research's context and purpose.

Literature Review: This section delves into existing literature related to sustainable
construction materials, natural fiber composites, waste utilization, and 3D printing technology
in construction. It provides a foundation for understanding the current state of the field and
identifies gaps that the present research aims to address.

Methodology: The methodology chapter outlines the research design, material selection
criteria, composite development process, mechanical testing procedures, and applicability
assessment methods. It provides a detailed roadmap for executing the research objectives.

Results and Discussion: This chapter presents the outcomes of the material development,
mechanical testing, and applicability assessment. Findings are analyzed and discussed in the
context of the study's objectives, providing insights into the performance and potential
applications of the developed hybrid composite.

The Last chapter: is devoted to discussing conclusions and recommendations for future work
of the study for further research.
 CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Various studies of literature related to this subject have been identified and reviewed in this chapter.
The first part introduces plastic, plastic solid waste, and plastic waste management systems,
highlighting their importance in the context of sustainable construction practices. The following
topic looks into AM technologies, focusing in particular on previous research on 3D printing
and its applications in construction. The investigation continues with an assessment of composites
that are reinforced with natural fibers in the current landscape. Finally, this chapter covers the use
of waste plastic in 3D printing and investigates composite filament processing processes from
waste plastic, taking natural fiber reinforcement into account.

Review on plastic and Solid Plastic Waste

Plastics are polymeric materials and additives derived from petrochemical, natural gas, or
biologically based sources that have thermoplastic, thermoset, or elastomeric properties. They are
crucial materials in a wide range of industries and daily activities and are used in a variety of
applications such as packaging, building and construction, home and sports equipment, cars,
electronics, agriculture, and so on. They have great mechanical strength, low density, low weight,
ease of manufacture, and low cost [10, 11]. These plastic qualities may help to promote a
significant increase in plastic manufacture [15]. Global plastic production reached 390.7 million
metric tons in 2021, according to Plastic Europe: Plastics-the Facts 2022, with fossil-based plastics
accounting for 90.2 percent of global production, while post-consumer recycled plastics and bio-
based/bio-attributed plastics accounted for 8.3 percent and 1.5 percent, respectively [26]. Global
plastics output has expanded from 2 million metric tons in the 1950s to >390.7 million metric tons
now, with a projection to 2050, as illustrated in Figure [14].
 Figure. Global plastic production trend and projected growth

Plastic in Ethiopia

In 2015, Ethiopia's plastic consumption volume was almost 172,000 tons, and it was predicted to
rise to around 308,000 tons by 2020E. Ethiopia's plastics industry is quickly increasing, as
indicated in the Figure. The packaging, construction, and automotive industries are the three most
important market segments, with percentage shares of 58.4 percent, 9.4 percent, and 6.6 percent,
respectively. Between 2009 and 2011, the local plastic manufacturing sub-sector imported an
average of 67,235 tons of different polymers, with polyethylene and related polymers accounting
for 40.58 percent and polypropylene and related polymers accounting for 19.48 percent [17].

Figure. Estimated plastic consumption in Ethiopia in 2017

In Addis Ababa, for example, PET is the most extensively used and beneficial plastic for making
plastic water and soda bottles, followed by HDPE. It is also used to manufacture jerry cans, which
are used to collect water from communal water points, as well as water bottle caps, shower gel
holders, shopping bags, and even water pipes. While PET and HDPE account for nearly two-thirds
of total plastic consumption, other popular plastics include LDPE, which is primarily used in
agriculture for irrigation tubing and mulch films (which cover and protect crops) as well as garbage
bags, and PP, which is used as packaging boxes for warm meal takeaways [4].

Plastic Waste Issues

Plastics are now widely used in people's daily lives, and the exponential growth in worldwide
plastic usage has increased the volume of waste that must be disposed of. Three-quarters of all
plastics manufactured are wasted. Hundreds of millions of tons of plastic are wasted as waste each
year. [18]. Plastic solid wastes (PSW) account for a considerable component of non-biodegradable
municipal solid wastes (MSW) [2, 16, 17]. More than 90% of Africa's rubbish is disposed of in
unregulated landfills and dumpsites [11]. Global plastic production has increased, owing primarily
to rising demand in emerging countries [12]. Global plastic output has increased rapidly in
developing countries like Ethiopia during the last few decades [13]. One of the explanations is that
fast-expanding populations and high rates of migration from rural regions have forced
metropolitan centers in developing countries to rapidly rise in density. Because of its sluggish or
non-degradation, post-consumer plastic waste harms human health and the ecosystem [22]. Plastic
waste and the environmental concerns associated with its production are still important issues
today, and they are closely linked to the rise in plastic usage among humans. The issue of waste
plasticand its impact on the environment is closely tied to the rise in plastic usage among
individuals. For example, Ethiopia has a serious plastic waste problem; in March 2017, the massive
Koshe dump in Addis Ababa collapsed under the weight of 50 unstable dwellings constructed from
waste. Considering all the issues with waste plastics, improper handling of solid waste stands out
as one of the major risks for people today.
 Figure. The solid waste of Koshe at Addis Ababa

Each Ethiopian resident generates approximately 51 kg of garbage per year, according to estimates.
Approximately half of the total trash is organic, the majority of which is food waste.

Plastic accounts for roughly 7.92 kg of total garbage generated, or 15.5 percent [4]. Proper waste
management is necessary, especially in developing nations where trash disposal has grown to vast
proportions and recycling rates are either non-existent or extremely poor [13]. Waste management
has become a big concern in industrialized countries as landfills have grown to enormous
proportions and recycling rates have remained low or nonexistent to address the problem of waste
plastics [14].

Plastic Waste Management

Because of the growing production and consumption of polymer materials, polymer disposal is
becoming a global issue. Many countries generate varying quantities of trash based on their
financial level, posing a severe dilemma for PSW disposal and management. Garbage management
is a complex process since it necessitates a wide range of information from diverse sources, such
as influencing variables in waste generation and precise forecasting of vast amounts of statistics.
PSW management can, in general, prevent the accumulation of PSW in the environment and avoid
environmental problems. Improved waste plasticcollection, processing, and disposal are necessary
to reduce global plastic litter and pollution. To reduce the environmental impact of plastic waste,
the most commonly used plastic waste management techniques are landfill disposal, incineration,
and recycling, as indicated by the percentages in Figure [15], [16], [17].

Figure. Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal (in million metric tons); Solid lines
show historical data from 1950 to 2015; dashed lines show projections of historical trends to
2050

Processes involved in recycling plastics

Many procedures are required in the recycling of plastics, including collecting wastes from the
place of production or disposal, sorting, compressing, crushing, and pelletizing them into raw
materials. Following these methods, the finished product is thermally, chemically, or mechanically
processed. As a result, recycling waste plasticis more difficult and less favored than recycling
metal, glass, ceramics, and paper [12]. Plastic waste recycling, whether chemical, thermal, or
mechanical, begins with automated sorting utilizing spectroscopy, infrared, fluorescence, flotation,
and electrostatics [1]. Plastic waste is degraded during mechanical recycling by shredding and
grinding [13]. Nevertheless, if the trash mixture is complicated, the approach is not
recommendable and incineration is preferred [14]. Plastic wastes are chemically recycled after
being digested into monomers or smaller chains and chemically changed to become virgin raw
materials needed to produce new products. Thermal processes function by melting waste plasticat
high temperatures and then remanufacturing new products with the resulting mold. The following
Figure summarizes the procedures involved in plastic recycling.
 Figure. Processes involved in the recycling of plastics

Types and uses of plastic wastes in building and construction

Types of recyclable plastic wastes

Even though most plastics are classified as thermosets or thermoplastics based on their capacity to
be remolded to their original shape after being heated [11], several hard plastic waste categories
have been designated for recycling. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene
(PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are only a few
examples [1]. Eriksen and Astrup [15] discovered that the features of plastic wastes influence such
developments in comparison research to evaluate their recyclability potential. PVC was the easiest
to separate, whereas PET was the most difficult. When compared to PVC, the reprocessing
capacity of PET, PS, HDPE, and PP was very high, while the recycling potential of PET was the
lowest when compared to PP, HDPE, and PS. The specific characteristics of recyclable plastic
wastes and their applications are shown in Table.

Table: The characteristics of recyclable plastics and general applications of their wastes
Plastic wastes recycled for building and construction materials

Plastic waste can be recycled and utilized to make building and construction materials. According
to Kamaruddin et al. [7], such advancements are greener waste management choices. Based on
existing empirical investigations, this topic discusses various uses of plastic waste in the building
and construction business. Different plastic wastes and their processing are also emphasized.

Plastic wastes in the fabrication of Blocks, tiles, and bricks

Bricks, tiles, and blocks have been made from a wide range of plastic wastes. Plastics are mixed
in various ratios with other building materials such as foundry sand, recycled glass, clayey sand,
and construction and demolition waste to strengthen the finished product [8]. Plastics can also be
used solely to create a variety of building materials. Plastic wastes are used as aggregates,
additives, binders, modifiers, or sand and cement equivalents or substitutions in this setting [6].
The quality of the product is compared to regular items that do not contain plastic waste using
several analyses like as thermal conductivity, tensile, durability, bulk density, and soundness tests,
among others. The incorporation of plastics in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and blocks results
in increased compressive strength and lower thermal conductivity, making them appropriate
building and construction materials [11]. Bricks made from waste plasticare robust and strong,
making them a viable alternative to disposal [10]. The following Table lists some of the plastic
wastes utilized in the manufacture of bricks, blocks, and tiles, as well as the materials and functions
they fulfill.

Table: Plastic wastes used in making bricks, blocks, and tiles, their percentage composition, and
the role they serve
Use of plastic waste for road construction material

Various types of waste plasticare utilized to produce concrete and act as entire or partial substitutes
for aggregate in road construction. They're also employed in the production of fillers, asphalt, and
modified bitumen [10,11]. Plastic wastes are more commonly used in the subbase and base
construction of pavements, where they improve bearing capacity, stiffness, and shear [28]. The
following Table shows these plastic wastes, their involvement in road construction, and their
percentages in the combinations. Although plastic wastes offer adequate performance in terms of
resilience modulus, stiffness, and bearing capacity during road building, their physical qualities,
such as smooth surface, reduce this capacity when compared to standard road construction [10].
Plastic waste has increased road surface quality and service life cycle, as well as the volumetric
and mechanical properties of the resulting mixtures during road building [11].

Table: Plastic wastes used in road construction and the role they serve.

Plastic wastes in producing cementitious composites

When mixed with other waste materials, plastic wastes act as aggregates and binders in
cementitious composites [10]. Rice husk ash, silica fume, reclaimed concrete, and fly ash are
among the materials used. Because mechanically recycled plastics coupled with these components
have great stability and hardness, they are suitable raw materials for cementitious composites.
Bricks, blocks, tiles, and road-building materials such as fillers and bitumen are among the end
products. The chemical makeup of plastic wastes is unimportant when used as fillers and
aggregates since hydration processes are not altered. Resins, PLA, PVC, PS, PET, HDPE, PP, and
LDPE are examples of plastics used in the manufacture of cementitious composites [9]. Through
their fibers, they can replace natural aggregates or reinforce concrete. The cementitious composites
are made using a typical process that includes replacing natural fine and coarse aggregates with
numerous plastic layers of similar volume and weight, a procedure known as direct volume
replacement [8]. The advantage of using plastic wastes as cementitious composites is that it
reduces the demand for natural aggregates and reduces deadweight due to their lightweight [2].
Plastic waste, on the other hand, is an impurity in such composites that tends to impair the strength
of concrete [9]. Awoyera and Adesina [10] see in great detail the effects of employing plastic waste
as cementitious composites. Changes in slump, air content, permeability, durability, and
mechanical and compressive strength after the usage of such wastes are among the parameters
investigated. The Table shows some experiments in which plastics are employed to generate
cementitious composites, as well as the additive replacement ratio.

Table: Plastics used in making cementitious composites and their replacement ratio.

Other uses of plastic waste in building and construction

Plastic waste has been used as a wood replacement in door panels, insulation materials, and walls
for a variety of building and construction purposes. Recycled commingled polymers, like wood,
may be sawn, chopped, and nailed and are resilient in a variety of wood-like applications such as
fencing, benches, boat docks, and railroad tying [26,27]. Plastic waste powder or pellets can be
blended with wood flour or cellulose fiber to create a thermoformable wood-plastic matrix that
can be used to build environmentally friendly door panels [28]. There have been few
investigations, and the impact of waste plastics in wood composites is not well understood [29].
Plastic wastes, such as expanded PS, can be used in construction to create greener insulation
materials [21].
The approach entails sorting, cleaning, and physical and thermo-chemical processing of plastic
waste to make insulation material [30]. To manufacture the insulation materials, other materials
such as waste PVC and sawdust can be mixed with PS. Using such wastes lowers the cost of such
insulation materials while also protecting the environment by reducing their production [29].
However, due to their low density and strong combustible and incendiary properties, the utilization
of such plastic wastes for insulation is limited. By heating, shaping, and pressing recycled plastics
into blocks, such waste can be used to replace traditional wooden and bricked walls in house
partitioning [31]. Plastic waste has been used in soil reinforcement to create geogrids and geocells,
among other geosynthetics with high strength and low cost [12]. For example, PET bottles have
been employed as a drainage medium for geotextile filters [13].

Durability and costs of plastic wastes for building and construction materials

Plastic waste utilization in the architecture and construction sector has been recognized due to the
materials' ability to substitute natural ones, minimize manufacturing, and, ultimately, preserve the
environment from pollution [5,7]. Plastic waste has advantages such as lightweight,
waterproofness, high strength, and simplicity of molding, making it a suitable and durable material
for building and construction materials [6,8,11]. Adding plastic waste while manufacturing various
building and construction items, on the other hand, is associated with some property modifications
as compared to conventional materials [10]. When PET was used to produce asphalt, it had higher
fracture resistance than regular asphalt. With the inclusion of plastic wastes, the mechanical
properties of the base and subbase and mortar improved, resulting in increased durability. When
compared to natural materials, plastics improve the durability of building and construction
materials such as tensile strength [7], bonding capacity, and capillary rise resistance. According to
several research, plastics are contaminants that affect the thermal conductivity [13] and
compressive strength of the resulting composites, resulting in lower durability and worse quality
products. As a result, the findings on the durability of plastic wastes in building and construction
materials are mixed. The life cycle assessment of waste plasticvs traditional building materials
reveals that the former provides cost-effectiveness advantages. This idea could be due to lower
transportation, energy, landfill disposal, and new material manufacturing costs, which make plastic
waste recycling more cost-effective than using regular material. As proposed by Lamba et al. [8],
the related procedures in trash recycling should be analyzed for a cost-benefit analysis when
compared to processing or regular building and construction materials. Such life cycle costing
could lower the costs associated with collecting and sorting waste plastic, which makes recycling
expensive [10].

Additive Manufacturing Technologies

Although desktop 3D printers were not commercially available until 2009, the concept of additive
manufacturing (AM), commonly known as 3D printing, dates back to the mid-1980s. In 1984,
Charles W. (Chuck) Hull was widely credited with producing the first fully functional robotic 3D
printer. 3D Systems, founded in 1986, introduced its first AM, the SLA-1, in 1988. Stratasys
developed its first FDM 3D printer in 1991, a few years after the SLA-1 [13]. This was the first
big 3D printing technology competition for 3D modeling systems. Melting a polymer filament and
transferring it layer by layer onto a substrate was the approach used. Typically, the thing is built
by depositing materials layer by layer until the entire object is completed. 3D printing has become
much more popular in comparison to traditional machining techniques such as milling, drilling,
and cutting. Furthermore, as the complexity of the object increases, AM technology beats previous
techniques [14]. As new technologies develop to make 3D printing more efficient and cost-
effective, its appeal will grow. The industry is interested in cutting product costs, fabricating
complex structures out of various materials, and enhancing 3D printer capabilities to make them
faster and more exact. Three-dimensional printing is currently widely employed in a range of
industries, including automotive, aerospace, medical, and construction [15]. It is one of a group of
breakthroughs that may generate physical models automatically from computer-aided design
(CAD) data. It is a layer-by-layer production method. Rapid prototyping (RP) operations often
begin with a three-dimensional computer model of the part to be made. This digital representation
of the part is divided into virtual layers by computer software. Each layer is delivered to the RP
machine and formed on top of the previous one, representing a cross-section of the desired part.
This layer-by-layer assembly of the part from the ground up is repeated until the part is complete
[16], as shown in Figure.

The basic steps of AM technology are as follows;

1. A computerized three-dimensional solid model is created by software.

2. Converted to a standard additive manufacturing file format, such as the
3. traditional tessellation language format.
 4. The file is sent to an AM machine, which manipulates it, such as modifying the part's
location and orientation or scaling it.
5. On the AM machine, the part is manufactured layer by layer. 5. Complete the model by
cleaning and polishing it.

Figure. Basic additive manufacturing (3D) process

Additive Manufacturing for Sustainable Construction

Construction 4.0 was first discussed in 2016, primarily due to construction businesses' realization
of the industry's need for digitization, as Begi and Gali state (2021). According to Mehar et al.
(2020), the rapid advancement of 3D printing technology, which is one of the construction 4.0
technologies, has changed people's perceptions of using concrete as a 3D printable material on its
own. 3D printing concrete, according to Kothman and Faber (2016), can effectively provide
several improvements in manufacturing performance, such as shorter lead times, function
integration, and material usage reduction, potentially rendering production steps within the
construction supply chain obsolete while reducing logistical and production efforts.

According to Wu et al. (2018), despite the multiple benefits that 3D printing can give, construction
has a lower adoption rate than other industries. According to Teizer et al. (2016), the current public
knowledge of 3D printing contributes to it being brought to the forefront, where building
businesses begin to examine alternative construction procedures. Furthermore, Jakus (2019) stated
that the rapid proliferation and general awareness of 3D printing was primarily owing to the
convergence of major legal and social events/groups, rather than any significant technological
advance. By 2030, one of the goals outlined in the Arsenic and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development is to ensure that people worldwide have access to relevant information and
awareness regarding sustainable development and lifestyles that are in harmony with nature
(Johnston, 2016). Oke et al. (2018) emphasized the importance of government loans, reliable
power supply, reduced costs of digital tools, the establishment of computerized information
systems in every department, promotion of technology use, and support for local research and
development to strengthen digital technology and foster collaboration. The increased global
awareness of 3D printing technology, coupled with potentially exaggerated claims about its
capabilities, has led to its rapid adoption by academic and clinical research institutions. As a result,
3D printing has not only become an essential tool for supporting existing research but has also
emerged as a subject of research in itself (Jakus, 2019).

Classification of Additive Manufacturing

There are many similarities among AM techniques, for instance, each approach is predicated on
layering one layer over the other, but there are also significant distinctions between layer-by-layer
manufacturing methods. There are various classification options for AM processes; the one offered
by the ASTM Committee divides AM processes into seven categories [9].

A. VAT Photopolymerization
B. Material Jetting
C. Binder Jetting
D. Powder Bed Fusion
E. Sheet Lamination
F. Directed Energy Deposition
G. Material Extrusion

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Technology

The "fused filament fabrication" procedure is another name for the fused deposition modeling
process (FFF). It is a 3D printing extrusion technology that employs a thermoplastic filament. The
polymer enters a heated extruder and is deposited layer by layer on the build platform by the nozzle
to make the required part. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a common additive manufacturing
process that uses polymers as a raw material to construct models, prototypes, and even finished
products for a wide range of technical applications (filament). Before being extruded through the
nozzle of the machine, the filament is normally heated to a molten condition (3-D printer).

When compared to other renowned 3D printing techniques, it is a simpler production process,

more versatile, and more cost-effective technology capable of generating complicated geometries
and cavities with reasonable dimensional precision. The fused deposition modeling technique has
numerous advantages since it is a dependable approach for freeform fabrication that does not
require the use of costly molds and tools. The method is simple, and it ensures that materials are
utilized efficiently, resulting in less material waste, cost efficiency, ease of handling, and less post-
processing. It is currently widely used in modeling, prototyping, and manufacturing [17].

The provided figure illustrates the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process and provides an
overview of the FDM machine. This process is primarily based on hot melt extrusion, where the
material is deposited layer by layer based on 3D model data until the complete object is formed.
Typically, a filament feedstock with a diameter of 1.75 mm or 2.85 mm is fed into the printer using
a circulating drive gear mechanism. A stepper motor is connected to one of the drive gears to move
the filament within the system. The drive gears may have a grooved or toothed surface to generate
sufficient friction and ensure the filament is grabbed and fed to the liquefier without slipping. The
filament is then melted in the heated liquefier, where the solid portion at the back acts as a piston
to push the molten material through the print nozzle. The selection of filament diameter affects
printing quality, given that perfect printer settings are in place. A smaller diameter filament requires
less pressure for the same nozzle size, enabling faster filament feeding. Additionally, a 1.75 mm
filament is more flexible, allowing it to be spooled and maneuvered through curved tubes toward
an extruder. On the other hand, a larger diameter (3 mm) necessitates more pressure but takes
longer to pass through the nozzle [18].
 Figure. Schematic overview of fused deposition modeling machine process

Furthermore, material selection and process parameters are critical to ensuring that the material
can be printed with a good surface finish and high precision. In general, an amorphous polymer
material is appropriate for FDM 3D printing [19].

Materials for Fused Deposition Modeling

3D printing, like any other manufacturing process, requires high-quality materials that meet
consistent criteria to produce consistent, high-quality products. To accomplish sustainability,
suppliers, purchasers, and end-users of the material develop procedures, requirements, and
material control agreements [20]. Polymers, ceramics, metals, and their mixtures in the form of
hybrids and composite materials can all be 3D printed as fully functional pieces [21]. Plastics and
metals are the most often utilized materials in 3D printing. Polymer materials are widely employed
in the 3D printing industry due to their low weight, low cost, and processing flexibility [22].
Plastics are classified into three types: elastomers, thermosets, and thermoplastics.

Elastomers: generally known as rubbers, are typically linear polymers. Cross-links can be
identified in the structure in some circumstances. The capacity to restore material to its original
position is a trait that happens when cross-links are present.

Thermosets: are materials that are molded and then hardened into their final shapes, such as
polyurethane and silicone. Because of the irreversible curing process, they are constructed of a
strongly cross-linked amorphous polymer chain that, once cooled, cannot be re-melted or reshaped.
Polymer reinforcements, molding, hard surfaces, and electrical fittings can all benefit from
thermosets. Polyester, epoxy, and phenol-formaldehyde are examples of thermoset plastics.

Thermoplastics: are non-curable and can be worked after being heated above their melting point.
The majority of thermoplastics can theoretically be melted down and recycled, with varied degrees
of efficiency and material loss for each kind. As a result, thermoplastic is used in almost every
form of 3D printer material. Plastic utilization has increased significantly in comparison to other
materials due to the perfect qualities of thermoplastic polymers such as corrosion resistance, low
density, high strength, and user-friendly design [3].

Polymers: are the most generally used materials, and they are typically made in the form of a long
wire coiled on a spool, also known as a filament. It can also be used in 3D printing as powders or
liquid resins [1].

Thermoplastic Filament Materials for 3D Printing

Through the deposition of successive layers of extruded thermoplastic filament, thermoplastic

polymers can make a 3D print. Because this is a hot-melting method, the thermoplastic filament
must be melted before deposition. Some of the materials that can be used are thermoplastic
polyurethane (TPU), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polylactic acid (PLA), and thermoplastic polyurethane (ABS) [13].

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): is a thermoplastic that melts when heated and solidifies
when cooled. It's a low-cost engineering polymer that's easy to process and build. It possesses good
impact resistance, chemical resistance, good machinability, acceptable aesthetic features, and
appropriate strength and stiffness. ABS is a common material in FDM because of its dimensional
stability and low glass transition temperature [15]. Several investigations on the usage of ABS in
additive manufacturing have been carried out. Samykano et al. investigated the mechanical
properties of FDM-printed ABS, as well as the effect of printing parameters such as layer height,
raster angle, and infill density on the mechanical properties of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS), a widely used industrial thermoplastic in FDM technology [14]. ABS is used in 3D printing
at temperatures ranging from 230 to 260 °C. Although it’s recyclable, it is not biodegradable [17].
Polylactic acid (PLA): is a compostable and biodegradable synthetic aliphatic polyester obtained
from a renewable source. PLA is thermally unstable and loses molecular weight quickly when
heated. It is a biodegradable polymer with excellent strength and biodegradability, which is
essential in the manufacturing of newer components via 3D printing [15]. PLA has a relatively low
melt point of roughly 145-186 degrees Celsius and can be easily produced into filament at
temperatures over 185-190 degrees Celsius. Chacón et al studied the additive manufacturing of
PLA structures with fused deposition modeling, as well as the characterization and evaluation of
the effect of build orientation, layer thickness, and feed rate on the mechanical properties of PLA
samples manufactured with a low-cost desktop 3D printer using the FDM technique [17]. PLA is
commonly used in 3D printing owing to its low-temperature printability (between 190 and 230°C)
and lack of the need for a heated bed. It is more thermally unstable and brittle than other polymers.
PLA has the virtue of being biodegradable [16].

High-density polyethylene (HDPE): is frequently used in containers, film, detergent bottles, toys,
milk jugs, shopping bags, wire and cable insulation, and household appliances [7]. Kreiger et al
evaluated the benefits of employing HDPE as an AM material and discovered that the material can
give significant economic and environmental benefits to society based on their models [8].
Schirmeister et al. investigated fused filament fabrication 3D printing of high-density polyethylene
to improve Young's modulus, tensile strength, and surface quality of 3D printed HDPE by varying
3D printing parameters such as nozzle temperature and diameter, extrusion rate, build plate
temperature, and build plate material [14].

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): is a common material used in the production of plastic

bottles. In its natural condition, PET filament is a colorless, crystal-clear substance. As it heats and
cools, its transparency varies. PET is a challenging method [13]. PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)
is a semi-crystalline polymer in the polyester family. Glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate
(PETG) is more prevalent in 3D printing filament because it is less brittle and easier to handle than
raw PET. PETG is more printable than ABS and enables the fabrication of 3D objects with smooth
surface finishes and high impact resistance, although it absorbs a lot of moisture from the air [19].
These polymers are reusable and non-biodegradable and may be printed at temperatures ranging
from 160 to 210 °C [10].
Polypropylene (PP): is a semi-transparent, durable plastic that is extensively used to package
yogurt, pharmaceuticals, beverages, and ketchup. It contains no toxic chemicals and is hence
appropriate for use as food and beverage packaging. PP has similar properties to PLA and, as a
result, is a promising material for deposition [11].

Nylon: Nylon is used in a wide range of engineering applications, including gears, screws, and
tool casings, to mention a few. Nylon is a high-strength polymer with excellent temperature
resilience, abrasion resistance, and chemical stability. Nylon 6 is a prominent synthetic polymer
that is utilized in a variety of sectors due to its high strength, flexibility, and durability. However,
it is susceptible to moisture and should be stored in a cold, dry environment for high-quality
products [19].

Reinforced Thermoplastic Filaments for 3D Printing

The addition of one or more additive materials improves the characteristics of thermoplastic
materials remarkably. The thermoplastics often utilized in FDM will not have the mechanical
strength required for load-bearing applications. As a result, establishing appropriate feedstock
materials is an important step toward producing more lasting parts using 3D printers. Many
decades ago, researchers discovered an intriguing technique to solve the challenges of polymeric
systems by introducing secondary materials inclusions in the form of fibers, whiskers, platelets, or
particles [17].

Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Filaments for 3D Printing

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are made up of thermoplastic or thermoset fibers and
matrix. The fiber has a high strength-to-weight ratio, polymer composites are less expensive, and
the method of generating their matrix is straightforward. The majority of the matrix in fiber-
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites is made up of thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers.
The thermosetting plastics used in FRP are epoxy and polyurethane, whereas thermoplastics
include polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), and polyetheretherketone (PEEK). FRPs are further
classified into subtypes based on fiber length criteria, such as short (0.2-0.4 mm) and long (10-25
mm) fibers [12].

Several fiber sources can be employed as reinforcement for composite materials, which are broadly
classified as natural fibers and synthetically manufactured fibers [13]. Natural fibers are plant and
animal fibers that can be spun into filament thread. Plant leaves, the inner bark of seedlings or
plants, animal wool, insect cocoons, and mineral elements can all be used to make natural fibers.
Cotton, Ramie, Sisal, Jute, seagrass Flax, and Hemp are the most common plant fiber sources [14].
The most important consideration for selecting natural fibers for reinforcing thermoplastic plastics
in the manufacturing of 3D printer filaments, meanwhile, is temperature. Because higher
processing temperatures may cause natural fibers to degrade, the first crucial criterion in creating
the filament from a polymer bio composite is the processing temperature. The highest processing
temperature for filament preparation is indicated to be 180 °C, but this varies depending on the
type of natural fibers. The decomposition of natural fiber in bio-composites could be detected when
the original color of natural fiber changed to a deeper or black tint after the first extrusion. High-
temperature polymer matrices such as ABS, HIPS, PC, PETG, nylon, TPU, and others should be
avoided as a result [14]. As a result, synthetic short fibers like glass fibers [20] and carbon fibers
[21] are commonly used as reinforcements in 3D printing to improve the mechanical properties of
polymer composites.

The fiber orientation and void proportion of composites influence the properties of completed
composite products. Tekinalp et al. [15] investigated the impact of fiber orientation and porosity
on the properties of FDM-printed carbon fiber-reinforced ABS composite parts. Compression
molding (CM) is another method used to create composite items. Due to gaps between deposition
lines and inadequate bonding between polymer and fiber, the 3D printed composite samples had
significant void formation (20%), whereas compression molded samples had essentially negligible
porosity. The tensile strength enhancement for printed samples, on the other hand, is comparable
to that of compression-molded samples. Recently, it was discovered that expandable microspheres
can be used to reduce porosity in printed parts [16].

Direct-write and FDM are two major 3D printing processes for producing fiber-reinforced polymer
composites. One is for injecting the matrix filament or polymer, while the other is for the fiber
filament in direct-write. Two injectors are required for direct reinforcement. When using the same
amount of fiber loading, additively built thermoset composites outperform thermoplastic
composites. We were able to fabricate short fiber reinforced thermoset composites in intricate
geometries with unprecedented high compression strength, flexural strength, flexural stiffness, and
fiber volume ratio (40 percent) thanks to Nawafleh and Celik's demonstration of direct-write
additive manufacturing of short fiber reinforced thermoset composites [18]. Fused filament
manufacturing is a 3D printing technique that allows for the layering of thermoplastic composite
components. Polymer pellets and fibers are combined in a blender before being put into an extruder
to be turned into filaments for FDM processing. To ensure that the fibers are dispersed equally, a
second extrusion process could be employed. Polymer paste and fibers were first mixed and then
directly extruded for direct writing processing [12].

Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

Researchers are exploring the use of NFRPCs to bridge the gap between sustainability and material
performance. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) was initially introduced by Owens Corning in 1935,
with the first iteration using glass fiber [15]. Composites are becoming increasingly important, and
their use is expanding in many areas of modern life.

Eco-friendly, lightweight, robust, renewable, inexpensive, biodegradable, and sustainable

composite materials can be made from natural fibers [15]. Compared to traditional synthetic fibers,
natural fibers are preferable due to their superior mechanical characteristics. Thus, natural fibers
have recently attracted the attention of many researchers and scientists for usage as an alternative
reinforcement in polymer composites [16]. They are affordable, recyclable, renewable, use less
energy, pose fewer health risks, are not abrasive to machinery, and do not irritate the skin. They
have thermoplastic and thermosetting properties and can be employed as a reinforced material.
Several thermosetting resins are commonly employed in composite materials, including epoxy,
unsaturated polyester resins, polyester, polyurethane, and phenolic resins [17]. They have
acceptable mechanical characteristics and are reasonably priced. Natural fibers are gaining
increased consideration from academics and industrial users because they are extremely strong and
lightweight as well as being much more environmentally friendly than regular composites. Natural
composites are being used ever more frequently because they are biodegradable and non-
carcinogenic [18].

Ensuring efficient bonding at the fiber-matrix interface is a critical difficulty with NFRPCs. Recent
research has concentrated on fiber-surface treatments that encourage adhesion. Alkali treatments
have been used to improve interfacial bonding by removing impurities and roughening the surface
of fibers. Natural fibers can absorb moisture and cause composite materials to degrade because
they are intrinsically hydrophilic [19]. Hydrophobic coatings and the incorporation of desiccants
into the matrix are now being researched as potential solutions to this problem.

Natural fiber is a relatively economical material that is used in various industries and applications,
including packaging, automotive, building, and construction, covering the interiors of railway
coaches, and warehouses. It is also used to replace expensive glass fiber in various industries. The
poor mechanical properties of NFRCs are one of their drawbacks [20]. The hybridization process
is one way to improve the mechanical performance of NFRCs and broaden their applications. The
water-absorption rates for hemp/flax/epoxy, hemp/jute/flax/epoxy, and hemp/jute/epoxy blends
are affected by the hybridization process, which alters the behavior of hybrid composites. These
rates are 2.8 percent, 3 percent, and 4.5 percent, respectively, when hybridization is done by
bidirectional weaving and hand layup compression [20]. The water-absorption rate of the flax Fiber
composites was discovered to be 12 times higher than that of the glass-fiber composites via
vacuum-assisted resin infusion. The increased moisture absorption of natural fibers is the main
drawback of these materials. Therefore, chemical treatments must mitigate excessive moisture
absorption [21]. Many parameters, including fiber length, fiber aspect ratio, fiber-matrix adhesion,
etc., significantly affect the mechanical properties of natural fibers after chemical treatment [9].
Through chemical modification using an alkaline treatment, silane treatment, acetylation
treatment, benzoylation treatment, and peroxide treatment, the matrix's adherence to NFRC is
improved and its hydrophilicity is lowered [22].

Properties of Natural Fibers

Fiber diameter, fiber length, and cell-wall thickness are three crucial characteristics of natural
fibers. Because of the wide variety in fiber diameters (5–76 µm), fiber bundle widths (10–1000
µm), and fiber lengths, the properties of polymer composites made with natural fibers can vary
greatly (1.2–300 mm) [23]. Optimizing production processes wherein natural fibers are used as
reinforcement is difficult due to the inherent variances in natural fibers. Thus, accurate assessment
and management of feedstock material is critical to obtaining the desired results from NFRCs.
Cellulose, a natural polymer composed of three repeating hydroxyl groups, is one of the NFRC's
components [24]. Plants typically store cellulose as a linear, ribbon-shaped polymer of glucose.
Chemical and solution treatments can degrade cellulose, despite the material's resistance to
hydrolysis, strong alkalis, and oxidants. Hemicelluloses, which are low-molecular-weight
polysaccharides, act as a matrix for the bonds between cellulose microfibrils, which are the basic
constituents of NFRC cells. Hemicelluloses hydrolyze efficiently in the presence of weak acids
because of their hydrophilicity. A complex hydrocarbon polymer called lignin gives NFRCs
strength, facilitates water transport, and resists most microbial attacks. It is hydrophobic,
hydrolyzes in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and is easily oxidized. Pectin is a
heteropolysaccharide that gives flexibility to plant cell walls and is used as a thickener. NFRCs are
naturally polar and hydrophilic due to their abundance of hydroxyl groups. However, most polymer
matrixes are hydrophobic by nature [25].

The properties of the natural fibers that influence those of NFRCs are physical, chemical,
geometrical, thermal, and mechanical, as shown in the Figure. Mechanical properties of natural
fibers are directly influenced by structural and dimensional changes, such as changes in fiber
density (cell wall-lumen ratio) and microfibril angle (MFA). Synthetic fibers like E-glass fiber
have a tensile strength of about 2000–3500 MPa. These natural fibers, however, have a wide range
of tensile strengths and Young's moduli, with a typical tensile strength between 100 and 1000 MPa
[26].

Figure. Significance of Distinctive Properties of Natural Fibers for NFRCs

The mechanical performance of a hand-layup kenaf/polyester composite was examined by

Mohammed et al. to elucidate the effects of layering NFRCs [25]. The influence of the variable
fiber-volume fraction (5–25%) on the mechanical specifications of kenaf/polyester composites
was studied by Hussein et al. Their findings demonstrated that as the fiber volume reached 10%,
tensile strength increased [27]. In contrast to composites without filler, Jenish et al. studied Cissus
quadrangularis stem fiber /epoxy resin with various concentrations of coconut shell ash powder.
The tensile and flexural strength values for Cissus quadrangularis stem fiber stem fiber/epoxy
composite with five wt. percent coconut-shell ash particulate was inferred to be 110.31 and 136.11
MPa, respectively [28].

Advantages and Challenges of Using Natural Fibers in Composites

Material and product development relies heavily on considerations like biodegradability and
recyclability. The advantages of natural fibers over synthetic fibers in terms of technology,
economy, and ecology are displayed in Figure 3. Carbon and glass fibers, two common types of
synthetic fibers used as reinforcement, have the central problem of not being biodegradable or
recyclable when they end their useful lives. Their processing also carries risks of harm to human
health [29]. The focus of scientific inquiry has recently shifted from single-component materials
to composites reinforced with natural fibers. The fact that plant fibers do not increase greenhouse
gas emissions is remarkable. It is widely believed that carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from
burning materials made from petroleum-based products are the primary cause of the greenhouse
effect and, consequently, of climate change [30].

Figure. Advantages of Using Natural Fibers in Composites

More cellulose-rich fibers with higher tensile strength and values for Young's modulus values
include curauá, sisal, and ramie. However, many factors, including the environmental and
processing circumstances already mentioned, can affect their behavior [31]. One such aspect is the
large variability in fiber quality, which leads to high variation in material properties. Therefore,
more research on these characteristics is required concerning methods of fiber preservation.
Another critical factor is that it is difficult to compare the results of different investigations due to
the absence of specific information regarding experimental testing methodologies for single fibers.
Tensile strength is calculated using the entire cross-section of the sample, and even a small
measurement error can have a significant impact on the results [32].

Types of Natural Fiber

Natural fibers are fibers that are free of dyes, artificial additives, and synthetics. Plants and animals
both produce natural fibers. Natural fibers come from both renewable and nonrenewable resources.
Natural fibers are hair-like raw materials derived directly from vegetables, plants, animals, or
minerals. These raw materials are converted into nonwoven fabrics and used as composite
components. The classification of natural fibers into plant, animal, and mineral fibers is depicted
in the following Figure. The primary difference between animal and plant fibers is that animal
fibers are composed primarily of protein, whereas plant fibers are primarily cellulose.

Plant fibers: Plant fibers consist primarily of cellulose fibers. Plant fibers are divided into primary
and secondary fibers, depending on their purpose. The fibers of primary plants are used to cultivate
secondary plants. These fibers can be further categorized as seed fiber (fibers from the seed and
seed case, e.g., cotton and kapok), leaf fiber (leaves, e.g., agave, abaca, henequen, pineapple fiber,
and sisal), skin fiber (the skin or bast that surrounds the stem of a plant (e.g., flax, ramie, jute,
banana, hemp, kenaf, rattan, vine fibers, soybean fiber, and banana fibers), and fruit fiber (coconut
(coir) fiber) [33]. Fibers from stalks, cane, grass, and reeds are from original natural sources (e.g.,
bamboo, bagasse, Sabai, communis, and phragmites).

Animal fibers: Animal fibers are derived from wool, silk, hair/fur, alpaca fiber, and avian fiber.

Mineral fibers: Mineral fibers can be found or modified minimally to become asbestos, ceramic
fiber, or metal fiber.
 Figure. Classification of natural fibers

Mechanical Properties of Natural Fiber Composites: Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength,

and Impact Resistance

Natural fibers have been proven to improve mechanical properties and provide reinforcement to
the filaments and printed parts. The mechanical properties are inherently influenced by the
cellulose content of the fibers and the spiral angle formed by the microfibrils about the fiber axis
in their inner structure. Factors like the source of the fibers, their age, and other variables influence
both properties and structure [30]. The attributes of natural fiber composites are influenced not
only by the inherent qualities of the natural fibers but also by various testing parameters, such as
fiber length, test speed, temperature, etc. Introducing fibers into a polymer matrix is an important
step because it significantly enhances the composite's mechanical properties. Readily available
natural fibers can reinforce fiber alignment, and fiber pretreatments help to increase contact with
the polymer matrix, which improves the mechanical properties of the composite [14,31]. This
phenomenon aligns with the Rule of Mixture theory, which has been employed to approximate
composite moduli, enabling the adjustment of properties to various levels [32].

Nonetheless, it is crucial to emphasize that variances in mechanical properties are a common

occurrence, and these deviations can be ascribed to a multitude of factors, including differences in
process parameters, manufacturing techniques, fiber treatments, and the wide-ranging sources of
both fibers and polymer matrices. An overview of the tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact
strength of natural fiber composites is given in the Table. Investigations into the effects of fiber
volume fractions and pretreatments on hemp fiber with a polylactic acid (PLA) matrix provided
valuable insights. Elastic moduli increased with the addition of hemp fibers, regardless of fiber
weight percentage and pretreatments. However, increasing fiber volume decreased tensile strength
and modulus. Pretreatment of hemp fibers and weight-percentage loading showed little to no effect
on the flexural modulus, but alkali and silane pretreatment resulted in high flexural strength for
both 30% and 50% hemp fiber-loaded composites [33].

In the pursuit of creating 100% bio-based, biodegradable, and sustainable composites, various
ratios of abaca fibers and bio-polyethylene (bioPE) have been employed, including 20/80, 30/70,
40/60, and 50/50 wt.%. The volume fraction of abaca fibers contributed almost linearly to the
composites' tensile strength, with maximum tensile properties achieved at 50 wt.% fiber loading.
Moreover, it has been observed that the measures of mechanical properties increased in tandem
with the weight fraction of abaca fibers and that the use of maleic acid as a coupling agent further
improved these properties [34]. The development of bast-fiber composites by compression
molding and chemically pretreating jute fibers with amino-silicone oil has been explored. The
experimental design varied molding temperature, compression pressure, and pressure time. Box-
Behnken design (BBD) response-surface methodology (RSM) was utilized to predict tensile,
flexural, and impact strengths. as well as optimize compression molding conditions to provide the
best composite mechanical properties. The following Table shows some other work related to the
optimization of natural fibers with matrix material.
Table: Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers

Applications of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites in Various Industries

Natural fiber composites are a viable option for several applications due to their low production
cost [24]. Possible applications include car bodies and interiors, storage devices, walls and ceilings
in commercial and industrial spaces, and even false ceilings. The Figure depicts many applications
in the automobile, transportation and aerospace, construction and building, electronics, sports,
residence construction, and material handling and storage industries. The ever-increasing size of
aircraft wings and wind turbine blades is continuously testing advanced materials, designs, and
fabrication techniques. Composites will be made with processed fiber and resin as fillers [25].
Research efforts focus on using high-quality components and streamlined production procedures.
When weight-bearing ability is a primary concern, NFPCs can be used instead of glass in several
contexts. The superior mechanical characteristics and lower cost of fiber-reinforced composites
make them superior to polymer resins for structural applications.
 Figure. Applications of Reinforced Natural Fiber Composites in Industrial sectors

Natural Fiber Composites in Construction Industry

Geopolymer materials have attracted significant interest for their remarkable technical
characteristics, which closely resemble those of conventional Portland cement-based materials, all
while significantly mitigating carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and minimizing their overall
environmental footprint. Furthermore, integrating natural fibers, including but not limited to
bamboo, flax, hemp, and jute, within the geopolymer matrix is a compelling avenue of exploration.
These natural fibers serve as a reinforcing component, enhancing tensile and flexural strength
while reducing material density, and creating lightweight construction materials. Another
advantage of using these natural fiber composites on the interior of buildings includes improved
thermal insulation, which leads to energy efficiency and better soundproofing.

Different aspects of natural fiber-reinforced geopolymers have been studied in the literature. One
of the important factors in choosing construction materials is flame retardation properties, which
allow the building material to act as a flame retardant in case of a fire. Silva studied the fire-
resistance and head-absorption capabilities of a jute fiber-reinforced pozzolan-based geopolymer.
The samples demonstrated an impressive ability to absorb nearly 65% of the heat generated by the
flames, with minimal degradation [8]. Other common properties sought after by the construction
industry are high mechanical strength and hydric properties. Bast-hemp fibers were investigated
with and without sodium hydroxide pretreatment at 3% weight loading in diatomite geopolymer,
and the composite showed an almost 100% increase in compressive strength and a 35% increase
in flexural strength while maintaining thermal conductivity [9]. Flax linen, cotton, and abaca fibers
also showed an increase in compressive strength after being mixed with geopolymer. Alkali
treatment of the abaca fiber facilitated fiber bonding with fly ash and increased the flexural strength
of the composite [16]. When untreated cotton- and flax-based linens were investigated for use in
fly ash composite, the compressive and flexural strength of the composites increased, but the
flexural strength of the linen-fly ash composite increased significantly, by 60% [5,15].

With a rising global emphasis on sustainable materials, recent breakthroughs in FFFs have
broadened their usefulness across numerous domains. Material innovation has witnessed the
development of novel hybrid resins for DLP 3D printing of biocompatible scaffolds using
renewable resources [12], extrusion methods for high-performance thermoplastics derived from
recycled materials [13], and laser-sintering techniques for silicon carbide-based ceramics utilizing
post-industrial waste. Process improvements include adaptive process control for laser powder bed
fusion [15] AM to optimize material usage, in situ monitoring using computer vision to minimize
material consumption, and multi-material AM systems with extrusion-based approaches that
facilitate the effective integration of sustainable materials [16]. Personalized orthotics and
prosthetics made of recyclable and biocompatible materials, aerospace parts like rocket engines
and aircraft parts made of lightweight, sustainable materials, and medical devices like implants
and surgical guides that are made with biocompatibility and sustainability in mind are just a few
of the numerous applications of additive manufacturing (AM). These developments highlight AM's
revolutionary potential to promote a circular economy and advance environmentally friendly
manufacturing techniques, opening the door for more ground-breaking discoveries in the years to
come.

Waste Plastic Materials for 3D Printing

Polymer materials now play an important part in the industry, and global manufacturing of plastic-
based items has expanded dramatically in recent years. However, one of the major concerns with
their use is the environmental impact of plastic leftovers accumulating in the natural environment
and landfills, due to their extended decomposition time [9]. Many plastics are used regularly and
disposed of in landfills, including polyethylene (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and others. Because of the process's attractive properties, the processing
of polymers by AM has increased in recent years.
AM, often described as 3D printing, is a rapidly expanding technique reshaping the manufacturing
process. Additive manufacturing (3D Printing, particularly Material Extrusion) is a quick and easy
manufacturing method that employs raw material in the form of filament and is a prospective
candidate process for using recycled plastics. Fused filament fabrication three-dimensional (FFF
3-D) printing is considered environmentally friendly. One option to increase its sustainability is to
distribute plastic recycling in households, schools, and libraries to make feedstock filament for
printing.

As a consequence, waste plastic extrusion and OS 3D printing could be employed to promote long-
term growth. Waste plastic is common in many poor communities, and informal waste recycling
is occasionally employed to generate cash. Furthermore, using waste materials in private sector
additive manufacturing would save costs while enhancing sustainability, resulting in a high-value
output for old plastics. FFF is the most commonly used method since the hardware is relatively
inexpensive and can be used in a variety of contexts, allowing for better adaptability. One alternate
source of filament manufacture is the reuse and recycling of post-consumer plastic items. The
gathering of plastic waste is the first step in the recycling process. Plastic waste can be collected
from numerous sites using buyback, deposit/refund, and curbside drop-off procedures. Sorting
plastics after collection is an important phase in which garbage is classified depending on its kind
and grade. Plastic waste has been manually and automatically separated utilizing techniques such
as resin identification, dry sorting, air sorting, electrostatic sorting, and mechanical sorting [5].
Table: Resin identification codes (RIC) and applications of common plastic types.

Plastic waste is separated, cut into pieces, cleaned, and extruded to create filaments for the FDM
process. Most researchers prefer to examine various recycled polymers and polymer composite
filaments using FFF technologies. Previous research has demonstrated that many recycled
feedstocks are identical to virgin feedstocks. Zander et al. investigated the conversion of waste
polyethylene terephthalate into filament suitable for additive manufacturing processes such as
fused filament fabrication that does not require the use of additives or polymer modification.
Drying the recycled polyethylene terephthalate enhanced its viscosity, according to rheological
data. Tensile findings demonstrate that the elongation to failure (3.5 percent) was comparable to
that of an injection molded part, and the tensile strength of 35.18 MPa was comparable to that of
commercial polycarbonate-ABS filament, confirming the material's resilience. These findings
show that recycled PET can be used as a 3-D printing filament [11]. Recycled polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) is the ideal material to utilize as an alternative filament, according to research
published by Keanu et al., 2019. By extruding samples to achieve the appropriate filament
specification, it demonstrated the suitability of using recycled PET as filament for 3D printers [12].

Furthermore, Little et al. investigate the feasibility of using post-consumer recycled polyethylene
terephthalate (rPET) packaging and bottles as distributed recycling for additive manufacturing
feedstocks to build a circular economy [13]. The possibility of employing recycled HDPE in both
pellet and flake forms as 3D printing material for in-house extrusion was investigated using several
physical characterization tests in comparison to the typical acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic
pellets in the Chong et al. study. It was demonstrated that recycled HDPE pellet filament exhibited
acceptable water rejection, with an extrusion rate and thermal stability comparable to ABS pellet
filament. Unfortunately, there are still limits to overcome, such as shrinkage, warping, and
adhesion issues with HDPE, and 3D things built from 100 percent recycled plastic filament have
lower mechanical performance [14]. When recycling waste plastic, there is thermal-mechanical
degradation of the polymer during reprocessing and degradation over time, which may not be
desirable when reusing waste products. As a result, it is required to consider adding some
reinforcing or additional materials to the polymeric matrix to improve the properties of the waste
polymer [25], [26].

Reinforced Waste Plastic Filament for 3D Printing

To create 3D-printed models, a low-cost FFF made from waste plastic was upgraded using basic
techniques and additive materials, demonstrating that all filaments created could be used in 3D
printing with improved qualities. With the new generation of composite filaments linked to the
fused deposition modeling process, the growth of 3D printing technology has produced a new
source of plastic waste, raising the need for a sustainable solution to the expanding waste problem
[17].
the rationale idea of recycling polylactic acid (PLA) from unusable and accumulated 3D-printed
parts and then using it to create two composite bio filaments for FFF by adding waste ceramics as
filler to a pure PLA matrix was explored by Fico et al. [18]. N. Singh et al. presented the current
state of the art in the creation and use of recycled or biodegradable filaments in 3D printing. Fully
recycled filament loses mechanical qualities when it is recycled, however a blend of virgin and
recycled material may provide an acceptable trade-off. Many researchers have been prompted to
enhance the 3D printing feasibility of novel bio-based or biodegradable filaments, according to
this review paper, however, there is a dearth of performance testing for these filaments in the
literature. [9]. Al-Mazrouei et al. fabricated 3D-printing composite filaments from CF/nylon and
GF/nylon, which are mixed at different ratios to make recycled GFCF/nylon composite sheets that
are tested for mechanical and thermal properties. The results showed that the GF/nylon composite
had a maximum tensile strength of 60 wt. percent and the highest elastic modulus value [10].

S. Kumar et al. yet again produce composite filaments for fused deposition modeling out of
recycled high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (LDPE). Fe
powder has been reinforced using single-screw extrusion to improve the characteristics of HDPE
and LDPE-recycled polymers. In the LDPE and HDPE matrices, Fe powder (from 0 wt percent to
25 wt percent) showed an increasing trend in melt flow index. Furthermore, the inclusion of Fe
particle reinforcement increased the hardness of reinforced HDPE polymers by 36.66% and LDPE
by 64%. The inclusion of 6 wt% and 10 wt% reinforcement of Fe powder in the matrix of LDPE
and HDPE, respectively, increased mechanical characteristics significantly. However, no
characterizations of the filament generated are shown [11].

Processing of Waste Plastic Composites Filament in FDM

Composite materials are composed of two or more distinct types of materials that are blended to
improve the mechanical and structural properties of engineering products. A fiber-reinforced
polymer is a composite material composed of fibers bonded together in a polymeric matrix [12].
Additive manufacturing technologies, such as fused filament fabrication, are gaining popularity in
the creation of components with SFRTCs for FDM [15]. Because of their ease of manufacture, low
cost, and outstanding mechanical properties, short-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites are
widely used in a wide range of applications [13]. A thermoplastic polymer matrix with relatively
tiny fibers of various lengths that are irregularly dispersed or improperly aligned is found in a
typical SFRTC. Polymer composite extrusion using extruders is the process of heating and melting
a polymer/fiber blend to a working temperature and forcing the mixture through a small hole or
die of the necessary shape [23]. The two basic types of extruders used to produce filament are
twin-screw extruders and single-screw extruders [24]. The extruder uses a screw-shaped rod
housed inside a heated chamber to drive the material through the chamber and out through the die.
The twin-screw extruder operates similarly to the single-screw extruder, but with two screws in
various configurations and rotation orientations for improved feeding, melting, mixing, and
material flow [25]. The plastic material is conveyed inside the barrel by a single screw, where it is
melted by heating components, pressure is formed, and the material is driven through the die in a
single screw extruder to form filament [15]. Filaments for FFF processing are created by blending
polymer pellets/flakes and fiber in a blender and extruding the mixture to create the filament as
illustrated in the figure.

Figure. Processing of producing recycled 3D printing composite filament.

Characterization of Filament for 3D Filament

For 3D printing, filament diameter, consistency, and roundness are the output properties that are
consistently maintained during extrusion. The following characteristics of FDM filaments have
been subjected to filament-based standards testing: consistency in terms of diameter, moisture
content, thermal properties, and mechanical properties. When making composite filaments, several
extra elements to be considered [16, 17]. The adherence of the polymer to the reinforcement is
another important factor in composite quality [28, 19].

Filament Diameter Consistency

The FDM printer's nozzle diameter, which is often fixed, controls how thick the layers of a 3D-
printed component are and how big the extrusion is. 3.0 or 1.75 mm is the typical diameter of a
commercial filament. Incorrect feeding, feedstock jamming, and even nozzle clogging are caused
by a non-uniformity in diameter. Diameter variations will almost certainly occur during the
manufacturing process. The simplest characteristics that must be known before the test are
diameter consistency, roundness, and tolerance. Furthermore, a filament with great precision can
be produced with a consistent diameter and rarely become clogged in the nozzle of a 3D printer. A
micrometer or digital vernier caliper test revealed a spot check of the precision of produced
filaments [10, 11].

Moisture Content

Polymer materials are characterized by a different ability, called hygroscopicity, to absorb and
retain water from the environment. The properties of the filament, its behavior in processing, and
the quality of manufactured products are largely influenced by the filament moisture, which is a
measure of the amount of water contained in the filament. Because some 3D printing filaments are
hygroscopic, they absorb moisture from the air; even mildly humid room air results in moisture
saturation. Print quality is significantly impacted by high filament moisture content. Low moisture
content 3D printing materials typically yield prints of higher quality. Moisture in the filament
vaporizes inside the heated print nozzle, causing gaps to appear in the strand of the filament.
Interlayer adhesion may be negatively impacted by gaps [12], [13]. Hamrol studied the influence
of the natural moisture of a filament made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene polymer (ABS) on
the mechanical properties and quality of products fabricated with fused filament fabrication and
concluded filament strength and quality of printed parts are influenced by moisture. However, it
should be emphasized that the obtained were statistically relatively weak [14].

Thermal Properties

Thermal analysis (TA) comprises various measuring techniques with a common feature of the
material response when heated or cooled. Melting points and glass transition temperatures of
polymers are studied to determine the thermal stability of the thermoplastics. In FDM the printing
temperature of the material is above the melting point of the polymer and at high temperatures
thermoplastics degrades. The most used thermal analysis techniques are Differential scanning
calorimeter, Thermo-gravimetric analysis, Dynamic mechanical analysis, and Differential thermal
analysis [15]. Desired temperatures for amorphous materials should be higher than the glass
transition point; for semicrystalline materials, the temperature should be raised to be above the
melting point. The minimum temperature required is 78 °C higher than the glass transition
temperature of amorphous polymers [11].

Mechanical Properties of Material

The most relevant mechanical properties of material processability in FDM are tensile strength
and strain. Tensile properties predict how the material will react to forces being applied in tension.
It shows the ability of a material to withstand maximum load before rupture. This method is always
used to classify the different materials according to their specifications and used to compare,
initially, the commercial and manufactured filament [16].

2.2 Summary of Literature Reviews

Plastics, crucial in various industries and daily activities, pose a significant environmental
challenge due to their slow degradation, threatening human health and ecosystems when discarded.
To address this, recycling emerges as a promising method, with mechanical recycling being a key
approach. Recent progress in 3D printing filament presents an innovative path for recycling
plastics, offering sustainable solutions in production. Filaments derived from recycled materials
showcase increased sustainability in 3D printing technology, reducing material costs and
environmental impact. However, challenges arise from the physical forces during extrusion and
material degradation over time, leading to decreased mechanical properties.

To enhance durability, researchers explore incorporating secondary materials, including natural

fibers, into recycled plastic filaments. This strategy aims to overcome the limitations of polymeric
materials. In 3D printing, direct-write and Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) are common
techniques for generating fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Direct reinforcement requires two
injectors, while FDM allows the layering of thermoplastic composites. The extrusion process
ensures even fiber distribution. Key properties of FDM filaments, tested through standards, include
diameter consistency, moisture content, thermal properties, and mechanical properties.

This literature synthesis not only underscores the advancements in plastic recycling through 3D
printing filaments but also emphasizes the integration of natural fibers for reinforced composite
filaments. Additionally, the discussion extends to the application of these filaments in sustainable
construction practices, marking a fundamental approach to addressing environmental concerns in
the area of additive manufacturing.

2.3 Literature Gaps

From the literature survey, distributed recycling of postconsumer plastics for 3D printing filament
emerges as a novel approach, offering a promising avenue to reduce the environmental impact of
plastic waste. The production of filaments for 3D printing from discarded plastic not only provides
a feasible alternative for sustainable additive manufacturing but also contributes to mitigating
environmental pollution. Given the extensive daily use of PET and HDPE, which constitute a
significant portion of plastic solid waste, these materials can be viewed as crucial raw materials
for the recycling sector, representing a low-cost manufacturing technique.

The literature review does not endeavor to use discarded waste, particularly from HDPE and PET
reinforced with natural fiber, for 3D printing, presenting an approach to creating a business from
waste materials. The researches lack Aiming to develop a composite filament from short natural
fiber-reinforced waste plastic and characterize its filament diameter roundness and consistency,
mechanical strength, thermal stability, and printability. More importantly, no research extends its
focus to the incorporation of hybrid natural fiber composites for sustainable construction,
specifically in the context of producing 3D-printed partition walls. The investigation will explore
the advantages of using fibers like rice husk and wheat straws, paying particular attention to
optimizing the ratio of each fiber to enhance sound and heat absorption. This approach addresses
a critical literature gap, paving the way for advancements in environmentally friendly 3D printed
construction materials.
 CHAPTER 3

3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter's part explains the materials chosen for this research as well as the approach used to
attain the intended objectives. Various experimental tools, such as a vernier digital caliper, digital
micrometer, electronic mass balance, devotrans machine, differential calorimeter scanning,
universal testing machine, and scanning electron microscopy, will be employed.

3.2 Materials

3.2.1 Waste Plastic

Plastic production has expanded dramatically over the previous 60 years, and with increased
plastic material production comes increased plastic material waste, which poses both opportunities
and challenges for waste management [7]. Polypropylene (PP) (21%), low- and linear-density
polyethylene (LDPE and LLDPE) (18%), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (17%), and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) (15%) also dominate global plastic demand. Other popular plastics include
polystyrene (PS), expandable PS (8%), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (7% excluding PET
fiber), and thermosetting plastic polyurethane. Due to the short lifespan of many plastic products
(about 40% of plastic products have a service life of less than one month), large amounts of waste
plastic are produced [8]. Although it has the potential to provide significant economic opportunities
for nations, the majority of this trash is now disposed of in landfills. Based on waste plastic
statistics, HDPE (high-density polyethylene) and PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) were chosen
as the main materials for experimentation, as they represent the largest quantities in the Addis
Abeba urban environment and glass fiber is used as filler/reinforcement, to achieve today's
manufacturing technology and sustainable development of our country.

Recycled High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

is a petroleum-based thermoplastic polymer, and is utilized in a variety of items such as plastic

bottles, milk jugs, shampoo bottles, bleach bottles, cutting boards, and pipes [2]. Because it does
not readily absorb liquid, it is an ideal barrier material for liquid containers [3]. HDPE plastics
production is constantly increasing year after year due to its broad use in everyday activities. It is
a recyclable plastic, and (rHDPE) is utilized in building, packaging, and other industries [6].

Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

is a semi-crystalline polymer that is used to create food, detergent, and cleaning supplies bottles
and containers, as well as soft drinks, water, and other beverage containers. It is one of the most
easily recyclable plastics. PET may be recycled to manufacture new bottles, polyester can be
recycled to make fabrics and carpets, bumper car fill can be recycled, and fiberfill can be recycled
to make jackets and sleeping bags [5]. In the life cycle of a PET bottle, Marathe et al. explain Its
manufacturing process is referred to as the upstream life cycle, while its collecting and disposal
activities are referred to as the downstream life cycle. Following the use of PET bottles, the Gate
to Grave Stage covers garbage collection, recycling, and disposal. When waste is recycled to make
more bottles, the life cycle of the PET bottle can be considered as a closed loop [7]. PET bottle
recycling is now a standard environmentally friendly practice used to reduce plastic waste and
reprocess polymers for various purposes.

3.2.2 Natural Fibers

3.3 Methodology

A review of the literature was carried out to suggest composite filament and printed product
examples. As a result of the past study and the extensive literature review, the experimental
foundation has been built to achieve the following objectives; the following Figure illustrates a
breakdown of the proposed procedures.

Figure. General producers or workflow process of study

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