A Module in Engineering 211

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
THE ODE OF ORDER ONE
Dr. Ernesto T. Anacta, BSCE, MSCE, Ph.D.CE

ATTACHMENTS

A. Symbols and Acronyms PDE partial differential equation

PS particular condition
r radius
< less than Rad radian
> greater than RCS rectangular coordinate system
 equal or less than to SSE Substitution suggested by the eq’n.
= equal to SOV Separation of Variables
 flow of solution/presentation TA transverse axis
 approximately equal to u dummy variable / integrating factor
a constant v dummy variable / integrating factor
3D three dimensional  pi (3.1516)
e Naperian logarithm base (2.7183)  degrees; open interval
exp Exponential function  closed interval
a semi-major axis  infinity
AAC Appropriate arbitrary constant < less than
BC boundary condition < less than
BDE Bernoulli’s differential equation > greater than
c Arbitrary constant
 equal or less than to
CL2V Coefficient linear in two variables = equal to
DE differential equation
 flow of solution/presentation
DV dependent variable
 approximately equal to
DIF Determination of integrating factor
a constant
EDE Exact differential equation
3D three dimensional
e Naperian logarithm base (2.7183)
e Naperian logarithm base (2.7183)
f(x) function of x
exp Exponential function
GS general solution
a semi-major axis
h x-coordinate of a point
HDE Homogeneous differential equations  pi (3.1516)
IC initial condition 2D two dimensional
IF integrating factor 3D three dimensional
IFF if and only if AAC Appropriate arbitrary constant
IFFI Integrating factor found by inspection BC boundary condition
ITO in terms of BDE Bernoulli’s differential equation
IV independent variable c Arbitrary constant
k y-coordinate of a point CL2V Coefficient linear in two variables
ln Natural logrithm DE differential equation
LDE Linear differential equations DV dependent variable
LHS left hand side DIF Determination of integrating factor
m constant EDE Exact differential equation
n constant e Naperian logarithm base (2.7183)
NM Numerical methods f(x) function of x
ODE ordinary differential equation GS general solution
OP ordered pair h x-coordinate of a point
P point HDE Homogeneous differential equations
 IC initial condition P point
IF integrating factor PDE partial differential equation
IFF if and only if PS particular condition
IFFI Integrating factor found by inspection r radius
indet indeterminate Rad radian
ITO in terms of RCS rectangular coordinate system
IV independent variable SSE Substitution suggested by the eq’n.
k y-coordinate of a point SOV Separation of Variables
ln Natural logrithm TA transverse axis
LDE Linear differential equations WRT with respect to
LHS left hand side u dummy variable / integrating factor
m constant v dummy variable / integrating factor
n constant  pi (3.1516)
NM Numerical methods
ODE ordinary differential equation
OP ordered pair

B. Algebra, Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry

210 7/6 –0.5 –0.866 0.577

Special Values:
225 5/4 –0.707 –0.707 1
ln e = 1 log 10 = 1
–
240 4/3 –0.866 –0.5 1.732
0/n = 0 n/ = 0 a =0
270 3/2 –1 0 
 =1
0 0
n =1 ln 1 = 0
300 5/3 –0.866 0.5 –1.732
/n =  n =   =  315 7/4 –0.707 0.707 –1
Indeterminate Forms: 330 11/6 –0.5 0.866 –0.577
0/0 / 0* – 360 2 0 1 -0

1 
0 0
0 Note:
1 = 1 deg = /180 rad 1 rad = 180/ deg
Undefined/Imaginary Forms: 1 1 1
cot A = sec A = csc A =
n/0 ln 0 log 0 ln (–a) tan A cos A sin A

1
2
tan(/2) i = –1 i=
Algebra
Trigonometric Functions: Powers:
–m m m m m
Angle Trigonometric Function 1. a = 1/a 2. (ab) = a b
m n m+n mn m n n m
Deg Rad Sin Cos Tan 3. a a = a 4. a = (a ) = (a )
0 0 0 1 0 n
a an am 1
5.   
m–n
30 /6 0.5 0.866 0.577 6. =a =
nm
b bn a n
a
45 /4 0.707 0.707 1
   
m 1
m
60 /3 0.866 0.5 1.732 7. an = am n = a1 n
90 /2 1 0 
Radicals:
120 2/3 0.866 –0.5 –1.73
61 8.
n
an = a 9. n ab = n a n b
135 3/4 0.707 –0.707 –1
150 5/6 0.5 –0.866 –0.577 mn m n
10. m a n b = a b 11. m n a = mn a
180  0 –1 0
 p n  A
12.  a m  = a mp
n n a a 34. ln   = ln A – ln B
13. n =
  b n
b B

am
mn
am n
a Trigonometry
14. mn = =
n mn m
b bn b
Conversion:
1
1 m 35. sin  = tan  cos  =
15. n a m = n a m =  a m n
 =

an
csc
1
36. cos  = cot  sin  =
Fractions: sec
a/b a a ac 1 sin 
16. = 17. = 37. tan  = =
c bc b/c b cot  cos 
62
a/b ad ab a b 1 cos 
18. = 19. =  38. cot  = =
c /d bc c c c tan  sin 

ad  bc 1
a c
 = 39. sec  = tan  csc  =
20. cos 
b d bd
1
40. csc  = cot  sec  =
Binomial Exapansion: sin 
2 2
21. a – b = (a + b)(a – b) Identities:
3 3 2 2
22. a + b = (a + b)(a – ab + b )
41. sin  csc  = 1 42. sin  + cos  = 1
2 2

3 3 2 2
23. a – b = (a – b)(a + ab + b ) 43. cos  sec  = 1 44. sec  – tan  = 1
2 2

45. tan  cot  = 1 46. csc  – cot  = 1

4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
24. a – b = (a + b )(a – b )
2
25. (a + b) = a + 2ab + b
2 2 Multiple Angles:
2 2 2
47. sin 2 = 2 sin  cos 
26. (a – b) = a – 2ab + b
48. sin 3 = 3 sin  – 4 sin 
3

3 3 2 2 2
27. (a + b) = a + 3a b + 3ab + b
49. sin 4 = 2 sin 2 (1 – 2 sin )
2

3 3 2 2 2
28. (a – b) = a – 3a b + 3ab – b 50. cos 2 = sin  – cos  = 1 – 2 sin 
2 2 2

= 2 cos  – 1
2
2
29. ax + bx + c = 0
51. cos 3 = 4 cos  – 3 cos 
3
2
c = b /4a (for prefect square trinomial)
2
52. cos 4 = 1 – 2 sin 2
 b  b 2  4ac 2 tan 
x= 53. tan 2 =
2a 1  tan 2 

Logarithms: 3 tan  tan3 

54. tan 3 =
30. e
ln A
=A 31. ln A = n ln A
n 1  3 tan 2 

m 4 tan  sec2 

32. ln  A m  =   ln A
n 55. tan 4 =
  n tan 4   6 tan 2   1

33. ln(AB) = ln A + ln B
Sum and Difference:

56. sin ( + ) = sin  cos  + cos  sin 

 x y 1
57. sin ( – ) = sin  cos  – cos  sin 
69. x1 y1 1 =0 (Determinant Form)
58. cos ( + ) = cos  cos  – sin  sin  x2 y2 1
59. cos (– ) = cos  cos  + sin  sin 
tan  tan 
Circle: Center at (h, k)
60. tan ( + ) = 2 2
1  tan tan  70. x + y + Dx + Ey + F = 0

tan  tan  2
71. (x – h) + (y – k) = r
2 2
61. tan ( – ) =
1  tan tan 
Parabola: Vertex at (h, k) Opens
Analytic Geometry
72. Ax + Dx  Ey + F = 0
2
Down/Up
73. By  Dx + Ey + F = 0
2
Straight Line: Left/Right
62. Ax + By = C (General Form)
74. (x – h) = 4a(y – k)
2
Up/Down
y 2  y1
75. (y – k) = 4a(x – h)
2
63. y – y1 = ( x – x1) (2-point Form) Right/Left
x 2  x1
Ellipse: Center at (h, k)
64. y – y1 = m( x – x1) (Point-slope Form)
2 2
76. Ax + Cy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
65. y = mx + b (Slope-y-intercept Form)
( x  h) 2 ( y  k)2
66. y = m(x – a) (Slope-x-intercept Form) 77. + =1
a2 b2
x y Hyperbola: Center at (h, k)
67. + =1 (Intercept Form)
a b 2 2
78. Ax – Cy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
68. x cos  + y sin  =  (Normal Form)
( x  h) 2 ( y  k)2
79. – =1
a2 b2

C. Differential Calculus

A. Derivatives – Direct Application / Single Variable

d
c=0 (D-1) d c c
dx =  (D-5b)
dx x 2 x3
d d 
[c f(x)] = c  f ' ( x) = c f’(x) (D-2)
dx  dx  d 3 1 1
x = = (D-5c)
dx 2/3 3
d dx
3x 3 x2
x= =1 (D-3)
dx dx
d c c
=  (D-5d)
d
[f(x)  g(x)] = f’(x)  g’(x) (D-4) dx 3 x 3 4
3 x
dx

d n
x = n  x n1 n  0, 1 (D-5)
d n
 
x =
1
(D-5e)
n x n1
dx n
dx

d 1 d c c
x = (D-5a) =  (D-5f)
n
n x n 1
dx 2 x dx x n
 d 2 ln x
 x  p q  / q
d q p p (ln2 x) = , (D-11e)
x = (D-5g) dx x
dx q
d n ln n1 x
d c
= 
cp
(D-5h) (lnn x) = , (D-11f)
q dx x
dx x p q pq
q x
d 1
ln x = (D-11g)
d
 f (x)  g( x) =  f ( x)  g ' ( x) +  f ' ( x)  g ( x) dx 2x
dx
d 1
(D-6) ln n x = (D-11h)
dx nx
d  f ( x )   g ( x)  f ' ( x )  f ( x)  g ' ( x)  d
 =   (sin x) = cos x (D-12)
dx  g ( x )  
 g ( x)2 
dx
(D-7)
d cos x
sin x = (D-12a)
d c c dx 2 x
 = (D-7a)
dx  x  x2
d
(cos x) = –sin x (D-13)
d  c  2 c dx
  = (D-7b)
dx  x2  x3
d sin x
cos x =  (D-13a)
d  c  3c dx 2 x
  = (D-7c)
dx  x3  x4 d
(tan x) = sec2 x (D-14)
dx
d  c  cn
 = (D-7d)
n
dx x  xn1 d
tan x =
sec2 x
(D-14a)
dx 2 x
d x
a = ax ln a (D-8)
dx d
(cot x) = –csc2 x (D-15)
a x dx
d
a x = ln a (D-8a)
dx 2 x d csc2 x
cot x =  (D-15a)
d x dx 2 x
e = ex (D-9)
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x (D-16)
x dx
d e
e x = (D-9a)
dx 2 x d sec x tan x
sec x = (D-16a)
dx 2 x
d 1
(loga x) = , x>0 (D-10)
dx (ln a) x d
(csc x) = –csc x cot x (D-17)
dx
d 1
(ln x) = , x>0 (D-11)
dx x d csc x cot x
csc x =  (D-17a)
d 1 dx 2 x
(ln |x|) = , x 0 (D-11a)
dx x
d 1
(arcsin x) = (D-18)
d 1 dx 1  x2
(ln cx) = , (D-11b)
dx x
d 2 d 1
(ln x2) = , (D-11c) (arccos x) = – (D-19)
dx x dx 1  x2

d n d 1
(ln xn) = , (D-11d) (arctan x) = (D-20)
2
dx x dx x 1
 d 1 d
(arccot x) = – (D-21) (csch x) = –csch x coth x (D-29)
2
dx x 1 dx

d 1 d 1
(arcsec x) = (D-22) (arcsinh x) = (D-30)
dx x x2  1 dx
x 2 1
d 1 1
(arccsc x) = – (D-23) d
(arccosh x) = – ,x>1 (D-31)
dx x x2  1 dx
x 2 1
d
(sinh x) = cosh x (D-24)
dx d 1
(arctanh x) = , |x| < 1 (D-32)
d
dx 1 x 2
(cosh x) = sinh x (D-25)
dx 1
d
(arccoth x) = , |x| > 1 (D-33)
d
(tanh x) = sech2 x (D-26)
dx 1 x 2
dx
d 1
d (arcsech x) = ,0<x<1 (D-34)
(coth x) = –csch2 x (D-27) dx
x 1 x 2
dx

d d 1
(sech x) = –sech x tanh x (D-28) (arccsch x) =  ,x0 (D-35)
dx dx
x 1 x 2

B. Derivatives – Indirect Application / Function of Variables

Let: u = f(x) and v = f(x) d c c du

=  (𝒟-5f)
d dx n u n n 1 dx
c=0 (𝒟-1) n u
dx
 u  p q/ q
d q p p du
d du u = (𝒟-5g)
(c u) = c  (𝒟-2) dx q dx
dx dx
d c cp du
d du =  (𝒟-5h)
q
u= =1 (𝒟-3) dx u p
q
q
u pq
dx
du du
d dv du
d
(u  v) =
du

dv
(𝒟-4) (u  v) = u  + v (𝒟-6)
dx dx dx dx dx dx

du dv
du v u
u = n  u n 1
d n
n  0, 1 (𝒟-5) d u dx dx
dx dx  = (𝒟-7)
dx  v  v2
d 1 du
u = (𝒟-5a) d c  c du
dx 2 u dx  = (𝒟-7a)
dx  u  u 2 dx
d c c du
=  (𝒟-5b) d  c  2c du
dx u 2 u 3 dx   = (𝒟-7b)
dx  x2  x3 dx
d 3 1 du
u = (𝒟-5c) d  c  3c du
dx 3 dx  = (𝒟-7c)
3 u2  3 
dx u  u 4 dx
d c c du
=  (𝒟-5d) d  c


 = cn
du
3
dx u 3 dx  n  (𝒟-7d)
3 u4 dx u  u n 1 dx
d n
dx
 
u =
1 du
n n 1 dx
(𝒟-5e) d u
a = au (ln a)
du
(𝒟-8)
n u dx dx
 d u du d 1 du
e = eu (𝒟-9) (arccsc x) = – (𝒟-23)
dx dx dx x x  1 dx
2

d 1 du d du
(loga u) = (𝒟-10) (sinh u) = (cosh u ) (𝒟-24)
dx (ln a)u dx dx dx

1 du d du
d
(ln u) = (𝒟-11) (cosh u) = (sinh u) (𝒟-25)
dx u dx dx dx

du d du
d
(sin u) = (cos u) (𝒟-12) (tanh u) = (sech2 u) (𝒟-26)
dx dx dx dx

du d du
d
(cos u) = –(sin u) (𝒟-13) (coth u) = –(csch2 u) (𝒟-27)
dx dx dx dx

du d du
d
(tan u) = (sec2 u) (𝒟-14) (sech u) = –(sech u tanh u ) (𝒟-28)
dx dx dx dx

du d du
d
(cot u) = –(sec2 u) (𝒟-15) (csch u) = –(csch u coth u) (𝒟-29)
dx dx dx dx

d du d 1 du
(sec u) = (sec u tan u ) (𝒟-16) (arcsinh u) = (𝒟-30)
dx dx dx dx
u 2 1
d du
(csc u) = –(csc u cot u) (𝒟-17) d 1 du
dx dx (arccosh u) = – (𝒟-31)
dx dx
u 2 1
d 1 du
(arcsin u) = (𝒟-18)
dx 1 u 2 dx d 1 du
(arctanh u) = (𝒟-32)
dx 1  u dx
2
d 1 du
(arccos u) = – (𝒟-19)
dx 1 u2
dx d 1 du
(arccoth u) = (𝒟-33)
dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 du
(arctan u) = (𝒟-20)
dx 2
u  1 dx d 1 du
(arcsech u) = (𝒟-34)
dx dx
d 1 du u 1 u 2
(arccot x) = – (𝒟-21)
2
dx u  1 dx d 1 du
(arccsch u) =  (𝒟-35)
dx dx
d
(arcsec x) =
1 du
(𝒟-22) u 1 u 2
dx 2
u u 1
dx

D. Differentials
Let: u = f(x) and v = f(x)
1
dc = 0 (D-1) d 3u = du (D-8a)
3
3 u2
d (c u) = c du (D-2a)
c c
d (u  v) = du  dv (D-4a) d =  du (D-9a)
3 3
u 3 u4
n n–1
d (u ) = nu du , n  0, 1 (D-5a)
c  
d nu =
1
du (D-10a)
n u n1
d= du (D-6a) n
2 u

c c d
c  = 
c
du (D-11a)
d =  du (D-7a) n
u n1
u n
u 2 u 3 n
  u  p  q  / q du
q p 1
d up = (D-12a) d ln u = du (D-31a)
q 2u
1
d
c
= 
cp
du (D-13a) d ln n u = du (D-32a)
q p q pq nu
u q u
d (sin u) = cos u du (D-33a)
d (uv) = u du + v du (D-14a)
cos u
u v du  u dv d sin u = du (D-34a)
d  = (D-15a) 2 u
v v2
d (cos u) = –sin u du (D-35a)
 c  c
d = du (D-16a)
 u  x2 d cos u = 
sin u
du (D-36a)
2 u
 c  2 c
d   = du (D-17a) d (tan u) = sec2 u du (D-37a)
 u2  u3

 c  3c sec2 u
d   = du (D-18a) d tan u = du (D-38a)
2 u
 u3  u 4
d (cot u) = –csc2 u du (D-39a)
 c  cn
d   = du (D-19a) csc2 u
 un  u n1 d cot u =  du (D-40a)
2 u
d u
a = au ln a du (D-20a) du
dx d (sec u) = sec u tan u (D-41a)
u dx
d a
a u = ln a du (D-21a)
dx 2 u sec u tan u
d sec u = du (D-42a)
du
2 u
d (eu) = eu (D-22a)
dx d (csc u) = –csc u cot u du (D-43a)

e u d csc u = 
csc u cot u
de u = du (D-23a) du (D-44a)
2 u 2 u

1 1
d (loga u) = du, u > 0 (D-24a) d (arcsin u) = du (D-45a)
(ln a)u 1 u2

1 1
d (ln ux) = du, u > 0 (D-25a) d (arccos u) = – du (D-46a)
u 1 u2

1 1
d (ln cu) = du, (D-26a) d (arctan u) = du (D-47a)
u u 1
2
2
d (ln u2) = du, (D-27a) 1
u d (arccot u) = – du (D-48a)
u 12
n
d (ln un) = du, (D-28a) 1
u d (arcsec u) = du (D-49a)
2 ln u u u2 1
d (ln2 u) = du, (D-29a)
u 1
d (arccsc u) = – du (D-50a)
n ln n1
u u u2 1
d (lnn u) = du, (D-30a)
u d (sinh u) = cosh u du (D-51a)
d (cosh u) = sinh u du (D-52a)
 d (tanh u) = sech2 u du (D-53a) 1
d (arctanh u) = du, |x| < 1 (D-59a)
d (coth u) = –csch u du 2
(D-54a) 1 u2

d (sech u) = –sech u tanh u du (D-55a) d (arccoth u) =

1
du, |x| > 1 (D-60a)
d (csch u) = –csch u coth u du (D-56a) 1 u2

1 1
d (arcsinh u) = du (D-57a) d (arcsech u) = du (D-61a)
u 1 2 u 1 u2

1
d (arccosh u) = –
1
du (D-58a) d (arccsch u) =  du (D-64a)
u 12 u 1 u2

D. Integral Calculus

Note: Constant of integration c is omitted in each formula.

= ln  u  u 2  a 2 

du
I-0: c =0 I-30:
u a
2 2  


u du
I-1:  du =u I-31: = u2  a2
u a
2 2

I-2:  c du = cu I-32:  sin u du = –cos u

au
 a du I-33:  cos u du = sin u
u
I-3: =
ln a

u n 1
 u du  tanu du
n
I-4: = I-34: = –ln |cos u|
n 1
2
I-5:  u du =
3
u u I-35:  cot u du = ln |sin u|

e
u
I-6: du = eu I-36:  secu du = ln |sec u + tan u

e nu
u e I-37:  cscu du = ln |csc u – cot u|
nu ( nu  1)
I-7: du =
n2

u
du 1 1
 sin
I-8: = ln u I-38: 2 u – sin 2u
u du =
2 4

 ln u du = u ln u – u
1
I-9: I-39:  sin 3 u du = cos 3 u – cos u
3
2
u 1 1
I-10:
 u ln u du = 4
(2 ln u – 1) I-40:  cos
2
u du =
2
u + sin 2u
4
ln 2 u

ln u 1
 cos u du =  sin 3 u + sin u
3
I-11: du = I-41:
u 2 3

 u ln u = ln (ln u)
du
 tan
2
I-12: I-42: u du = tan u – u

 u = ln u
du 1
 tan tan 2 u + ln (cos u)
3
I-13: I-43: u du =
2


du
 cot
2
I-14: =2 u I-44: u du = –cot u – u
u
 u
du 1 1
 cot cot 2 u – ln (sin u)
3
I-15: =– I-45: u du = 
2 u 2

( au  b) n 1
 (au  b)  sec
2
n
I-16: du = I-46: u du = tan u
a ( n  1)

 au  b
du 1
 csc
2
I-17: = ln |ax + b| I-47: u du = –cot u
a

 au  b du = a – a ln |ax + b|
u u b 1 1 1
I-18: I-48:  sin u cos u du = sin2 u = – cos2 u = cos 2u
2 2 2 4

 (au  b) du = a (au  b) + a
u b 1
I-19: 2 2
ln |ax + b| I-49:  sin u tan u du = ln |sin u + tan u| – sin u
2

au  b
 u(au  b)
du 1
I-20: =– ln I-50:  sin u cot u du = sin u
b u

au  b
u
du 1 a
I-21: =– + ln I-51:  sin u csc u du = u
2
(au  b) bu b 2 u

au  b
u
du 2a
I-22: = ln I-52:  sin u sec u du = –ln |cos u|
2
(au  b) 2
b 3 u
a 1
– – I-53:  cos u tan u du = –cos u
b (bu  a)
2
b 2u


u 2
I-23: a 2  u 2 du = a  u2 I-54:  cos u sec u du = u
2
a2 u
+ arcsin I-55:  cos u cot u du = –ln |csc u + cot u| + cos u
2 a

a
du 1 u
I-24:
2
u2
=
a
arctan
a
I-56:  tanu sec u du = sec u
1 
 u 2  a 2 du = u u  a I-57:  cos u csc u du = ln |sin u|
2 2
I-25:
2
 
 a2 ln  u  u 2  a 2 
 
I-58:  tanu sec u du = sec u

du 1 au
I-26:  a2  u 2 =
2a
ln
a u
I-59:  cot u csc u du = – csc u
ua
u
du 1
I-27: = ln I-60:  arcsin u du = u arcsin u + 1 u2
2
a 2 2a ua


du u
I-28: = arcsin I-61:  arccos u du = u arccos u – 1 u2
a u2 2 a

u
du
I-29: = arcsec u I-62:  arctanu du = u arctan u – ½ ln|u2 + 1|
a2  u 2

IMP-1: Integration by Parts (IbyP):

Case 1: D(x) contains distinct linear factors:
 u dv = uv –  u dv
N ( x) A B
= +
IMP-2: Integration of Rational Fractions by Partial (ax  b)(cx  d )...(ex  f ) ax  b cx  d
Fractions (IRF by PF) C
+…+
N(x)/D(x)  PFs ex  f
 Ax  B Cx  D Ex  F
Case 2: D(x) contains repeated linear factors: = + +…+
ax  bx  c
2
dx  ex  f
2
gx2  hx  i
N ( x) A B C
= + +…+ Case 4: D(x) contains repeated quadratic factors:
(ax  b) n ax  b (ax  b) 2
(ax  b) n
N ( x) Ax  B Cx  D
Case 3: D(x) contains distinct quadratic factors: = + +…
(ax  bx  c)
2 n
ax  bx  c
2
(ax  bx  c)2
2

N ( x)
(ax  bx  c)(dx  ex  f )...(gx2  hx  i)
2 2 Case 5: D(x) contains combination of factors.

IMP-3: Trigonometric Substitution

Integrand
Case Use subst. Apply
contains

1 a2 u2 x = a sin  a 2  u 2 = a cos 

2 u2  a2 x = a tan  u 2  a 2 = a sec 

3 u2  a2 x = a sec  u 2  a 2 = a tan 

IMP-6: Powers of Cotangents and Cosecants

IMP-4: Powers of Sines and Cosines (PSC) (PCC)
> Transform integrand into (I-4) and (I-31) to (I-54), > Transform integrand into (I-4) and (I-31) to (I-54),
whichever is applicable. whichever is applicable.

IMP-5: Powers of Tangents and Secants (PTS) IMP-7: Algebraic Substitution (AS)
> Transform integrand into (I-4) and (I-31) to (I-54), > Replace any quantity from the integrand by a
whichever is applicable. single variable.