FTM - Professional Pilot - Selkirk College

Selkirk College IATPL Program Manual
Table of Contents – FTM/IPM

CRM – PDM ....................................................................................................................... 6
Aviation Knowledge ....................................................................................................... 6
The Flight Safety “System” ............................................................................................ 6
Exercise Commentary – Overview ................................................................................. 8
Pressure and Density Altitudes ....................................................................................... 9
Flight Training Manual Exercises ..................................................................................... 10
2 – Documents .............................................................................................................. 10
Certificate of Airworthiness .................................................................................. 10
Certificate of Registration ..................................................................................... 12
Maintenance Control Manual ............................................................................... 13
MCM Self study Assignment.................................................................................... 23
3 – Ancillary Controls ................................................................................................... 27
Setting Mixture in C-172 .......................................................................................... 27
Mixture in a climb ................................................................................................. 27
Mixture in Cruise .................................................................................................. 27
Mixture for Descents............................................................................................. 28
Setting Mixture in B-95 ............................................................................................ 28
4- Taxiing ...................................................................................................................... 29
11 – Slow Flight ............................................................................................................ 29
12 – Stalls...................................................................................................................... 31
13 – Spins...................................................................................................................... 34
16 – Takeoff .................................................................................................................. 35
Short Field Takeoff in C-172 ................................................................................ 35
Soft or rough field Takeoff in C-172 .................................................................... 35
17 – Circuit ................................................................................................................... 36
18 – Landing ................................................................................................................. 36
Normal Landing .................................................................................................... 36
Pilot Induced Oscillations (PIO) ........................................................................... 39
Bounced Landings ................................................................................................ 40
Short Field Landing in C-172 ............................................................................... 41
Soft Field Landing in C-172 ................................................................................. 42
20 – Illusions Created By Drift ..................................................................................... 44
21 – Precautionary Approach........................................................................................ 45
Emergency Precautionary Landing ........................................................................... 45
The Three Stages of a Precautionary Approach ....................................................... 46
Getting Ready ....................................................................................................... 46
High Inspection ..................................................................................................... 47
Low Inspection...................................................................................................... 47
Detailed Discussion of Precautionary Approach Elements ...................................... 48
Pan Message.......................................................................................................... 48
Passenger Briefing ................................................................................................ 49
Securing the Cabin ................................................................................................ 49
Organizing the High and Low Inspection ............................................................. 49
Precautionary Landing on One-Way Strip ............................................................ 53
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Time Restricted (Rushed) Precautionary Approaches .......................................... 56

22 – Forced Approach ................................................................................................... 59
Safe Habits In Case of a Forced Approach ........................................................... 59
Determining Wind ................................................................................................ 59
Circuit Style Forced Approach Procedure ............................................................ 60
High Key / Low key Procedure ............................................................................ 62
What is ground elevation? .................................................................................... 62
Effect of Wind During a Forced Approach........................................................... 63
The ABCs of Forced Approaches ......................................................................... 63
Passenger Briefing During Forced Approach ....................................................... 63
Mayday Transmission ........................................................................................... 64
Use of ELT and Transponder ................................................................................ 65
Evacuation............................................................................................................. 65
Survival Techniques.................................................................................................. 67
23-Navigation ............................................................................................................... 68
Diversions ................................................................................................................. 68
Reasons for a Diversion ........................................................................................ 68
Diversion Planning Procedure (Inflight) ............................................................... 68
Carrying Out the Plan ........................................................................................... 71
Legal and SAR Considerations ............................................................................. 71
Reorientation Procedures .......................................................................................... 72
Basic Possibilities ................................................................................................. 72
Look Around and Climb ....................................................................................... 72
Look in the Right Place......................................................................................... 73
Landfalls ............................................................................................................... 73
Go Back and Start Again ...................................................................................... 74
Use of Radio to Reorient....................................................................................... 74
Other Means of Orientation .................................................................................. 75
Lost Orientation Summary .................................................................................... 76
Flying in the USA ..................................................................................................... 76
U.S. Customs Guide for Private Flyers ................................................................. 76
USA Weather and Customs Procedures ............................................................... 77
Canadian Customs Procedures .............................................................................. 78
Flight Plan opening and Closing in the USA ........................................................ 78
FSS in the USA ..................................................................................................... 78
Flight Watch.......................................................................................................... 79
Flight Following.................................................................................................... 79
Valley Crawl Exercise .................................................................................................. 81
Laying out the map ................................................................................................... 81
The Navlog............................................................................................................ 82
Prepare to File the Flight Plan .............................................................................. 83
Completing The Navlog Enroute .......................................................................... 84
Turning Around in a Valley .................................................................................. 84
24 – Instrument Flying .................................................................................................. 85
Attitude Plus Power Equals Performance ................................................................. 85
Power changes and airspeed ..................................................................................... 85
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Rules of thumb .......................................................................................................... 86

Tips For Smooth Full Panel Instrument Flying ........................................................ 87
Tips for Leveling Off ................................................................................................ 89
Partial Panel Instrument Flying ................................................................................ 91
Recognizing Instrument Failure ............................................................................ 91
Partial Panel Scan ................................................................................................. 92
Proxy for Attitude ................................................................................................. 93
Timed Turns .......................................................................................................... 93
Unusual Attitude Recoveries ................................................................................ 94
Loss of Control – Spatial Disorientation .............................................................. 96
25 – Night Flying .......................................................................................................... 97
VFR Night Flying - CAR 605.16 .............................................................................. 97
Airport Lighting ........................................................................................................ 97
Runway edge and threshold lights ........................................................................ 98
Airport Beacon ...................................................................................................... 99
Windsock Lighting................................................................................................ 99
Approach Slope Indicator Lights ........................................................................ 100
Approach Lights.................................................................................................. 100
Other Airport Lighting ........................................................................................ 101
Variable Lighting Intensity ................................................................................. 101
Will the Lights Be On? ....................................................................................... 101
ARCAL ............................................................................................................... 102
Aircraft Lights ......................................................................................................... 102
Panel Lights ........................................................................................................ 103
Map Light............................................................................................................ 103
Nav and Strobe Lights ........................................................................................ 104
Beacon................................................................................................................. 104
Taxi and Landing Lights ..................................................................................... 104
Dome and Courtesy Lights ................................................................................. 104
Mental Alertness at Night ....................................................................................... 105
Night Vision Adaptation ......................................................................................... 105
The “First” Blind Spot ........................................................................................ 107
Field of Vision .................................................................................................... 107
Night Adaptation ................................................................................................. 108
Altitude Effect on Night Vision .......................................................................... 108
Spotting Traffic and Checkpoints at Night ......................................................... 109
Distance Judgment, Auto-kinetic Effect & Collision Courses ........................... 109
The Black Hole Effect and CFIT ........................................................................ 110
Takeoff At Night ................................................................................................. 111
Inadvertent Encounter With IMC at Night ......................................................... 112
Landing at Night ................................................................................................. 112
28 – Type Conversion ................................................................................................. 114
Using a Constant Speed Propeller........................................................................... 114
Multi Engine Flying .................................................................................................... 115
Multi-engine Takeoff Considerations ................................................................. 115
Vgo – The Decision Speed ................................................................................. 115
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Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD) ........................................................................ 117

Accelerate Go Distance (AGD) .......................................................................... 117
The Engine Failure Procedure (CAPDIF)............................................................... 118
Control ................................................................................................................ 118
Attitude (or Altitude) .......................................................................................... 119
Power .................................................................................................................. 119
Drag..................................................................................................................... 120
Identify ................................................................................................................ 120
Feather................................................................................................................. 121
CAPDIF in the B-95 ........................................................................................... 122
The Cause Check ................................................................................................ 123
Engine Failure on Takeoff B-95 ............................................................................. 124
Plan A.................................................................................................................. 124
B-95 Takeoff When AGD Not Available ........................................................... 125
Plan B .................................................................................................................. 126
Single Engine Approach and Landing .................................................................... 127
The Beech 95 Type Conversion .............................................................................. 130
Differences Between the two Travelairs ............................................................. 130
Cockpit Familiarization ...................................................................................... 130
Fuel Flow in a Climb .......................................................................................... 135
Single Engine Ceiling Chart ............................................................................... 135
B-95 Weight and Balance Charts ........................................................................ 136
Beech 95 Systems ............................................................................................... 138
Cabin Heat System .............................................................................................. 138
Electric System ................................................................................................... 142
Description of the Electric System ..................................................................... 145
Cowl Flap System ............................................................................................... 152
Gear System and Malfunctions ........................................................................... 152
Vacuum System and Malfunctions ..................................................................... 156
Gyro Slaving System .......................................................................................... 156
Fuel System and Fuel Flow Gauge ..................................................................... 157
Flight Manual Supplements ................................................................................ 160
Short and Soft Field Takeoffs and Landings .......................................................... 161
Description of the Multiengine Flight Test (MFT) ................................................. 162
Multiengine Flight Test Exercises ...................................................................... 163
Multiengine Test Questions ................................................................................ 166
29-Emergency Procedures .......................................................................................... 168
30-Radio Communications ......................................................................................... 169
AIM COM Section .................................................................................................. 169
Radio Procedures .................................................................................................... 169
Numbers .............................................................................................................. 169
Initial Contact – AAS.......................................................................................... 170
W3 system ........................................................................................................... 170
Initial Contact - Ground Control ......................................................................... 171
Initial Contact with IFR Controller ..................................................................... 171
Mountain Flying.......................................................................................................... 173
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Minimum Safe VFR Altitude (in the mountains) ............................................... 173

Mountain Cross-countries ................................................................................... 174
Ridge Crossing Technique .................................................................................. 175
Valley Flying ...................................................................................................... 178
Turning Around in a Mountain Valley ............................................................... 178
Minimum Recommended Weather for VFR Mountain Flying........................... 180
Fuel Reserves on Mountain Valley Trips ........................................................... 182
High Density Altitude Operation ........................................................................ 184
One-Way Strips ................................................................................................... 185
Syllabus Mountain Airports ................................................................................ 187
Winter Flying .............................................................................................................. 190
Winter Clothing .................................................................................................. 190
Clothes Layering System .................................................................................... 191
Deicing the Airplanes Before Flight ................................................................... 192
Deicing Fluids ..................................................................................................... 194
Parking to Catch the Sun..................................................................................... 194
Deicing in the Hangar ......................................................................................... 194
Using an Engine Heater ...................................................................................... 194
Engine Start ............................................................................................................. 195
Priming for Start ................................................................................................. 196
Fire Guards.......................................................................................................... 196
Carbon Monoxide Detector................................................................................. 197
Symptoms of CO Poisoning................................................................................ 197
Using the Heater and Defroster – C-172............................................................. 198
Using the Heater and Defroster –B-95................................................................ 198
Taxiing ................................................................................................................ 199
Takeoff ................................................................................................................ 200
In Flight Winter Consideration ............................................................................... 201
Survival Kits ....................................................................................................... 201
Snow ................................................................................................................... 201
White Out ............................................................................................................ 201
Landing on Slippery Runways ............................................................................ 202
Winter Survival ........................................................................................................... 204
Frost Bite ............................................................................................................. 204
Winter Survival Quiz .................................................................................................. 206
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CRM – PDM
Aviation Knowledge
This chapter of the IATPL Program Manual has as its main purpose increasing
your knowledge of matters aeronautical. Why is that important? Certainly not so you can
impress other pilots with your profundity. Knowledge is just one aspect of our character.
To be an excellent pilot we need many characteristics, knowledge is one – the will to use
it wisely is another.
You will find that all teaching practices within the IATPL Program are guided by
principles of CRM. CRM sometimes stands for crew resource management and
sometimes for company resource management. You will take two courses specifically
called CRM, but really all your courses are CRM courses.
The most fundamental aspect of CRM calls upon each of us to communicate with
the people around us. To communicate we must become good at both speaking and
listening. For some people stating clearly what they know so that others can understand is
the greatest challenge. But for many a greater challenge is being open enough to listen
and hear what others are saying. Please keep in mind as you read what follows in the
SOP and FOM sections of this manual that all the procedures and techniques we advocate
(and insist on) will mean nothing if you are not open. Your instructors are committed to
openness with you, we ask you to do the same with us and with your fellow students.
The Flight Safety “System”

Selair SOP procedures cover all aspects of flight from preflight preparations,
getting weather briefings, checking NOTAMS, printing weather, flight plans, getting
authorization from an instructor and then completing the flight. It is critical that pilots
realize that each procedure mandated is part of a flight safety system. The system is
designed with several double checks at different points in the system. This is a crucial
risk management strategy. See further commentary on this in the FOM.
Perversely the high level of safety inherent in the modern world of aviation results
in a certain number of accidents caused by complacency. That is because 99% of the time
airports are open, aircraft are serviceable, airspace is not restricted, weather reports are
accurate, other pilots make required radio calls, airport fences keep people and animals
away from runways, etc. Consequently pilots and other persons involved in the flight
safety system may fall into the habit of assuming that nothing unusual will happen on a
flight. But unusual situations do occur, and when they do the safety system must “catch”
them and prevent an accident.
Let us examine just one example – a NOTAM for construction equipment

working next to a runway. Have you ever thought about the life history of such a Notam?
Every licensed airport has an airport manager (APM) who is responsible for
issuing a NOTAM if a situation arises affecting operations on the airport. The first
opportunity for the system to fail is if the APM does not issue the NOTAM. The second
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opportunity for failure is if the FSS specialist does pass on the NOTAM received from
the APM. The third possible failure is if the pilot does not read the NOTAM. The final
failure would be if the pilot does not see the hazard prior to landing and strikes the
equipment. Keep in mind that equipment working next to a runway is quite rare. So it is
not surprising that you may tend to get lax (complacent) about checking NOTAMs. Of
course one serious (or fatal) accident out of the 10,000 flights you will make in your
career is all it takes. To guard against this risk our SOPs and procedures include several
redundancies that prevent one omission or misjudgment from causing an accident. If we
all follow the procedures there is virtually no chance of an accident. Let’s examine how
our SOPs protect you against the four possible failures above.
If the APM fails to issue a NOTAM when one is needed you have the protection
of other system professionals such as controllers and FSS specialists who will warn you
of hazards adjacent to the runway before clearing you to land or indicating the preferred
runway. If the airport is not equipped with a tower or FSS our policy requiring a low pass
along the runway prior to landing protects you (this policy is in the FOM). The same
protections are available if the FSS specialist fails to disseminate the NOTAM received
from the APM.
Our procedures require you to get authorization from an instructor before every
flight. The instructor will independently check NOTAMs. Thus both you and the
instructor would have to miss the NOTAM in order for you to be ignorant of it. An even
higher level of redundancy is achieved on mutual/crew flights when the First Officer
must also check NOTAMS, independently, before the flight. (It is important to note that
instructors who provide flight instruction daily are more likely to be familiar with all
NOTAMS than instructors who primarily instruct in the classroom or simulator.
Therefore, you achieve maximum safety be having a flight instructor authorize your
flight.)
With all the above in mind pilots are urged to recognize SOPs as helpful, not as a burden.
Enjoy your flying; remember to participate in the thrill of flight and enjoy the majesty of
the view. Being a professional will keep you from scaring yourself. In flying a scare is
not a desirable outcome. Even a professional can love flying – consider that the final
SOP.
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Exercise Commentary – Overview

The following material supplements the information found in the Flight Training
Manual and the Instrument Procedures Manual. At Selkirk College we always perform
procedures in accordance with the above two manuals. However, sometimes the
explanations provided in those manuals are insufficient. This section provides additional
information to help you learn the procedures.
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Pressure and Density Altitudes

The performance charts in your aircraft Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) require
you to calculate the Pressure altitude and Density Altitude. At Selkirk College you are
required to calculate both these values for every takeoff and landing.
Aircraft performance depends on the density of the air. Density of air depends on
temperature and pressure. By convention the pressure of the air is expressed in units of
Pressure Altitude (PA) and density is expressed in units of Density Altitude (DA). PA
and DA tell the pilot that the pressure and density are equal to the value in a hypothetical
atmosphere known as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Consequently
density altitude is also known as standard altitude.
The procedure to calculate Pressure altitude and Density altitude is explained in

your text Navigation for Professional Pilots.
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Flight Training Manual Exercises

2 – Documents
The following documents must always be carried onboard the airplane in flight:
1. Journey Logbook
2. Certificate of Airworthiness
3. Certificate of Registration
4. Weight and Balance report
5. Proof of insurance
6. Pilot Operating Handbook
In addition to the documents above you will need to refer to the company
Maintenance Control Manual (MCM). The MCM specifies the maintenance schedule
and procedures used by a given company. Matters such as how often the airplane must be
inspected and exactly what is checked on a given inspection vary from company to
company, to reflect the varying uses of airplanes by different companies. Therefore one
of your first responsibilities as a new employee is to become familiar with the
maintenance schedule and procedures for your company.
Certificate of Airworthiness
On your multi-engine and commercial flight tests you will be asked to prove the
airplane is “airworthy” by inspecting the documents. All pilots know that the C of A is
part of that process but few understand the way this document fits into the big picture of
ensuring your airplane is safe for flight.
To understand the C of A start by reading it:
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The key clause is #5, reproduced below:
Your airplane is “legally airworthy” if it conforms to a type certificate. What does

that mean? In simple terms it means that airplanes cannot be manufactured unless the
government has issued the manufacturer with a “Type Certificate.” A type certificate is
obtained by building prototype airplanes and having them extensively tested against the
certification standards, which are in the CARS (chapter 523 and 525).
Once the government is happy with the prototype subsequent airplanes are issued
a C of A based on the assurance of the company that the airplane is built as an exact
replica of the prototype. Therefore, when we say your airplane is airworthy all we really
mean is that it is a “copy” of the prototype, and is as safe and well built as that prototype.
This leads to two obvious conclusions:
1. Over time the airplane must be maintained so that it always matches the
prototype.
2. An airplane can never be modified – because then it would not conform to the
type certificate.
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But you are saying, I know of many airplanes that have been modified. Indeed all
of Selair’s airplanes have been modified. They have things like pulse-lights and Lasar
mag systems. So, how is this to be rationalized with clause 5 on the C of A.
The answer is called a “Supplemental Type Certificate.” No airplane may be

modified unless the company doing the modification has obtained from the government a
supplemental type certificate. The process is essentially the same as getting a type
certificate, except this time it authorizes the company to modify an airplane that has a
type certificate in a specific way. Of course this system is intended to assure us that any
modifications are at least as safe as the original design.
If you look in the POH for our airplanes you will find documentation of a
supplemental type certificate for each change that has been made to the airplanes.
In summary – you must realize that all maintenance is intended to keep the
airplane in conformance to the original design specifications. Any modifications must go
through an extensive (pronounced expensive) certification process. So, never consider or
permit anyone to modify an airplane except as described above.
Certificate of Registration
The first thing to do is read the fine print on the C of R:
Below is a blowup of the upper left corner of the C of R.
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Note the clause (highlighted) that says the C of R is NOT a certificate of title.
This is your first clue as to what this document is for. It is NOT to prove who owns the
airplane. I am sad to tell you that what it is really for is to get you into trouble.
The C of R works hand in hand with the large registration marks painted on the
airplane. If you are seen doing anything illegal or questionable those markings can be
looked up in a registration database and the “owner” contacted.
Given the above reality (that after all is how governments think) what do you
think should happen if someone owns an airplane but leases it to someone else for an
extended period of time? The answer is that the airplane should be re-registered into the
lessee’s name. That is why the document does NOT prove ownership.
Maintenance Control Manual

No one is allowed to operate an air service without a certificate from the
government. You will learn all about this in Air Law class. One of the requirements for
an operating certificate is to have a maintenance system in place and that in turn requires
two documents. The first is called a Maintenance Policy Manual (MPM) the second is
called a Maintenance Control Manual (MCM).
The MPM is for the use of the technicians and AMEs who work on the airplanes.
It explains exactly HOW things will be done maintenance wise. Generally it is not of
interest to pilots. The MCM on the other hand specifies WHEN all the inspections and
other maintenance items are to be done. Since pilots don’t let mechanics keep the
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airplanes in the shop all the time pilots must know when to bring the airplane back to the
mechanic for an inspection or other maintenance. The MCM tells us when to do that.
Below are reproductions of a few key clauses in Selair’s MCM as a

demonstration. The large bold text is added commentary – the standard text is copied
directly from the MCM. A copy of the MCM is available in the dispatch area – on the
status board. ALL pilots should read it.
Every Maintenance Organization must have ONE person who is the “person
responsible for maintenance” (PRM) in our organization it is Al Ricard. Here is
what our MCM says his responsibilities are:
10 PERSON RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTENANCE (PRM)
The PRM is responsible to the president for the coordination of the maintenance function. He will ensure
that these activities are accomplished in accordance with the policies and procedures defined in this
manual. He shall have the authority to with-hold aircraft from operational status when maintenance
considerations are required. His duties consist of but are not limited to the following:
I. Acting as liaison between the Company and Transport Canada regarding maintenance and related
subjects.
II. Planning and control of all maintenance for company aircraft.
III. Ensuring that inspection and maintenance packages are complete.
IV. Ensuring aircraft maintenance schedules are available and up to date.
V. Ensuring that the work performed and certifications have been entered in the aircraft maintenance
record prior to the aircraft return to service.
VI. Monitoring aircraft inspections processes including quality of shop and/or work performed by
external agencies.
VII. Ensuring quality of aircraft maintenance workmanship by compliance with manufacturers
recommendations and/ or industry standards.
VIII. Being responsible for the control and preservation of technical records.
IX. Being responsible for the technical dispatch of aircraft returned from maintenance.
X. Establishing the maintenance evaluation program.
XI. Ensuring that a list of personnel trained to perform elementary work and servicing duties is
maintained.
XII. Ensuring that Service Difficulty Reports are submitted to Transport Canada within the required
time constraints and that a filing and follow-up program is established.
XIII. Ensuring this manual and technical reference publications are available and amended in a timely
manner.
XIV. Controlling of parts and materials for the performance of servicing and elementary work.
XV. Appointing and training an alternate to his position during absence of more than three days period.
XVI. Appointing and training a delegate to assist as required in the above duties.
All companies must have procedures in place for breakdowns away from home
base. Here is what our MCM says:
23 UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE
From time to time, unscheduled maintenance may be required while the aircraft is located beyond practical
availability of the AMO. In this case, an alternate AMO possessing the appropriate rating and limitation,
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may be engaged to accomplish the work. The PRM is responsible to authorize unscheduled maintenance. A
copy of the MCM is to be carried on board aircraft operating extended distances from home base. In the
event that the Pilot in Command is unable to contact the DOM the CFI may, IAW CAR406.36 (3) make the
necessary arrangements for the required maintenance directly with an appropriately rated AMO. The CFI
will advise the DOM of this action as soon as possible.
We must also have procedures for defects that we are not going to repaired
right away (called deferred defects). Here is what our MCM says:
24 DEFERRED MAINTENANCE CONTROL

In accordance with CAR 605.10, defects not affecting the airworthiness of the aircraft may be deferred
until corrective action can be taken. Defects which may affect the aircraft airworthiness must be reported to
the PRM prior to further flight. No release will be granted for aircraft having defects which could impair
the aircrafts flight authority. The AMO may be consulted for technical advise but the deferral remains the
responsibility of the PRM. Multiple deferred defects could have a cumulative effect on the overall safety of
the aircraft therefore the pilot must review and evaluate the airworthiness implications of accepting an
aircraft with multiple defects deferred.
Defects which are to be deferred are entered into the journey log in the remarks column. The defect is then
transcribed to the deferred maintenance list in the Aircraft Journey Log. If the deferral is granted by
authority of the pilot or the PRM, this is to be included in the deferral entry in the Aircraft Journey Log.
Deferred maintenance must be rectified at the next scheduled maintenance event. Carry over of minor
defects may be accepted provided the defect is inspected to ascertain its acceptability, the entry is closed on
the deferred maintenance list by noting “transcribed to new D.M.L.” and transcribing the defect to the new
list. Carried over items will be rectified as soon as practical.
The important things for you to note from the above are:
The ultimate responsibility for deferring a defect rests with AL RICARD
1. The pilot can defer NON-AIRWORTHINESS defects
a. But – how do YOU know it’s not an airworthiness item?
b. So – consult AL whenever possible
2. When you defer something you must include your name in the deferring entry.
A typical entry in the journey logbook should look something like this:
Landing light not working. Deferred to DML by Ray Preston – R Preston
After making the above entry in the Journey log then make an entry on the
deferred defect list (DML) where you only initial the entry (hence the need for
your name to be in the logbook entry.)
Take note of this clause in the MCM:

26 INSPECTION AFTER ABNORMAL OCCURRENCE
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In accordance with CAR 605.88 an inspection to determine the condition of the aircraft
will be conducted after experiencing any abnormal occurrence. This inspection is to be
conducted by a pilot provided no disassembly is involved otherwise by qualified
maintenance personnel. In any case, it shall be accomplished per CAR 625.88 appendix
G.
All maintenance must be performed according to an approved schedule. Each

company has its own schedule. I.E. our maintenance schedule is NOT the
same as the one at other schools. So, you must read the MCM to know what
the schedule is:
32 SCHEDULED INSPECTIONS
Each Cessna 172 shall be inspected at the intervals indicated and in accordance with the
Transport Canada approved P0099 maintenance schedule. Each Beech 95 shall be
inspected at the intervals indicated and in accordance with the Transport Canada
approved P0100 maintenance schedule. The PRM will carry out a review of out of phase
inspection items and AD’s, entering details of those applicable on the Defect Record
form of the inspection package. The deferred maintenance list will be removed from the
Aircraft Journey Log and attached with the inspection package, any deferred defect that
will be worked on during the inspection will be transferred to the appropriate defect
record form. Manufacturers continuing airworthiness publications such as service
bulletins and other advisories will be reviewed at this time to determine the necessity for
including any recommendations issued.
The following requirements are to be observed during the course of scheduled

maintenance:
I. Airworthiness Directives (AD) shall be completed as directed by the issuing authority and
accomplishment entered into the technical record in accordance with CAR 605.84(1)(b).
II. Airworthiness limitations as published in the type certification data or as recommended by the
equipment manufacturer shall be observed Components/parts shall be removed from service and
destroyed upon reaching their published life limit or placed in quarantine storage accompanied by
the historical records. Life limitations are noted on maintenance schedule out of phase list.
III. Aircraft weight and balance and equipment lists will be revised per the airworthiness manual Ch.
571 appendix C. Repairs and modifications shall be accomplished per the airworthiness manual
Ch. 571.06
IV. Tachometers will be tested per CAR625 appendix C (7)
V. Independent control inspections are performed by qualified persons upon completion of any work
effecting the flight attitude and propulsive force control systems per CAR 571.10.
VI. Pitot static systems test will be carried out per CAR 571.10
VII. Magnetic direction indicator shall be calibrated annually in accordance with CAR 625 appendix
C(9)
VIII. Survival and emergency equipment will be maintained per CAR 625 appendix C (10)
IX. Emergency locator will be tested per CAR 625 appendix C(11)
X. Altimetry devices shall be tested per CAR 625 appendix C(12)
XI. ATC transponders will be tested per CAR 625 appendix C(13)
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Transport Canada gives each company a maintenance approval number for each type of
airplane. For Selair the C-172 number is P0009. A copy of that page of the MCM is
shown below:
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FTM/IPM FTM - 19
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What you need to know is that there are TWO types of inspection items. There are the
regular 50 and 100-hour inspection items and there are also “out of phase items.” All
airplanes will require some out of phase items. These are things checked on a schedule
other than the company’s usual schedule – see the list above, which shows what is done
on the C-172s for example.
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You don’t need to memorize the out of phase list. What you need to know is:
1. Al is responsible – legally – for getting these things done.
2. If he screws up you will be the one in the hot seat – so help him out even though you are NOT
legally required to do so.
3. Usually Al completes all out of phase items that will come due before the next 100-hour
inspection. That means you can just fly to the next inspection and not worry about anything being
overdue.
4. Occasionally this is not possible. For example if an engine has 40 hours left Al may sign out a 100
hour inspection – but you cannot fly 50 hours because that would go beyond the engines 2500
hour limit. He SHOULD put a note in the logbook telling you that there is a limitation. YOUR
responsibility is to read it and obey the limitation.
5. A responsible pilot will make an effort to back up the PRM by personally checking those items
most important to flight safety. Which items those are will depend on the type of operation. For
example the ELT annual check is very important in northern flying. The altimeter calibration is
very important for IFR flying, etc.
That concludes the review of the MCM.
The following exercise will get you into the Selkirk College MCM (Selair) and
get you familiar with our maintenance schedule and procedures. You will find a copy of
the MCM in the Flight Operations building on the Maintenance Status Board.
As part of AVIA 201 you will be assigned to complete the following assignment
and hand it in. Feel free to do it well ahead of time – even in first year.
FTM/IPM FTM - 22
MCM Self study Assignment
1. Who is Selair’s PRM (Person Responsible for Maintenance) and what is he

responsible for?
2. Who is Selair’s DOM (Director of Maintenance) and what is he responsible for?
3. Who signs Selair’s MCM on behalf of the operations certificate holder?
4. Must a PRM hold a valid AME’s licence, explain?
5. When a FTU has its own AMO (Approved Maintenance Organization) who is
eligible to be the PRM? (CAR 406.36 para 2)
6. How do you determine if a particular page of the MPM is current?
7. Who issues amendments to the MPM?
8. List the three types of training required, when each type must be performed and
who it applies to?
9. Who can perform maintenance on Selair’s aircraft and what constitutes their
authority to do so?
FTM/IPM FTM - 23
10. What chapter of the Airworthiness Manual (CARs) states the requirements of
Selair’s maintenance facility?
11. Where are defects recorded and when?
12. What defects must be referred to the PRM for resolution?
13. When an aircraft requires unscheduled maintenance away from home base who is
responsible for authorizing the work and if this person is unavailable who is the
only other person authorized to arrange for the required maintenance?
14. In accordance with CAR CAR 605.10 what defects may be deferred?
15. Who must defects that may affect an aircrafts flight authority, be reported to?
16. Where must deferred defects be recorded?
17. What constitutes a recurring defect?
FTM/IPM FTM - 24
18. Who may perform an inspection of the aircraft following and abnormal
occurrence and what forms the basis for the inspection?
19. What must take place prior to any person performing servicing or elementary
maintenance (CAR 406.45)?
20. Is a maintenance release required for elementary work and where must the work
be recorded?
21. Are manufactures service bulletins recommending repetitive inspections or times

between overhaul considered mandatory?
22. What is the approval number for Selair’s approved maintenance schedule for the
172's and the B95's respectively?
23. What action indicates that an out of service aircraft has been returned to service
and who is the only person who can perform this function?
FTM/IPM FTM - 25
24. Who is responsible for the maintenance of the aircraft status record?
25. What is the purpose of the inspection tolerance and where is it found?
26. Who may authorize the use of the tolerance?
27. Who is responsible for the issuance and maintenance of the Service Difficulty
reporting system?
28. In which logbook(s) must maintenance certifications be made?
29. The CAR’s not withstanding, how long are all records pertaining to the aircraft
operational and maintenance history be kept?
30. In Abbotsford, who is primarily responsible for contacting the maintenance

contractor regarding scheduling of the impending maintenance?
FTM/IPM FTM - 26
3 – Ancillary Controls
Setting Mixture in C-172
Start by reading pages 4-15 to 4-17 in the C-172 POH.
Mixture in a climb
The mixture must be richer in a climb than in cruise. The climb mixture procedure
is described on page 4-15. When you are above 3000 feet you can lean the mixture for
best power. This means leaning to achieve maximum rpm. You should turn (not pull) the
mixture knob out slowly watching the rpms rise. Once they start to drop you know you
have gone too far so turn the mixture back in until the rpms are at a maximum.
Always monitor oil and CHT temperatures. If the temperatures are nearing
maximum put the mixture rich to help cool the engine.
Always listen to the engine. If it runs rough put the mixture rich until it runs
smoothly.
Mixture in Cruise
The C-172 POH offers two procedures. One uses the tachometer and the other
uses the EGT to set the mixture. You will find that leaning by EGT does not work well in
the C-172. It does work well in most fuel-injected airplane however. In a carbureted
airplane such as the C-172 it does not always work the way theory says it should because
the four cylinders are not getting equal mixture. Thus, when one cylinder is perfectly
leaned some of the others may be too rich and some may be too lean. The result is a
roughness to the engine. Therefore the most important instrument for leaning the mixture
in the C-172 is your ears and the seat of your pants. ALWAYS listen to and feel the
engine. If it runs rough make the mixture richer until it runs smoothly.
Usually the best way to set the mixture is with the tachometer procedure, on page
4-16 of the POH. You lean the mixture SLOWLY until the rpms begin to drop. Then
adjust the mixture back in until you have maximum rpm. You should then WAIT for one
or two minutes to allow all temperatures to stabilize (unfortunately this is not explained
in the POH) After the temperatures have stabilized adjust the rpm, with the throttle, to 25
rpm more than your flight planned rpm. Then lean the mixture until the rpms drop
approximately 25 rpm. BE SURE to check (listen and feel) for roughness. If the mixture
results in rough running put the mixture rich until the engine runs smoothly. NOTE, you
will then be using more fuel than you flight planned for, so reconfirm that you have
enough.
You should read the above paragraph several times. The process is complex
because it involves several intermediate steps. If you miss any step you don’t get the
proper mixture. Expect to be tested on this procedure.
FTM/IPM FTM - 27
Mixture for Descents

Lycoming (the manufacturer of the engine) recommends putting the mixture full
rich before any large power changes. Therefore, if you are going to make a substantial
rpm reduction as part of your descent you must put the mixture rich. (The same also
applies prior to doing exercises in the practice area.)
If you are pushing the nose over and only make a slight power reduction to
descend you can leave the mixture lean. But, as you descend you will need to gradually
move the mixture rich. We recommend adjusting the mixture in a turn or two every 1,000
feet timing the adjustments so that you reach full rich no later than 3,000 feet or at the
point you wish to start your pre-landing checklist, whichever comes first.
Setting Mixture in B-95

The most accurate method of setting the mixture is using the EGTs. However, the
procedure takes quite a few minutes so on most short flights it is more practical to set the
mixture using the fuel flow gauges.
The fuel flow gauges are calibrated in both gallons per hour and percent of power.
Thus if you know you have set 65% power you can set the mixture to 65%. Alternatively
if you have planned for a fuel flow of 9.8 gph you can set that fuel flow.
The percent markings show a range of fuel flow for each power setting. The top
of the range produces maximum power and the bottom of the range maximum economy.
Normally you would want maximum economy. However, the proper procedure is to set
the mixture for maximum power and then fly for several minutes until all temperatures
stabilize. Once the temperatures are stable reduce the mixture to maximum economy.
As with the C-172 watch for rough running and put the mixture rich if
encountered. However, these are fuel-injected engines so usually they run quite smoothly.
REMEMBER to keep the mixture full rich in climbs below 5,000’. Above 5,000’
lean the mixture to the climb setting marked on the fuel flow gauge.
You can start a descent in the B-95 with the mixture leaned. You then move the
mixture rich a bit each thousand feet timing the adjustment so you reach full rich at
3,000’ or where you plan to start your pre-landing checklist whichever comes first.
FTM/IPM FTM - 28
4- Taxiing
When you start taxiing from the Selair apron in Castlegar you must be very
careful due to the confined space. Don’t try to do any instrument checks until you reach
taxiway bravo. You should however test your brakes immediately. See the SOPs for more
information on these points.
The picture to the left shows typical runup locations.

Normally you runup on the main apron prior to takeoff on
runway 15 and you runup on taxiway bravo, at midfield,
prior to takeoff on runway 33. In rare instances, when these
areas are blocked by other airplanes, you may runup on the
Selair apron. (This will be very rare.)
When running up on the main apron, avoid getting in

the way of airliners. If an airliner is parked on the apron, or is
coming in soon do your runup along the east side of the main
apron, as marked on the diagram. However, in most cases
you will go to the NE corner of the apron and runup there
(also marked). Try to keep well into the corner so you don’t
block taxiway alpha.
Never use taxiway Charlie or Delta, they are only for the fire fighting aircraft.
11 – Slow Flight
Slow flight is by definition flight on the backside of the power curve.
Under normal circumstances if you wish to slow down by five knots you would
expect to reduce power about 100 rpm (in a C-172). But, as you get slower there comes a
point where slowing down actually requires an increase in power – this is slow flight.
On the commercial pilot flight test there is no longer a true slow flight exercise.
Instead the flight test calls for (see appendix XIII):
complete appropriate safety precautions before entering slow flight;

stabilize and maintain the airspeed at 1.2 Vso, +/- 5 knots;
establish straight and level flight and complete level turns, with gear and flaps
selected as specified by the examiner;
maintain the specified altitude, +/- 100 feet;
maintain the specified heading during straight flight within +/- 10 °;
maintain the bank angle within +/- 10 ° during turns;
roll out on a specified heading within +/- 10 °;
maintain coordinated flight;
maintain an effective lookout;
FTM/IPM FTM - 29
prevent a stall;
recover promptly and smoothly to normal flight.
Your C-172 POH defines Vso on page 1-6: it says “Stalling Speed or minimum
steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable in the landing configuration at the
most forward center of gravity.” For the C-172 that is 46 KCAS or 33 KIAS (page 5-11).
1.2 Vso works out to 55.2 KCAS. You should then go to the calibration chart on page 5-8.
There you see that 55.2 CAS equals about 50 KIAS. This is the speed you should be
using on your commercial flight test.
Note the procedure used to calculate the speed. You always start with the
calibrated stall speed, multiply by the chosen factor to get the desired
calibrated speed then convert that into an indicated speed. The same
technique would be used to derive an approach speed.
Despite the flight test exercise listed above you should practice slow flight at
many different speeds, right down to just above the stall.
FTM/IPM FTM - 30
12 – Stalls
Always conduct a CALL check before doing any stalls. Know your SOPs
regarding minimum altitudes and follow them.
Always practice stalls as though you are close to the ground. Imagine situations
such as bouncing a landing and then stalling in the bounce (just a few feet above the
ground.) Another scenario would be wind sheer encountered at low altitude on an ILS
approach. Anyone can recover from a stall at altitude. You are trying to get good at
recovering close to the ground.
The stall recovery should be broken down into two parts. The first simply
involves reducing angle of attack and applying full power. This is the easy part. The
second part is pulling out of the ensuing dive without hitting the ground. Many pilots
don’t do so well on the second part.
When doing stalls you must learn to accurately identify three points in time:
1. When the airplane first stalls

2. When it is unstalled
3. When it is no longer in danger of hitting the ground
It is important that you identify the point of stall and immediately start to recover.
Holding the airplane into the stall is a failing item on the commercial flight test.
Once the airplane stalls you must push forward to reduce angle of attack and add
full power. Keep straight with rudder. Do NOT use any ailerons while you are stalled.
Most pilots do the above quite well, but often are slow recognizing that the stall is
over. Consequently they keep diving, the speed keeps rising, and if they were close to the
ground they would just dive right into it. (Luckily we only practice stalls at altitude, but
we want you to pretend you are close to the ground, because that is the really dangerous
scenario.) In reality the stall ends very quickly after you lower the nose and add power, so
you must transition quickly from thinking about unstalling to thinking about starting a
climb.
To start a climb follow the procedure in your POH for an overshoot (this works
for all airplanes). But, keep in mind that your first priority is to stop further loss of
altitude, WITHOUT stalling again. To that end you must pull up firmly, but not so firmly
that you stall again (a “wimpy” pullout will prevent a secondary stall but might fly you
into the ground). In your training at Selkirk College you will practice firm pullouts at
altitude so that if you ever have to do one close to the ground you will know how. (Note
that it is perfectly normal to get a slight stall warning horn while pulling out of the stall.
Indeed theoretically you want to pull out as close to the stall as possible, without actually
stalling again).
FTM/IPM FTM - 31
The only question left to answer is: when should the flaps be retracted? The
simple answer is “according to the POH.” Unfortunately many POHs don’t give full
information in that regard. If the POH does not specify a flap retraction schedule for stall
recoveries we recommend using the schedule for overshoots.
The C-172 POH specifies overshoots to be done as follows (page 4-10):
1. Throttle - - Full Open

2. Carburetor heat – cold
3. Wing flaps -- 20º (immediately)
4. Climb speed – 55 KIAS
5. Wing flaps - - 10º (until obstacles are cleared).
Retract flaps after reaching a safe altitude and 60 KIAS.
Applying the above to a stall recovery situation you would get:
1. Lower the nose

2. Throttle - - Full Open
3. Carburetor heat – cold
4. Keep straight with rudder
5. WAIT momentarily - - until the airspeed starts to rise, indicating no longer stalled
6. Pull up and raise flaps to 20º
7. Climb speed – 55 KIAS
8. Wing flaps - - 10º (until obstacles are cleared).
Retract flaps after reaching a safe altitude and 60 KIAS.
Remember that we are attempting to fit the “Balked Landing” checklist into a
situation that it is not specifically designed for; therefore we must do some thinking about
exactly how and when it applies. We will discuss each of the 8 steps in the stall recovery
below:
1. Lowering the nose is the most important thing on any stall because doing so
reduces angle of attack. Recall from Aerodynamics class that the airplane is
stalled because angle of attack is too great.
2. Application of full throttle “pulls” the airplane forward, changing the relative
wind and helping to further reduce the angle of attack.
3. Setting carb heat to cold provided more power and assists with point 2.
4. We use rudders to keep straight – NOT ailerons – in the first few seconds because
if the wing is stalled turning the ailerons will only increase angle of attack and
deepen the stall, aggravating any roll/bank that may develop. However, remember
that the limitation on using ailerons only applies until angle of attack is reduced,
which will only take a second or two.
FTM/IPM FTM - 32
5. We wait for just a moment until the airplane is unstalled. A common MISTAKE
is to retract the flaps instantly at this point, just as you would on a balked landing.
But on a balked landing the airplane does not start from a stalled condition. So,
we should wait for just one or two seconds until the airspeed starts to rise – once
that happens we can then apply the rest of the balked landing procedure.
6. At this step the pilot should be starting to pull up from the nose down attitude
established at step 1. As the nose is pulled up the pilot should reach over and set
flaps to 20 .
Remember that reducing flaps is done to reduce drag. Recall from aerodynamics
class that climb performance depends on thrust exceeding drag. We have already
set maximum thrust (step 1) now we must reduce drag in order to climb. If you
remember that reducing flaps is for the purpose of climbing, not to “un-stall” then
you won’t be likely to retract flaps too early.
7. We find that step 7 is the most misunderstood and poorly performed step on the
commercial flight test.
The POH emphasizes the need to establish 55 KIAS climb speed, but remember
that the procedure is for a balked landing and assumes that you started the
procedure a reasonable distance above ground.
If you have lots of altitude then you can “go for airspeed” as your first priority,
even if that means allowing the airplane to sink while doing so. But, in your
training at Selkirk College we are ALWAYS going to simulate that you are very
close to the ground when you stall. Therefore, your first priority is to prevent
unnecessary altitude loss. That means that when you pull up at step 6 you are
NOT “diving for 55 +” you are pulling up keeping the airspeed as low as possible
without re-stalling until the nose is above the horizon. AFTER loss of altitude has
been stopped then let the airspeed accelerate to 55 KIAS.
8. Once the airspeed reaches 55 KIAS set the flaps to 10 . Leave the flaps at 10 and
climb at 55 until any obstacles in front of you are cleared. For the purpose of
training flights we normally climb at 55 KIAS until we regain the original altitude
we started the exercise from.
Once you have cleared obstacles lower the nose slightly to start accelerating. Wait
until above 60 KIAS before retracting flaps to zero.
In stall recoveries on flight tests the most common mistakes are retracting the
flaps too soon or allowing the speed to get too high while diving (above 55 KIAS). Both
mistakes result in losing more altitude than necessary. Remember that the objective is not
to just un-stall but to do so with minimum altitude loss.
FTM/IPM FTM - 33
13 – Spins
The procedure to recover from a spin is on page 4-19 of the POH. It is a 5 step
procedure that must become so natural to you that you do it without delay or even having
to think about. However, you should start by memorizing the procedure because if you
can’t even say it, how are you going to do it?
The first step is throttle to idle – this is easy, but sometimes forgotten.
Steps two and three are VERY SPECIFICALLY timed according to the POH.
Step two is to apply full opposite rudder. Step three says just after applying the rudder
briskly move the control wheel forward.
The most common mistakes made relate to the timing of these two steps. The
most common error is to apply opposite rudder but not move the wheel forward. This is
NOT acceptable. You must BRISKLY move the wheel forward to break the spin.
The next most common mistake is to move the wheel forward before applying the
rudder – or to apply the rudder then wait too long before moving the wheel forward. The
POH says “just after the rudder reaches the stop, move the control wheel briskly forward
far enough to break the stall” (emphasis in original). Note the first two words, which are
“just after” – it doesn’t say apply full rudder, then count to six and then move the wheel
forward. Nor does it say move the wheel forward while you are applying full rudder. It
says JUST AFTER. And it does say AFTER, not while. So don’t be either early or late
moving the control wheel forward.
To get things going smoothly pace yourself by saying “Pull, kick, push”. The pull
refers to pulling off the power, then kick (the rudder) then push (the control wheel
forward.) If you do this on a one-two-three count your timing will be good.
FTM/IPM FTM - 34
16 – Takeoff
For the C-172 the takeoff procedures are explained on page 4-8 and 4-13 to 4-15.
Normal takeoffs are performed using zero flaps. Short and soft field takeoffs are
performed using 10-degrees of flap.
Short Field Takeoff in C-172

For a short field takeoff always backtrack as close as you can to the beginning of
the runway. Hold the brakes and apply full power before releasing the brakes. Confirm
you are getting full power – see page 4-13.
Keep the elevator neutral during the takeoff roll. Don’t pin the nose to the
ground. At the designated rotate speed smoothly lift the nose to the climb attitude, which
is about 8 degrees nose up. Note that in most large airplanes the attitude to rotate to is
published in the POH. Unfortunately Mr. Cessna did not include that information in the
C-172 POH. Still, there is an optimum attitude and that is what you must rotate to. Fly the
attitude and you will get the published performance. Don’t chase the airspeed.
Maintain the steep climb until any obstacles have been cleared. However, as soon
as you clear the obstacles start accelerating to Vy. DON’T remain in the steep climb
longer than necessary because it limits your options in the event of an engine failure.
Soft or rough field Takeoff in C-172

On a soft field takeoff you want to avoid damaging the nose wheel and the
propeller. A propeller is easily damaged by stones or water, such as are found on a gravel
or wet grass strip. The best way to protect the propeller is to keep moving. I.E. plan to
taxi onto the runway and takeoff in one continuous motion – never coming to a full stop
(if possible). If you must stop then renew your motion very slowly with the lowest power
setting that will do the job.
Keep the control wheel completely back in your “gut” the whole time you are
taxiing. This keeps the propeller as high off the ground as possible. It also reduces the
chance of nosing over if your wheels drop into a rut, pothole, mud spot, etc.
On the takeoff roll you want to get the nose wheel off the ground as soon as
possible. However, apply takeoff power SLOWLY. Ensure that the airplane is
accelerating as you apply power – this is extra critical on a gravel runway. You can
compare this to starting to move in your car. You could “pop the clutch” and spin your
wheels, or you could accelerate smoothly and never spin your wheels. Similarly in an
airplane you can apply full power quickly so the engine is turning 2,700 rpm while you
are still going 5 knots, or you can apply the power gradually so airspeed increases as rpm
increases. This later method will reduce the likely hood of sucking rocks into your
propeller.
On the takeoff try to keep the nose wheel just clear of the ground. You do not
need the nose way up in the air.
FTM/IPM FTM - 35
Wait for the airplane to lift off then ease forward to remain in ground effect.
Don’t climb out of ground effect until you have at least reached the speed for a short field
climb (56 KIAS at gross weight). If there are no obstructions on departure remain in
ground effect until you are well above the minimum speed – a speed of 65 knots would
be a good choice to start the climb.
17 – Circuit
18 – Landing
Landing procedures are listed in the C-172 POH on pages 4-9 and 4-19 to 4-21.
At Selkirk College both normal and short and soft field landings are performed
using full flaps.
Normal Landing
The Transport Canada Flight Training Manual has some good advice about how
to land an airplane, read it first then return here. Pay particular attention to the section
about normal landings, on page 104. The FTM suggests that the flare begins at 15 to 30
feet agl and “should progress continuously”. This quote might be slightly misleading.
Below are a few extra things to think about.
Get to know the normal approach attitude of your airplane. In the C-172 this is the
attitude to descend at 65 to 70 knots in a 500 fpm descent, with full flaps. Since the FTM
says that the flare begins at about 30 feet you should still be in the above attitude all the
way down to 30 feet. A common mistake is allowing the nose to start to rise (and
therefore the speed to dissipate) at much too high an altitude. Consequently there is not
enough airspeed when the “real flare” begins so the airplane lands heavily. We suggest
you break your landing down in your mind so that you have three checkpoints. This is
much like the forced approach where you check your progress at high-key, low-key and
then on final (see exercise 22 later in this manual). When landing we recommend
checking your progress about 400 feet before touchdown, again at 200 feet before
touchdown, and lastly at the point of touchdown. (Many pilots only fixate on the point of
touchdown and so don’t realize that they are not managing the airplanes energy properly
until it is too late.)
Consider figure 2-49 at the top of page 105 in the FTM. The figure has been
reproduced above with the addition of the numbers 1 to 4 for reference purposes. At 30
agl (point 1) a C-172 would be about 400 feet from touchdown. Notice that the airplane is
nose down. At point 2, roughly halfway to touchdown, the airplane is much closer to the
FTM/IPM FTM - 36
ground and in the level attitude (the FTM says 3 feet but it should actually be close to 6
feet). At all points beyond there the airplane remains very close to the ground and
progressively the nose rises until the point of touchdown. In order for all this to happen
here is what goes through a pilots mind:
At about ½ mile final (well before point 1) the pilot starts thinking to him/her
self, “I am 200 feet agl and the nose should still be down.” If the airplane were a bit low
the pilot thinks, “I must add power but keep the nose down in the approach attitude.” As
the airplane approaches the point 1 (about 50 feet agl) the pilot begins slowly reducing
power planning to have all power off by the time the airplane is fully “rounded out,” i.e.
at point 2 in the above diagram. As the airplane approaches point 2 the pilot should be
thinking, “OK, I am in the normal cruise attitude and the wheels are within a few feet of
the ground.” Beyond point 2 the pilot then thinks, “Start raising the nose above the
horizon as the airplane slows down. Remember to raise the nose more quickly as the
speed dissipates.” The pilot has a particular touchdown attitude in mind and that is
similar to the normal climb attitude. As the nose rises the airplane should be holding
more or less level above the ground. If the whole airplane starts to rise (known as a
“balloon”) the pilot thinks, “I am raising the nose too fast, relax, but DON’T push
forward. Just relax a bit of back pressure and let the airplane settle back down.” If the
balloon is anything more than minor the pilot will instruct himself/herself to overshoot.
Common mistakes are:
If low on final the pilot does not maintain the required nose down attitude. I.E.
when the pilot adds power s/he allows the nose to come up.
The pilot flares too soon so the level (cruise) attitude is reached much too high
above ground. I.E. the airplane is too high at point 2.
The pilot flares to late so the airplane is still nose down at point 2.
The pilot does not raise the nose quickly enough between point 2 and 3 so the
airplane sinks to the ground too flat.
The first “secret” to good consistent landings is to always make sure the airplane
arrives at point 1 in the required nose down attitude and that the power starts to reduce
smoothly to idle just before that point. The approach prior to point 1 is devoted to
accomplishing the task of positioning the airplane in the right attitude at point 1. If you
do that the flare can be almost exactly the same on every landing and you will get quite
good at making consistent landings.
Between point 1 and point 2 the two keys are reducing the power, while
simultaneously raising the nose. Everything depends on doing these two things at the
right pace. If you raise the nose too quickly you will reach the level attitude too high
above ground – the result will be a sink followed by a hard landing or possible tail strike.
On the other hand if you raise the nose too slowly you may land on the nose wheel, or if
you also keep power on you may wind up flying far too fast and in a slightly nose down
attitude at point 2. The result will be a VERY long float in which it is quite difficult to
maintain altitude. I.E. the distance between point 2 and 3 will be too great. Consequently
FTM/IPM FTM - 37
you may let the airplane land flat and this often results in a pilot induced oscillation, or
porpoising down the runway. Pilot induced oscillations are discussed later.
Between point 2 and 3 the pilot should concentrate on establishing the desired
touchdown attitude. The optimum attitude varies a bit depending on factors such as
crosswind. If there is a strong crosswind then a slightly flatter touchdown is
advantageous. If winds are light or aligned with the runway a more nose up attitude will
result in a lower touchdown speed and less overall wear and tear. A useful tip is to note
that the softest landings occur when the control wheel is moving back as the airplane
touches down. Conversely, if you raise the nose to a nose up attitude and then hold it
there while the airplane sinks to the ground you will get an OK, but somewhat firmer
landing. Now you may be tempted to think that you always want a soft landing, but that
is not the case. If you are landing on a wet runway, or a short runway, it is important to
“plant the airplane” on the runway and start breaking. By “plant” we do NOT mean land
hard, but we do mean that the touchdown should be definite. On the other hand, in ideal
wind and runway conditions every pilot’s ego is improved by a landing that is so soft you
can’t tell when the wheels touch. To accomplish that you need the nose quite high and as
stated previously the control wheel will be MOVING backward at the moment of
touchdown.
The above notes are generically applicable to all NOSEWHEEL airplanes. Tail
wheel airplanes have somewhat different considerations that we are not discussing here.
There are also some differences between airplanes with low and high wing loadings. Low
wing loading airplanes such as the C-172 glide well and tend to float during landings.
Higher wing loadings such as most twins won’t float much after power is removed in the
flare. The following advice explains the slight difference that applies to landing the B95
and the C172.
To make a proper landing at point 4 you must slowly raise the nose between point
1 and 2 while the airplane continues to sink from 30 feet to 3 feet (or so). That is only
possible if power is off, or at least reducing. In the C-172 it is best that power be
completely off. In the B95 it is best that power be slowly reducing with a plan to reach
zero power at point 3. You can tell if you are doing well by matching your attitude and
altitude in your mind. If you are getting the nose up at too high an altitude you may need
to raise the nose more slowly, or perhaps you are establishing point 1 too high. Starting
the flare at too high an altitude is quite a common error. Make sure you are maintaining
the required nose down attitude all the way down to point 1. If you fly the correct attitude
you will have the correct threshold airspeed. However, below 200’ agl attitude is a much
better reference than airspeed, so crosscheck to confirm attitude and glance to check your
airspeed as you cross the runway threshold (it should be at the final approach speed, no
lower). Most directly you should be consciously observing the pitch attitude of the
airplane and ensuring that you are keeping the nose below the horizon right down to point
1. If you find yourself running out of airspeed and landing firmly it is likely because you
allowed the nose to rise before point 1.
If you find yourself floating a long way between point 2 and 3 your likely error is
either leaving too much power on, or starting the flare at too low an altitude (i.e. your
FTM/IPM FTM - 38
point 1 is too low). In the C-172 all power should be off by the time you get to point 2, if
not you will tend to float and it will be hard to make a good landing. In the B95 you
should still have a “smidge” of power at point 2, but only a smidge. The power actually
reaches zero just as the wheels touchdown at point 4.
As the airplane approaches point 3 you must raise the nose so that the airplane
lands nose up. The secret is in judging just how much to raise the nose. In the C-172 it
seems that most commonly pilots do not raise the nose enough, but in the B95 beginners
sometimes raise the nose too much. The difference is the result of several factors
including the higher wing loading of the B95, and the difference in elevator effectiveness
between the airplanes. In the C-172 you will find that the control wheel must be moved
back quicker and quicker as the airspeed decreases in order to get an ideal touchdown
attitude. Unfortunately it is much more natural to pull back at a steady rate, so commonly
pilots land a bit flatter than they really should. While any nose up attitude is acceptable as
a landing attitude the ideal landing is one where the airspeed is as slow as the wind
conditions permit. In a gusty wind, or with a strong crosswind the wise pilot will allow
the airplane to land at a higher speed, which is to say with only a slight nose up attitude.
But in calmer winds we should try to “hold off” the landing until closer to the stall speed,
thereby landing with a fairly nose high attitude. If you have been trying to accomplish
this and not succeeding make a point of noting that you must move the control wheel
back at an ever faster rate as the airspeed drops between point 2,3, and 4 (especially
between 3 and 4.) In the B95 the elevator maintains good effectiveness, in part because
some power is still on in the flare, so commonly pilots tend to over flare and may land
below the minimum touchdown speed of 65 specified in the POH. The secret is to
consciously avoid over flaring; a sensation that some pilots describe as “flying onto the
ground.”
The bottom line when it comes to landing is that you must learn to analyze your
own landings and diagnose errors so that you improve with practice. If you use the three-
checkpoint system described above as a framework to analyze your landings you will
progress much more quickly. Too many pilots only analyze the last two seconds of a
landing (i.e. point 4 only) when trying to figure out what went wrong (or right) with a
landing. But most commonly the error is back at point 1, 2, or 3.
Pilot Induced Oscillations (PIO)

A pilot induced oscillation (PIO) is a porpoising action in which the airplane hops
down the runway bouncing from nose wheel to main wheels to nose wheel etc. In the
worst-case scenario the oscillations get larger and larger and eventually control is lost and
there is an accident. Even if an accident does not occur damage to the nose wheel is quite
possible.
The PIO almost always starts with a flat landing, especially if the nose-wheel
touches before the main wheels. This causes the nose to rise rapidly and the pilot
instinctively pushes forward – we call this a SKIPPED landing. This “whacks” the nose
back into the ground and the cycle repeats. In some cases each cycle can be larger than
the one before, as mentioned previously.
FTM/IPM FTM - 39
The worst thing you could possibly do if a PIO starts is add power (except if you
add full power and overshoot). Adding a small amount of power, which many pilot do in
this situation, will only make things worse. The root problem is that the airplane has
touched down at too high an airspeed (remember that a flat landing is also a fast landing).
Therefore, the airplane needs to lose speed in order that you can land it in a nose up
attitude. The correct thing to do then is fight the urge to push forward when the airplane
bounces off the nose wheel. Just let the airplane rise a few feet in the air and WAIT until
it is ready to settle back down again. If the airplane bounces up to about the usual altitude
for point 2 in the diagram above, and the airplane is in a level attitude then when it begins
to sink you will be in the “normal” position for point 2 and you can land. The result, as
observed by someone outside the airplane watching you, will be a small “skip” followed
by a normal landing (not ideal but acceptable). On the other hand if the airplane bounces
up into the air significantly higher than an airplane normally is at point 2 then we
recommend that you overshoot and come around the circuit again. It is possible to “save
the landing” at this point if you WAIT until the airplane starts to sink and then use a
small amount of power to – fly the airplane down to point 2 – and then remove the power
and make a normal landing. This works quite well but it eats up a lot of runway. If you
get in the habit of doing this you may someday find yourself running off the end of a
runway when you “save a landing” only to find that not enough runway remained to land
and stop.
The skipped landing is quite different than a bounced landing, discussed below.
The skipped landing is always the result of landing too fast. In turn this is usually because
the flare at point 1 was started too low or the nose was raised to slowly between point 1
and 2, or the power was left on too long. Whatever the reason the skip has occurred
adding more power will make it worse. You need to let the airplane bounce and then
evaluate once the top of the bounce is reached whether or not you can land (a small skip)
or should overshoot (a large skip). If a small skip has occurred just WAIT for the airplane
to naturally start to sink again, then flare and land. Above all DO NOT push forward to
put the airplane back on the ground, that will be very tempting but that is exactly what
causes PIOs.
Bounced Landings
A bounced landing is a landing in which the main wheels contact the ground first
but the vertical speed at touchdown is too great so the airplane literally bounces, just like
a rubber ball dropped onto the ground. Because the main wheels contact the ground first
(meaning a nose up attitude) the touchdown airspeed is within normal parameters. I.E.,
unlike the PIO described above the problem is NOT too high an airspeed. In most cases
the bounce is the result of rounding out too high and stalling, or nearly stalling before
touch down. I.E. the airplane is too high at point 2. The problem can also arise if you start
to flare too high, i.e. if point 1 is too high, so that you are out of airspeed by the time you
get to point 2. Either way the airplane is going to “slam” into the ground with too much
vertical speed and bounce.
The main gear can take quite a bit of abuse, but even so there is a limit. So we
don’t want to be bouncing landings it we can avoid it. If you take the advice given above
about maintaining a nose down attitude all the way to point 1 you won’t likely make a
FTM/IPM FTM - 40
heavy bounced landing. So the most important preventative measure is to maintain the
nose down attitude, i.e. maintain approach speed all the way to the beginning of the flare.
If you recognize that you have made a mistake and are getting too nose up as you
arrive at point 2 you can “save the landing” with judicious use of power. You need to add
enough power to prevent the airspeed from decaying to the stall before you reach the
ground. It won’t take a lot, but you will need a small amount of power. As you add the
power you judge two things, the pitch attitude and the vertical speed. Usually you will
realize the airplane is starting to sink quickly so your instinct will be to raise the nose. If
you do this too much you will either strike the tail at touchdown, or stall and sink on even
harder. Instead you must add power to slow the sink rate while limiting the amount you
raise the nose to an attitude you know will not cause a stall or a tail strike. It is important
to realize that adding power will cause the nose to rise, so you may actually have to push
forward on the control wheel, especially if you add a substantial amount of power.
Having said that you should NEVER attempt to save a landing that is going to require a
substantial amount of power. Instead you should add full power and overshoot.
The above discussion considered the case where you recognized that the airplane
was getting too slow, i.e. too nose up, prior to landing. If the airplane actually bounces
the same criteria applies. You will find yourself back in the air, in a nose high attitude.
Before long the upward motion of the bounce will end and the airplane will begin
sinking. From your already nose high attitude, if you raise the nose even more you are in
the same situation described above, or even worse. If the bounce is mild and the attitude
within the normal landing range you can “save the landing” as described above. If the
bounce is a big one and the nose is higher than you consider “normal” then the only
acceptable thing to do is overshoot and try again. Attempting to lower the nose will result
in an immediate loss of lift followed by a DROP to the runway and a much worse bounce
than the one you already suffered. DO NOT lower the nose after a bounce unless you are
applying full power and overshooting!!
Short Field Landing in C-172

The POH only lists one approach speed, which is 61 KIAS for short field
landings. We would expect that at lower weights a lower speed could be used, but since
none is published we must use 61 knots.
The consequence of approaching at 61 knots when at a light weight is that there is

a tendency for the airplane to float a bit. That is exactly what you DON’T want on a short
field landing. Therefore, pilots must learn to flare a bit early to bleed off the extra speed
thus preventing float. A big part of your training is learning just where to flare so that you
touchdown exactly at your chosen landing point. Be advised that the commercial flight
test standard is to land at the designated spot plus 100 and minus 50 feet.
After touchdown you must retract the flaps right away in order to place as much
weight on the wheels for braking as possible.
After touchdown you should pull the control wheel back to put as much weight on
the main wheels as possible (because the brakes are on the main wheels). You must
FTM/IPM FTM - 41
coordinate pulling the wheel back with applying the toe brakes. If you brake too quickly
the nose will drop and the airplane will start to skid. But, if you pull back too quickly the
nose will come up and the airplane may jump back into the air. What you want to do is
coordinate pulling back and braking so the nose stays level and the airplane stops
quickly.
Soft Field Landing in C-172

One reason pilots often do poorly at soft field landings is that they don’t know
what they are trying to accomplish. What do you think your main objective on a soft field
landing is?
Your main objective is to land without nosing over and damaging the propeller.
The main gear on your airplane is VERY strong. It can take of lot of pounding.
The weak parts are the nose wheel and the propeller. These are relatively easy to damage.
Therefore, your objective is to protect these two airframe components. To do that you
must land with the nose as high off the ground as possible. Another way of saying that
is, land at the lowest possible speed. Whatever way you think of it your objective is to
land with a nose up attitude. Ideally we will hear the stall horn beep before we touch
down. We will definitely NOT land flat.
What is the lowest possible speed? In the C-172 the limit of how slow you can be
a touchdown is dragging the tail on the ground. Except for emergency situations such as
landing in deep wet snow you must control your flare so that the tail does not strike the
ground. If you misjudge the flare and the nose is getting too high (tail too low), you
should OVERSHOOT. NEVER attempt to correct an over flared landing. If you try to
lower the nose just a bit to prevent hitting the tail you will almost certainly drop out of
the air and make a hard landing. Therefore, if you over-flare always overshoot and try
again.
After landing on a soft field you prefer not to brake heavily because that would
drive the nose wheel down into the ground. However, you must brake as much as needed
to stop in the distance available. Remember that wet grass can be quite slippery so if that
is the surface you are on check the braking available early. Also keep in mind that firm
wet grass is not much of a danger to your propeller when idling so you can afford to
brake harder. The greatest risk comes from gravel runways, or from potholes that could
damage the nose wheel. If you are landing in deep snow braking won’t be a problem –
the airplane will stop VERY fast. The danger here, as stated earlier, is nosing over and
doing serious damage to the propeller. You can land quite safely in two inches of DRY
snow. But deeper wet snow is very dangerous. Don’t land in wet snow unless it is an
emergency.
After landing on a soft or gravel surface try not to stop. Taxi in to the apron in one
continuous motion. Look ahead to choose a good spot where you can stop for shutdown.
Gravel aprons will have undulations and the low areas are more likely soft than the high
areas. If the ground is wet avoid stopping with the propeller over a puddle, pick some
higher ground. Many gravel strips in the north have a paved or rubber pad that you can
FTM/IPM FTM - 42
stop on to protect your propeller. Try to identify these from the CFS before landing and
start looking for it as you taxi in. There is nothing worse that stopping on the apron –
sinking into a mud hole – then having to apply full power to get back out of the mud and
over to the concrete pad. If you do that you may well trash a many thousand-dollar
propeller. (Not good for your career.)
FTM/IPM FTM - 43
20 – Illusions Created By Drift
FTM/IPM FTM - 44
21 – Precautionary Approach
A precautionary approach is REQUIRED anytime you are landing on a surface
for which you have no condition report.
Runway condition reports are provided by towers and Aerodrome Advisory

Service (AAS) personnel. When landing at an airport with no tower, AAS or other person
on the ground who can confirm for you that the runway is clear you should make a
precautionary inspection of the runway before landing. This even applies to tower
controlled airports after the tower closes. So, if you are flying an ILS approach at 2:00 am
and the tower is closed, and no AAS is available you will need to inspect the runway
before landing. You do that by making a pass along the runway confirming that it is clear
and then flying a circuit for landing. If you don’t do that and you hit something on the
runway during the landing roll don’t be surprised if your insurance company refuses to
pay – you might also like to imagine what your boss will say to you when the insurance
company refuses to pay.
The above point should get you thinking about what you should do as a VFR pilot
landing at an uncontrolled airport where there is no ground reporting station. In such
cases you must always ensure the runway is clear. Examples of such airports are Nelson,
Trail and Grand Forks, all of which you will visit in first year. As you know it is illegal to
make a straight in approach, or join the circuit on base at such airports. You must always
join the circuit at such airports by crossing midfield, or flying straight into the downwind.
As you do that it is vital that you look at the full length of the runway and make sure
there are no obstructions. If the runway is paved and no trees or hills block your view of
it you can usually confirm the runway is clear without the need for a low pass. But, in
some cases you may not be able to see enough from downwind to confirm the runway is
clear. In those cases you must make a low pass along the runway to check its condition
before landing. This would be a particularly good idea if the runway were not paved, as it
is difficult to see potholes or wet spots etc. from downwind altitude.
Emergency Precautionary Landing

An emergency precautionary landing refers to a situation where you must land,
rather than a situation where you would like to land. In some cases we may have to land
in a remote area where there are no airports, or aerodromes near by. This is NOT very
common however.
Among the reasons why you might need to land immediately are a fire, a very
sick passenger, deteriorating weather, deteriorating engine condition (e.g. loss of oil
pressure) etc. Each of these situations has its own time frame. Some, like a fire or loss of
oil pressure are more like a forced approach than a precautionary approach. Others such
as a sick passenger make the choice of a landing spot more critical. Realistically you
would only land off airport with a sick passenger if you were many miles from an airport
but a town with medical facilities and a good field was close at hand. Landing in the
wilderness with a passenger having a heart attack isn’t going to do either of you any
good. Later we will return to discuss the situation where time is very short. For now let’s
FTM/IPM FTM - 45
assume that you have recognized the need to do a precautionary approach early enough
that you can confirm complete safety of the field prior to landing.
For the purpose of this discussion let’s assume the scenario is that you are
hundreds of miles from the nearest airport (say in the Yukon or northern B.C.) and the
weather is deteriorating. Snow is beginning to fall and visibility is getting worse by the
minute. It will be below VFR within 20 minutes. What should you do?
First ask yourself whether IFR is an option. If the airplane is equipped and you are
an IFR rated pilot you may be able to climb up and proceed IFR. If you are in
uncontrolled airspace you don’t even need a clearance. You will learn all about that in
your classroom courses.
For now, let’s assume you are not IFR rated. In that case you must find a suitable
spot to land and wait out the storm. You need an organized method of searching for a
field. In a flat part of the country you should fly a grid pattern. A grid means that you
maintain a heading for several minutes. Then turn 90 degrees –fly for one to two minutes,
then turn a further 90 degrees (180 from original heading) and fly for several minutes.
In a mountainous region look for fields in the valley bottoms. Consult the map for
signs of civilization. Look for a field near a town or road where help can get to you. In
remote areas where precautionary landings are more likely consider landing on a road –
but check closely for power lines first.
We recommend breaking the tasks involved in a precautionary into three stages:
The Three Stages of a Precautionary Approach
While you are flying with Selair there is a checklist in the airplane for
precautionary approaches. You should use that. However, not every company you will fly
for in the future will have such a checklist. In the absence of a checklist organize your
precautionary approach into the following three stages:
Getting Ready
1. High Inspection
2. Low Inspection
Each of the above stages has a purpose. If you know that purpose it is pretty easy
to think your way through the precautionary approach. Staying organized is the most
important thing. Poor performance of this exercise on the flight test is usually due to poor
organization. Poor performance in a real world precautionary is usually due to
misjudging the surface condition or length of the chosen field.
Getting Ready
As soon as you realize you will need to perform a precautionary approach:
Make necessary radio calls – Pan, Mayday as appropriate (see below)
Inform the passengers about what will be happening
FTM/IPM FTM - 46
Secure the cabin

Perform the pre-landing checks
Determine the wind direction
Establish a search pattern to look for a field
Note: Getting ready is the most neglected stage of precautionary approaches.

Make sure that you are getting the items listed above done early – before you are ready to
land in a field.
High Inspection
The purpose of the high inspection is to confirm it is safe to descend for a low
inspection and to make a plan for the low inspection pass that avoids all obstructions.
Airspeed during the high inspection should be the same as normal circuit speed if the
visibility is good, or slightly slower than normal circuit speed if the visibility is poor. Do
not fly too slow as you want a margin above the stall in case you need to maneuver
quickly.
The high inspection is more important in the mountains than in flatter areas. You
must fly around the field noting obstructions such as trees and hills. It may be the case in
the mountains that the overshoot or approach area is obstructed by a mountain or trees.
When there are obstructions you must determine whether a safe approach can be made to
the field, and devise a plan for your low pass. Never plan to land in a field with large
obstructions on the final part of the approach – look for a field that has an open approach.
Obstructions on the overshoot are also a hazard but they can be dealt with as discussed
below.
By the end of the high inspection you must have a plan for a low inspection pass.
The plan may be very simple, such as to fly a normal circuit with an overshoot. But, often
the plan is quite complex in a mountain environment. For example you may have to make
a diagonal final approach to avoid trees or a hill then make an immediate turn on the
overshoot to avoid another hill, and fly a curving downwind leg to avoid yet another hill.
If visibility is poor pick out distinctive key points where you will need to turn, and try to
find geographic features you can follow such as a river or road that you might follow on
downwind.
The high inspection pass is described further under the heading Organizing the
High and Low Inspection, below.
Low Inspection
The low inspection allows you to closely inspect the surface of the field to make
sure it is hard, dry, and clear of obstructions that would prevent you from landing.
Airspeed during the low inspection should be at or above short field approach speed. For
the C-172 we recommend maintaining 70 knots during the low inspection. Note that the
POH recommends 60 knots, however that should be seen as a minimum speed, suitable
only for areas with few obstructions.
FTM/IPM FTM - 47
The low inspection must be low enough to see clearly yet high enough that you
can safely overshoot. How low you will go should be determined as part of the plan you
developed on the high inspection. Usually the low pass will be at least 100 feet above
any obstacles in the vicinity of the field.
During the low pass you are primarily deciding whether or not you can safely land
in the field. You should pick a precise spot on the field where you plan to land. This may
not be in the center. If the field is drier or firmer on one side choose a touchdown spot
taking that into account. You should also pick a precise landing roll path. Choose the
route along the field that has the least obstructions, such as shrubs, puddles, potholes, etc.
If the field is covered with small shrubs you can land safely but you should try to pick a
clear spot to touchdown on then roll into the shrubs with your wheels on the ground. Try
to avoid striking obstructions with your wheels still in the air as they may send you cart
wheeling out of control. (You can survive a very rough landing if you are able to take all
the impact straight ahead. Side forces or forces along the normal axis of the airplane are
much more likely to be fatal.) Remember that even a small impact will probably make
your airplane un-airworthy, so you won’t be taking off again. Therefore, it is imperative
that you have a plan to get out of the situation without needing to fly out. If you are
landing to wait out poor weather and intending to takeoff again once the weather clears
you will need a completely smooth field with no shrubs, etc. With these considerations in
mind let us now consider the Pan message.
Detailed Discussion of Precautionary Approach Elements

Pan Message
A common mistake on flight tests is to wait until moments before landing to
simulate the Pan message. This is poor planning. A real world Pan message will take
many minutes to complete. You should start by choosing a frequency that an over flying
airplane will be monitoring. In northern Canada 121.5 will be a good choice. In southern
domestic airspace it would be better to lookup the local IFR Center frequency in your
CFS and call on that. Your message will sound something like this: “Pan-Pan, Pan-Pan
Pan-Pan, Golf Sierra Poppa Quebec, Golf Sierra Poppa Quebec, Golf Sierra Poppa
Quebec. Deteriorating weather, looking for a place to land 50 miles west of Fort Nelson.
Any station please respond.” The italicized part is important. Wait for a response. If none
comes, try again. If none still comes, try another frequency, for example 126.7. Once you
finally get a pilot on the radio s/he can relay your situation to FSS and have help sent as
required. You should report your position as accurately as possible (use a GPS to give
exactly lat and long if possible). If the airliner has enough fuel it will probably circle
overhead until you are safely on the ground. If not it will find someone else who does
have enough fuel to stay with you until you report safely on the ground.
It is quite unwise to land in a field where you might roll over and be trapped in the
airplane if no one knows you are doing it. Therefore the Pan message as described above
is a critical part of the precautionary approach and deserves more attention that some
students give it.
FTM/IPM FTM - 48
NOTE: If you cannot raise anyone on the radio before you must land then your
situation has risen to the level of a Mayday. Make the Mayday call and pray someone
hears it. Also turn your ELT on and set your transponder to 7700.
Now that we have discussed the Pan message I think you can see that it will take
some time. So, do it early, as part of the getting ready stage, not during the low
inspection.
Passenger Briefing
Often on flight tests candidates don’t brief the passenger until just before landing.
This is not realistic if for no other reason than the fact that the passenger will likely ask
why you are flying around in circles at low altitude. So, if you think about it you are
going to have to tell the passenger what is going on early in the process.
Realistically the briefing might be broken into parts. Initially you just need to
inform the passengers that you are looking for a place to land due to (fill in the blank).
Later you can have the passenger tighten his/her seatbelt etc. Read the next
section on securing the cabin for more comments on passenger briefings.
Securing the Cabin

In a single pilot operation you need your hands on the controls flying. So, put
your passengers to work securing the cabin. It will keep their minds off the situation
anyway.
Give the passengers specific instructions such as “please put this clipboard in the
pouch behind my seat”. Or, “please remove all sharp objects from you pockets and put
them in the map box”. Avoid giving vague commands such as “put all loose objects
away”.
Notice that the passenger must be free to move about a bit during this process.
That is why you wait until after the cabin is secure to brief the passenger about
positioning his/her seat and tightening up his/her seatbelt.
Organizing the High and Low Inspection

Previously we said that the purpose of the high inspection is to plan for a safe low
inspection. Always remember that.
In some places it might be safe to descend to two or three hundred feet above
ground level without a lot of care, but here in B.C. that could be dangerous. Therefore, as
you circle the field on your high inspection you need to make a list in your mind of all the
potentially dangerous items within two miles or so of the field. These include things such
as hills, ridges, tall trees, and power lines. It also includes invisible hazards such as areas
of sinking air.
After you have noted all the hazards you must make a plan to avoid the
hazards. We will return to a discussion of good low inspection plans in a moment.
FTM/IPM FTM - 49
The above diagram shows schematically what the FTM recommends for a
precautionary approach. This is a good system, but it is not ideal for a mountain
environment. The problem with the above pattern is that it rushes the high inspection. It
doesn’t even emphasize the need to look for obstructions on the final approach path
BEFORE making a low pass.
On the above diagram you are supposed to make a high pass at approximately
1,000 feet along the field, then along crosswind, then along downwind. You then start an
approach, just as though you were landing. You then level off and make a low pass along
the field inspecting the surface.
Rather than the above pattern we recommend the following:
FTM/IPM FTM - 50
The above pattern indicates that you should make at least one complete circuit
around the field at 1,000 feet or higher, BEFORE starting the precautionary approach as
per the FTM.
While you are making your circuit around the field be sure you look at more than
just the field. Look at all the hills, power lines, etc in the vicinity. Make a plan to avoid
them before starting your low pass.
The above diagram assumes that when you make the high inspection you don’t
find any obstructions that require modifying from a normal rectangular circuit pattern to
make a safe low pass. But, what if there are obstructions? We will look at that next.
FTM/IPM FTM - 51
If you find obstructions during your high inspection you will need a plan to avoid
them during the low inspection. For example in the diagram below there is a hill that
prevents a normal straight in final approach, but an angled approach is possible. There is
also a hill that impinges on the normal left turn into the circuit on the overshoot.
When examining the above diagram assume that the pilot complete the high
inspection as shown on the preceding page. The descent for the low inspection then
begins at the end of downwind, as labeled above. The pilot has planed a diagonal final
approach to avoid the obstruction on the south end of the field. The pilot plans to turn
right after the overshoot from the low pass then cross midfield and join a left downwind
for the final landing. This is a typical situation that can arise in the mountains.
The important thing is not to fly into a low pass and discover on the
overshoot that you have nowhere safe to go. Always check for a safe route on the
overshoot before making a low inspection. This is an example of what we mean when we
FTM/IPM FTM - 52
say that your high inspection must generate a plan for the low inspection. There is NO
WAY you should be down at low altitude figuring out what you are doing. The pilot must
know the whole plan BEFORE descending to start the low inspection pass.
Precautionary Landing on One-Way Strip

In BC it is quite common to find a field, even an aerodrome, where a mountain
blocks one end of the field, but the other end is wide open. Such a field is called a one-
way field, because you must land in one direction and takeoff in the other direction.
NEVER plan a precautionary approach that involves a low pass toward rising
terrain. It is very easy to misjudge how steeply you will need to climb to avoid the terrain
on the overshoot. Airplanes climb much shallower than the average pilot thinks. Don’t
count on out climbing any terrain. The photo below shows the final approach to runway
32 at Crawford Bay. A C-172 CANNOT out climb the terrain ahead, therefore this
airplane is committed to land – i.e. overshoot is not an option at this point.
ALWAYS plan your precautionary approach so that the overshoot area is open
and safe. Never plan an overshoot toward rising terrain. Consider the following diagram.
What would you do?
FTM/IPM FTM - 53
In the diagram above the wind is such that you wish to land toward the mountain.
That should work out just fine. The problem is that if you make a low inspection pass in
that direction you will be overshooting toward the mountain. That could be a fatal
mistake, especially if the field is in a valley where a turn prior to the mountain is not
possible. Besides, you don’t want to make a low altitude turn due to the hazards that
entails.
In this situation you should plan the precautionary so that you make the low pass
descending along the slope of the terrain, taking advantage of the open overshoot area to
the south. See the diagram below:
FTM/IPM FTM - 54
On your high inspection you must plan a route that allows you to get up along the
mountain and then follow the slope of the mountain down to the field. You can then
safely make a low pass and overshoot toward the low terrain (south of the field in the
above diagram). What is the next step?
FTM/IPM FTM - 55
The diagram above shows that you can now cross midfield and join downwind for
a landing into the wind.
An IMPORTANT point to note is that once you are on short final for the landing
situation drawn above you are committed to a landing. This is a common mountain
situation and drives home the importance of your ability to make a good stable approach
and judge your approach from base. To be sure you don’t make a mistake don’t crowd
the field too much. Make a long final approach. If the approach isn’t perfect overshoot
early before the mountain gets in the way.
Time Restricted (Rushed) Precautionary Approaches

Earlier we mentioned that some situations such as loss of oil pressure, a fire, or
impending darkness, call for an immediate landing. It is always best to land before the
engine fails rather than allow the engine to fail in the air and then have to do a forced
approach. Let us now discuss the scenario where you must land immediately.
Even within this category of precautionary approach there are gradations of time
pressure. For example if there is a smoldering fire in the cabin you want to land within a
few minutes. If there is open flame you need to be on the ground within seconds. The
difference could be significant. With open flames you should be diving toward the
FTM/IPM FTM - 56
ground ASAP, calling a Mayday as you go and planning to land in any field that looks
survivable. Even in this scenario though don’t forget to ask yourself if there is a nearby
airport. Spiraling down to a field directly below you will take just as long as flying in a
straight line. So, if there is a runway only a few miles away (you will be covering at least
two miles for every thousand feet you descend) then go there – pronto.
If you have an uncontrolled fire you are NOT doing a precautionary landing. You
are doing a forced approach, even if the engine is still running. Make a Mayday call and
follow the advice in the force approach section of the FTM and this manual.
In the case of a low oil pressure indication you may be able to keep the engine
running at LOW power for several minutes, but it might quit within seconds if you
operate a high power. On the other hand you may just have a false indication on your oil
pressure gauge in which case there is no need to land in a field. Therefore you will have
to monitor the situation second by second. Let us now consider this situation in detail.
As soon as you see a low oil pressure you should immediately start heading
toward the nearest airport. You should monitor the CHT and oil temperature as you go,
for signs of engine trouble. As you fly toward the airport you should start looking for a
field you could land in. MAINTAIN what altitude you have (i.e. don’t descend) but
reduce power to a lower setting. Make a Pan call right away.
If the CHT and oil temperature start to rise the engine is going to quit within a
matter of minutes. Unless the airport is within a few miles you need to pick a field and
land right away. As stated earlier, it is better to land under power now rather than in a
full forced approach in five minutes. The situation has now risen to a Mayday condition.
Make a Mayday call reporting your position and that you are landing in a field.
Your criterion for field selection in this case is survivability, essentially the same
as in a forced approach. Try to pick a field that is long enough to land in and that has a
smooth dry and firm surface. The one advantage you have over a forced approach is that
you can control your final approach path with power. That makes it much easier for you
to land over an obstacle, such as power lines or fences, than on a forced approach. It
would still be best to pick a field with an open approach, but an otherwise good field that
has an obstruction on the approach could be accepted in this situation.
REDUCE power right away. Set the power at idle or very close to it. You can
think of the situation as very much like the forced approach practice exercises you do in
training. (Now you see why we wanted to keep what altitude we had.)
Plan your arrival using the high key / low key forced approach method if at all
possible. That way you can observe the field as you turn over it at high key. At that time
pick the precise touchdown spot and landing ground roll you will use.
As you turn final your engine should still be running because it is not being
stressed at idle. That way if you slightly misjudge the approach you can use a bit of
power to make it to the field. With that in mind don’t complete the final shutdown of the
engine until you are certain you will make it into the field. Also make sure you don’t
FTM/IPM FTM - 57
crowd the field too much and have to overshoot. If you overshoot the engine will
probably quit within seconds.
Once you are on short final and have the field made you can either land with
power on, which is best in most cases, or shut the engine down if the field looks rough.
Remember to open the doors as discussed under forced approach below.
FTM/IPM FTM - 58
22 – Forced Approach
Read chapter 22 of your Transport Canada Flight Training Manual. That chapter
has a lot of excellent advice about how to fly a forced approach.
In the mountains your greatest challenge is often finding a suitable location to

land. The best thing is to have a location in mind before the engine fails. So, it should be
part of your airmanship routine to note suitable landing locations as you fly. For your
local flights during training at Castlegar you should make a personal “list” of preferred
landing sites. On cross-countries develop the habit of “picking fields” as you fly along.
Below are a few suggestions for the local area. Look at them on your next local
flight so you will know where they are if an engine should fail.
In the West Practice Area
Beach at Renata (across lake from Deer Park)

If water is low – old road on north side of lake – near Syringa creek
New road along diversion at dam
Trees – NOT water.
North Practice Area
Some marginal fields in Pass creek

Nelson airport
South Practice Area
Beach by Genelle
Highway – but watch for traffic
Poupour flats – across river from Genelle
Islands in river south of Genelle
Safe Habits In Case of a Forced Approach

1. Always know the wind
2. Always have a field in mind
3. Stay within gliding distance of your field as much as practical
4. Don’t descend too early coming back to airport.
Determining Wind
In mountains wind usually follows the valleys. ALWAYS remember the wind
from takeoff and imagine how it is flowing in the valleys – toward the airport or away?
Look for SMOKE.
FTM/IPM FTM - 59
Watch waves on the lake (see AIM MET 2-3).

DON’T wait for an engine failure to think what the wind direction is.
Circuit Style Forced Approach Procedure
The diagram above is taken from the Transport Canada Flight Training Manual. It
shows the “circuit style” forced approach procedure.
What would you do if you reached the “key position” and were too high to land?
FTM/IPM FTM - 60
If you are too high when you reach your base key position then:
If you are still to high then:
FTM/IPM FTM - 61
Notice in the diagrams above that the airplane is always maneuvered so that it
turns toward the field, never away from the field. Notice also that the pilot allows room
for the radius of turn when flying the “figure eight” pattern so that s/he does not crowd
the field. Getting too close, aka “crowding the field”, is the most common problem when
using the circuit pattern forced approach procedure.
High Key / Low key Procedure

This is the technique the simulation is intended to practice:
The C-172 looses about 600 feet per minute when gliding or 1,200 feet in two
minutes. Therefore the high key altitude should be 1,400 feet above ground. The low key
altitude is 800 feet above ground level.
Be sure to read the procedure for wind compensation in the Flight Training
Manual. (Less bank on first 180 – more on second 180, etc).
Our suggestion – add 100 feet to altitudes for each 10 knots of wind.
What is ground elevation?
To use the High Key / Low Key procedure you must know the ground elevation.
Here are a few tips:
The Arrow lake is about 1,500’ asl. The river flows down to the USA.
The Okanogan valley is similar to this area altitude wise.
FTM/IPM FTM - 62
The lower mainland is mostly between 0 and 100 feet.

KNOW your area.
Effect of Wind During a Forced Approach

A headwind reduces the distance you can glide. In a 65-knot headwind you
wouldn’t glide forward at all if you maintain 65 KIAS. Therefore you must increase your
airspeed when gliding into a headwind to maximize the glide distance. The rule of thumb
most pilots use is to increase airspeed by half the headwind.
Remember that the lowest possible speed at touchdown is best for survivability.
Therefore land with full flaps, near the stall speed, and into wind. In the C-172 the POH
calls for glide speed to be reduced to 60 KIAS with full flaps.
The ABCs of Forced Approaches

Forced approaches require the full concentration of the pilot. Consequently it will
not be possible to read the emergency checklist while performing a forced approach from
low altitude, say approximately 3,000’ agl or lower. Therefore, you MUST memorize the
entire Landing Without Engine Power checklist, not just the items marked as immediate
action items.
To help you maintain organization while doing the forced approach use the
following acronym:
A – Aircraft: carb heat hot, speed to 65 KIAS

B – Best field:
o Wind
o Length
o Surface
C – Cause check
D – Distress. Make a Mayday call and squawk 7700. Turn on ELT
E – Emergency passenger briefing
F – Final Shutdown
Passenger Briefing During Forced Approach

During a forced approach the pilot must ensure that any passengers are properly
prepared for the emergency landing. This should be done even if the pilot is sure that the
airplane will glide to an airport.
The most important points to include in passenger briefings are that the cabin
must be cleared of any dangerous loose objects and the passenger must be secured firmly
in his/her seat. Ideally the passenger should also be reminded of the evacuation plan – i.e.
FTM/IPM FTM - 63
which doors to use to exit and if applicable who will open the door and when that should
be done.
In a cabin class airplane briefing for an evacuation plan is extremely important. In

a C-172 it is a bit more obvious which door the passenger will use and who will open it,
still it is a good idea for you to get used to briefing this point. Let us now discuss each of
the above points in turn.
To secure the cabin put your passenger to work. This will take his/her mind off
the crisis. Give the passenger specific instructions such as “please take this clipboard and
put it in the pouch behind my seat” or “please remove the pen from your pocket and put it
in the map box.” Avoid vague instructions such as please put all loose objects away. In a
crisis the average person does not think clearly. But, YOU the trained professional WILL
be cool under pressure (right?)
Once the cabin is secure you can secure the passenger by having him/her tighten
up their seatbelts, including the shoulder harness. A question that often arises is – should
the passenger slide his/her seat back? In the C-172 the answer is NO. The idea behind
sliding the seat back is to prevent hitting the head on the dashboard in a crash – but the
geometry of the shoulder harness in the C-172 is such that the seat cannot be in the fully
aft position. So, keep the front seat passenger in the normal seating position and have
them tighten up their seat belts securely. (Note: in some airplanes sliding the seat back to
protect the passenger’s head is a good idea – but not in a C-172.)
The pilot should announce to passengers that there may be a rough landing and
that passengers wearing dentures may wish to remove them and put them in the map box.
The pilot can also advise passengers that if they do not need glasses to see they should
remove them. Passengers who need glasses should consider removing the glasses and
putting them in their pockets during the landing (so they don’t get lost) they can then put
them back on after the landing. The pilot should tell all passengers to remove any sharp
objects from shirt pockets and put them in the map box.
As part of the evacuation plan have the passenger unlatch his door prior to
landing. It is a good idea to open the door – push it slightly ajar and then push the handle
forward again to the locked position. This ensures that the door cannot jam closed.
Remind the passenger to WAIT until the airplane has come to a complete stop and the
engine is SHUT DOWN before leaving the airplane. Once the airplane does stop the
passenger should move well away (several hundred feet) just in case there is a fire. Only
return to the airplane once it is clear there will be no fire.
Mayday Transmission
See AIP 5.11 for information regarding the Mayday transmission.
If time permits it is best to try to make contact with someone so you know your
transmission was heard. Make the mayday call on several frequencies until you get a
response. Which frequency to try first depends on where you are. You CAN transmit
FTM/IPM FTM - 64
Mayday on any frequency, not just 121.5. If you make a Mayday call and no one answers
then you should try again on another frequency (if you have time).
If you are on a local flight in the practice area it is probably best to make your
first Mayday call on the frequency you are currently on, especially if you know other
airplanes are on that frequency or if you know the AAS personnel will hear you. By using
that frequency you eliminate the possibility that in a panic you mistune the radio.
If you are on a cross-country you should be keeping your radios tuned to

appropriate frequencies all the time. Most of the time that is 126.7. But, as you fly past
airports you should also monitor the tower or MF frequency. When you are in northern
areas or sparsely settled areas you should ALWAYS have one of your radios tuned to
121.5, the other radio will usually be on 126.7. The point of all this is that you will
generally have a radio tuned to a good frequency for a first Mayday call. It is wise to use
that – known to we working frequency – first. Then, if no on answers your Mayday, try
another frequency.
Be sure to SPEAK SLOWLY and clearly. Do your both real and simulated
Mayday calls in a slow, deliberate voice. Too often people slur rapidly through the
Mayday. Listen to your mutual partner and tell him or her whether you could clearly hear
all they said. Be advisors to each other about clarity of speech. It will save time in the
long run if you clearly and slowly report your position so that someone who hears you
doesn’t have to call you back to ask where you are, or what the problem is.
A typical Mayday would sound like this: “Mayday, mayday, mayday. Golf Sierra
Poppa Alpha, Golf Sierra Poppa Alpha, Golf Sierra Poppa Alpha. Engine failure.
Descending through 5,000’. Landing on sandbar west of Deer Park. Over.”
Use of ELT and Transponder

If you call the mayday on 121.5 wait a few seconds for a response. If there is no
response turn the ELT on with the switch on the panel. Then call mayday again on
another frequency, for example 126.7 or 122.1.
Set the transponder to 7700, even if you think you are not in radar coverage (you
may be wrong – who knows what AWACS airplane is lurking overhead).
Evacuation
After landing immediately get all your passengers well clear of the airplane. This
is especially important if the engine area or fuel tank area has been damaged. Return to
the airplane to get survival kits and other items out only when you are sure there will be
no fire.
After getting the survival equipment out, activate the ELT by turning the switch
on the ELT to on. Do NOT rely on the panel switch, as the wire may have been broken.
FTM/IPM FTM - 65
The picture to the left

shows the ELT with the plastic
cover over it. The pilot is about
to pull the cover off. The ELT is
under baggage area 2.
Once you pull the plastic cover off

you will see the ELT. It is a yellow box, as
shown to the left.
The picture to the left shows the ELT

enlarged. The switch is at the upper left of the
ELT and is currently in the AUTO position,
which means it should activate automatically if
there is a large g-force along the longitudinal
axis. NOTE: the ELT will not activate from a
hard landing on the normal axis (i.e. a stall and
drop), nor will it activate for a g-force from the
rear. Only a g-force on the nose will activate it.
To ensure the ELT activates turn the

switch to the ON position. The easiest way to do
this will be to use the remote switch located on
the bottom right of the instrument panel (see
below).
If the aircraft radios are still working turn a radio to 121.5 and listen to confirm
the ELT is working. NOTE: you cannot hear the ELT without a radio, so don’t expect to
hear it do anything when you turn it on.
Leave the ELT on until you are rescued. You can use the airplane radio to talk to
the rescue airplanes. You can also continue to broadcast Mayday calls once you are on
FTM/IPM FTM - 66
the ground. The best frequency to use in that situation is one that over flying airplanes
will be monitoring such as 126.7 or the local IFR center frequency. Look up Vancouver
center, Edmonton center, etc. in the CFS to get the center frequency for your area.
Survival Techniques
Your survival kit includes a copy of the book Wilderness Survival. You are also
required to have your own personal copy of that book. Your training will include practice
building a survival shelter during the first year of the program. Should you be unfortunate
enough to be in a survival situation before your receive that training open the book and
follow the instructions. All the materials you need to make a shelter (except trees) are in
the survival kit. The trees are all around you.
Stay calm. Treat injuries as your first priority. Next build a fire to keep warm and
use to signal for help.
Stay with the airplane. Make sure the ELT is activated. Rescue will come
quickly if the ELT is working.
Only consider walking out if you know for sure you are very close to civilization.
With that in mind always try to plan a forced approach so you are close to civilization.
Don’t worry about starving. The world record for living without food is 60 days.
You won’t starve, you will just get a bit hungry. Therefore, the thing to concentrate on is
staying warm and signaling for rescue. Your survival kit includes signal mirrors and
bright tarps you can hang in a conspicuous location. Have some evergreen bows ready to
throw on the fire to make smoke as a signal also.
Even though you can live for weeks without food you will need water within a
day. If there is snow melt some to make water. If it is summer look for a source of
running water. Boil any water taken from a stream to prevent getting sick. NOTE: there
are matches as well as a flint in your survival kit. There is also a pot for boiling water,
and a collapsible bucket for collecting water. (Don’t let the bucket get too close to fire.)
FTM/IPM FTM - 67
23-Navigation
Diversions
A diversion is simply an abbreviated application of the method of pre-determining

a required heading and enroute time.
Reasons for a Diversion

It may be necessary due to a sudden change of plans, such as an encounter with
bad weather on a VFR trip, or it could be the primary means of flight preparation, such as
for water bombing or forest spraying, when the time available for flight planning is
severely limited. If the aeroplane is equipped with a good, roomy table and time is not
critically short then what we have is simply another flight planning exercise; this is often
the case with transport aircraft. More often, however, we find ourselves bouncing along
in less-than-desirable visibility, single pilot with no autopilot, trying to corral our charts,
CR, lunch, CFS, pencils, rulers and other navigational necessities before they migrate to a
spot far under the rearmost seat - which of course is occupied by several large, smelly,
slobbering, not-very-well secured dogs who are just reaching a corporate decision that a
bite of pilot might be just the thing for lunch. Our calculations must perforce be of a less
formal nature but they still must get us to our destination – we don’t really want to wind
up stranded in the middle of nowhere with those dogs.
Diversion Planning Procedure (Inflight)

Start
The first step is to start from a known point. The need to monitor our progress and
update the heading and ETA information continues throughout the diversion - if
anything, it is even more important because of the relatively coarse means used to derive
the original heading and speed information – so it is very important to have an accurate
idea of the start point. While it’s not necessary to drive over to the next county to find the
perfect spot, going out of our way for two or three minutes to establish a good pin-point
position will more than pay for itself by the time we reach your destination.
Track and Heading

Next, we want to estimate our new intended track (diversion track), preferably in
degrees magnetic – except, of course, when operating in Northern Domestic Airspace, in
which case we use degrees true. This is easier if we draw it first - a rough, freehand line
will do the job. A straighter line can sometimes be obtained by folding the chart along the
line from the diversion point o the destination and then running the side of a pencil lead
along the fold; if we can make this work, then it’s not a bad idea but most people do
better with just a freehand line. Estimating the direction of this new track line is best done
by comparing it with some other known direction, such as:
- Meridians or parallels. These need to be converted to degrees magnetic by

applying the local variation to their direction, which is usually easier and a bit
FTM/IPM FTM - 68
more direct than estimating the angle and then converting that number to
magnetic. In this case, one can split the 90o angle into an even number of
divisions (45o, 22.5 o) or an odd number of divisions (30o, 60o, 15o, 7.5o) in
order to most accurately estimate the direction.
- A VOR compass rose, if there is one readily available on the chart. This has the
advantage of being already oriented to magnetic north.
- Published airways, if there is one of these readily available on the chart. Whether
it’s a VHF or LF/MF airway doesn’t matter; this information, too, will be in
degrees magnetic.
- The previous track. This information will probably have to be converted to a
magnetic reference.
The most important advice about estimating the track is that it takes practice. You
can and should practice this skill often. You don’t need to be in flight to practice either.
Just draw lines on maps and estimate the track – then check with a protractor to see how
well you did. Practice until you can estimate within 5 degrees – that may sound tough,
but with a bit of practice you can do it.
Having determined the track direction, we need to estimate the effect of the wind.
This can be done accurately with some simple mental math or by using the Appleyard
scale (slide rule side) of the CR.
The crosswind component can be calculated as a percentage of the total wind

value by using the following guidelines based on the wind’s direction relative to the track
to be flown:
Wind off track by 30o means 50% of total wind is crosswind

Crosswind can then be converted to drift by using a version of the 1-in-60 rule:
Drift = crosswind
Magic number
The “magic number” is TAS/57.3 (or TAS/60 to be rough about it), which is a
constant for a given aeroplane type since the TAS tends to be a constant. Dividing the
crosswind component by this constant will directly provide the drift in degrees.
Distance and Time

Now it is time to estimate the distance to the new destination.
You may have a ruler that you can use, or you may have marked out a “ruler” on
your pencil or the edge of you navlog. If it is not practical1 to use any of these, to
1
On the commercial pilot flight test you are not permitted to use a plotter or flight computer.
FTM/IPM FTM - 69
measure the distance you can use the graduated scale of the minutes of latitude on the
chart. Remember that one minute of latitude is 1.0 NM.
If none of the above seem practical then your hand may provide some surprisingly
accurate information:
- One “typical” hand span equals approximately 120NM on a WAC chart

(1:1,000,000 scale) or approximately 64NM on a VNC (1:500,000 scale) but you
should check your own hand out and know its “width in nautical miles”.
- Your knuckles cover approximately 40NM on a WAC chart or 21 NM on a VNC.
As above check that yours match this distance.
- Your thumb (or finger) width is about 5 NM on a VNC.
- Etc.
The above will vary slightly between individuals, so one should check one’s own
hand against a chart to determine an accurate figure for him or her.
The head wind or tail wind component can be calculated by using the reciprocal
of the cross wind component relative to the nose of the aeroplane (i.e. 15o off the nose or
tail would be 90% of the full value while 75o off the nose or tail would be 30% of the full
value. In this case there is no need to convert from knots to degrees.
The final step in these preparations is the calculation of the enroute time (ETE) to
the new destination. The most accurate way to do this is with the CR, however if that is
not an option then a reasonably accurate estimate can be made with mental math, using
any of the following methods:
100 knot groundspeed converts to decimal hours

120 knot groundspeed – divide distance by 2
150 knot groundspeed – use “two-bit math” procedure
Determine speed in miles per minute, then divide distance by miles per minute
Percentage adjustment
The 100 knot groundspeed system works well in the C-172 in many cases. It notes
that a given distance in miles at 100 knots takes distance/100 hours. For example 58
miles takes .58 hours or 134 miles takes 1.34 hours. You must then convert the decimal
hour to the more normal hours and minutes, but that is the same process you do every
time you fill out the journey logbook, so you are probably already good at it.
The 120 knot rule is simply the special case of 2 miles per minute. In that case
time in minutes equals distance/2.
Two bit (25 cents is called two bits in the USA) takes advantage of the fact that
150 knots is 2.5 miles per minute. Time is therefore distance/2.5. At first that sounds hard
so instead think of it as paying for something with quarters. Example if something costs
$1.90 how many quarters do you need. Everyone can see that 7 is not enough, you must
FTM/IPM FTM - 70
hand over 8 and get a bit of change. So, how long to fly 19 miles at 150 knots. It is just
the same problem, and the answer is “not quite 8 minutes.”
Dividing by miles per minute when that is other than 1,2, or 2.5 is quite difficult.
So instead “play the percentages.”
Playing the percentages means calculating the time for the closest “easy” speed,
then making a percentage adjustment. For example, if you are flying 110 knots that is not
quite 2 miles per minute – it is about 10% less. So figure out the time at 2 miles per
minute then increase your answer by 10%. The same idea works for 130 knots except you
reduce the answer by 10%.
A more detailed description of the above math tips can be found under the pilot
math link from the simulations link on the homepage of the intranet.
Carrying Out the Plan

At this point the process of actually flying the diversion can begin. We proceed to
the start point, turn to our pre-computed heading, record our time and advise ATC (more
on that later). Now we monitor our progress, just as we do on any other flight. Heading
alterations can be estimated by eye, assisted by mentally superimposing the 10o drift
lines from our original track line or by drawing in new lines, if that is an option – or we
can just “guesstimate” the angle, which is usually accurate enough. On a longer diversion
we can use the 1-in-60 rule, measuring our distance off track against our distance run and
using the formula:
Distance off track X 60 = Track error angle

Distance run
One can then back these estimates up by putting progress marks on the map at the
half way point and perhaps the quarter and three-quarter way points; for a really long
diversion one might even want to use one-eighth or one-sixteenth marks. It is best, of
course, to measure these accurately but sometimes the best one can do is to position them
approximately, and this is adequate for most purposes. The time to any of these points
will then provide an accurate estimate of the time remaining to the destination.
Legal and SAR Considerations

Finally, that note about ATC. CARs 602.76 requires that ATC (or FSS, etc) be
advised of any changes to ones route, flight time or destination – and more, under IFR.
This is not just to keep the bureaucrats happy, rather it provides a better level of security
for the pilot. Should the aeroplane not arrive at whatever destination ATC has on file, a
search will begin at the last known position and cover an area of about 10 miles or so on
either side of the filed track, going as far as the filed destination. It would be unfortunate
to have people searching around Golden while the plane and pilot are sitting comfortably
in Kamloops. It would be even more unfortunate to have people searching around Golden
while the plane and pilot – and several hungry dogs – are down in the bush somewhere
north-east of Kamloops.
FTM/IPM FTM - 71
Reorientation Procedures
Pilots NEVER actually get “lost” but it does happen from time to time that a pilot
will misplace a check point or even a destination, and become “temporarily disoriented”.
Normally a combination of adequate flight planning and inflight housekeeping make this
an uncommon experience for most pilots, but it does happen sufficiently often to be
worthy of some consideration and planning. The extent of disorientation is likely to be a
function of the care given to flight monitoring; the longer since the last pinpoint, the
larger the possible area where the pilot could be.
Basic Possibilities
There are four basic courses of action a pilot can take in this situation:
1. Look around (climb and look)

2. Look in the right place
3. Try to make a landfall
4. Go back and start again.
Generally, the techniques will be used in this order, as this represents the
increasing amount of time and effort required for re-orientation, however there is no fast
rule on this and there is no reason for a pilot not to use any technique at any time in order
to resolve the situation.
Look Around and Climb

Just because a checkpoint isn’t where it should be doesn’t necessarily mean it
isn’t somewhere in the vicinity. Circling while looking is not recommended because of
the possibility of disorientation due to the continually changing direction but neither is it
strongly discouraged – just a recommendation of great caution while doing it. Looking
out all windows, in all directions is strongly recommended.
Climbing will help this process because it increases the visual range; generally
speaking, higher is better. Cloud cover may well limit the ability to climb – not only
because of possible CARs violations but anything more than few, or at most scattered,
clouds will most likely cause more problems than might be solved by climbing. Still it is
important to climb as high as possible under the prevailing circumstances.
While looking around it should be remembered that the checkpoint may well have
an altered appearance due to any number of factors, including season, time of day,
weather and direction from which the plane is approaching the checkpoint. An area can
look much different in the colors of fall than it did in the greens of spring and summer;
winter’s snow can alter it even more drastically. A landmark can appear very different
when the sun is low early or late in the day than it does at high noon, and the flight light
of an overcast day can cause it to look different from the sharp contrasts of a bright sun,
not to mention the effects of a rain-streaked windshield or the limited view in snow. If
one is expecting to see a landmark form the east, through the windshield, it might be
difficult to recognize that landmark when seeing it from the south through the right side
FTM/IPM FTM - 72
window. Although it is important that the recognition of a landmark be confirmed –

preferable with three features – it is also important to be flexible when looking for a
landmark. It may be necessary to mentally adjust the checkpoint’s image as taken from
the chart or from the last time it was seen to accommodate the current situation.
Look in the Right Place

If a careful search fails to reveal the desired point lurking in the shadows, then it
is time to consider the possibility that the aeroplane may have arrived in the wrong place,
in which case it becomes necessary to determine just what place this in fact is. There are
two possible reasons for arriving at the wrong place: Wrong heading and wrong time.
Wrong Heading
The easiest thing to do first is to check the heading indicator against the flight
planned magnetic (or compass) heading. If these two are in agreement, then check the
heading indicator against the magnetic compass (+/- deviation or as indicated on the
compass correction card). If there is still no perceptible error then there may be a problem
with the basic information on the navigation log. Check the calculated Magnetic Heading
against the calculated True Heading, to see if there was an error in applying the variation;
if not, then check the calculated True Heading against the True Track – perhaps there was
an error in applying the wind correction. Finally, one might want to re-measure the flight
planned track; this can quickly be done in a rough fashion by reviewing the general
orientation of the track line and checking for obvious errors such as writing down the
reciprocal of the desired track. Checking down to the last degree is best done in a
transport aircraft with a chart table rather than the pilot’s seat of a light plane but it’s also
not really necessary for light planes as a few degrees off one way or another on the
normal VFR leg is not usually enough to completely disorient the pilot.
Wrong Time
The easiest mistake to make here is to simply not fly the calculated time, possibly
because of incorrectly writing down the last Actual Time of Arrival (ATA), the Estimated
Time Enroute (ETE) or the Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) for the checkpoint. It is also
possible to simply misread the clock. If all these areas are correct, then it is possible that
one of the pre-flight calculations is incorrect, so it is important to verify the calculated
time, the ground speed, and the distance, re-measuring roughly to check for coarse or
large errors or possibly even finely to catch minor errors.
Landfalls
It is not uncommon for all the foregoing checks to indicate that the plane is in
approximately the right place, and while the exact position might be a mystery it is
known that a large, “unmissable” and unmistakable landmark such as a coastline or large
lake lies ahead and will appear at approximately the right time. In this case it is an
acceptable practice to introduce an error of known direction so as to arrive at that
unmissable landmark off track in a known direction and then correct toward the proper
(known to be correct) direction. This is about as precise as Ringo Starr’s “Turn left at
Greenland” comment but it works very well and has been used by mariners since
medieval, if not ancient, times – which is where the expression originated – as well as
FTM/IPM FTM - 73
pilots right up to the present. As an example, it is not difficult for a pilot flying direct
from Kelowna to Castlegar, low level in between the peaks, to become a bit unsure of the
plane’s exact position; in this case, an error to the south could conceivably cause the pilot
to miss Castlegar’s valley completely and wander off south east into the States. An easy
way to avoid this is to steer due east (True), about 070o Magnetic; this would take the
plane to some point on the (pretty much unmissable) Arrow Lakes, certainly north of
Castlegar, whence the pilot can simply follow the lake south to Castlegar.
Another application of this is to follow a no-wind heading until arriving at a

landfall point, then turning into wind.
Go Back and Start Again

If none of the foregoing is effective, it might be possible to retrace one’s route
back to a known position. This is time consuming – the amount of time being a function
of the time since the last known position, a housekeeping consideration – but less so than
a forced landing at an unknown position. Simply turning to the reciprocal of the heading
on the Heading Indicator will get things started, but there is also the important issue of
wind and drift. If the wind direction and speed has been determined, then by all means
apply it; lacking that, applying the opposite correction to that used to get to this point – ie
5o right drift correction outbound becomes 5o left drift correction when going back –
should work well enough to get back to a known location.
The other question is the amount of time it is likely to take to get back to the last
known position. Again, if the wind effect is known, apply it to the outbound time to
derive a return time, otherwise the flight planning information will have to suffice. The
important thing to remember is to consider the probable effect of wind when turning
back.
Use of Radio to Reorient

Radio Aids
The above procedures all assumed a complete lack of communications on the part
of the pilot, either because the aeroplane has no radio installed, the radio has failed or the
plane is too low for radio contact. If there is some form of communication available, then
the possibilities open up dramatically. ADF, VOR and GPS can help to quickly resolve
questions of position. One of the easiest and most effective means of re-orientation,
which VFR pilot sometimes don’t think of, is RADAR; with which a controller can
provide not only position information but also vectors to any requested point. The
appropriate ATC frequency can be found in the CFS or by calling FSS; a blind call on
126.7 will probably work. Using 121.5 should only be done as a last resort – but it is
there to use if that’s all that is available. Less effective than radar is a DF steer, which can
only bring an aeroplane to a particular station. This service is available from many
control towers and FSS; a simple radio call can confirm its availability if there isn’t time
to look for the VDF listing in the CFS airport COMM box. Like visual orientation
attempts, more altitude will facilitate the process since RADAR operates in the Super
FTM/IPM FTM - 74
High Frequency range and DF operates in the VHF range, hence both require line of
sight. Unlike visual orientation procedures, clouds will not inhibit the ability to receive
radio signals so climbing above the clouds is a perfectly acceptable option, as long as the
requirements of the CARs are observed.
Other Means of Orientation

Railway
On the prairies, where it is possible to watch one’s dog run away for three days, it
is not unknown to be able to see absolutely no landmarks whatsoever. Should a pilot
become disoriented in such an area, one useful procedure is to fly either north or south
and look for the main railway or highway. If one is unsure whether to go north or south
one should pick one of these directions at random and follow it for a while. The
appearance of bush country means that the plane is too far north while the continued
appearance of nothing after about an hour means that the plane is too far south. After
encountering the main railway or highway one should fly either east or west in order to
find a town.
On the prairies, just about every town has a grain elevator - and so do some towns
that are not on the prairies. Virtually every grain elevator has a name on it and most have
the name of the town. It is important to remember that there are no towns by the name of
UGG (stands for United Grain Growers) nor Co-Op nor Pioneer nor Ogilvie – these are
the names of the companies that own the elevators. If the town’s name is not on the
elevator, it will surely be posted on the train station, usually up under the eaves near the
peak of the roof. It will be necessary then to fly low enough (preferably down the tracks)
to see the name – this should probably be done with only one pass and a rapid departure
before anybody can make a proper complaint. It is in fact best not to do it at all except in
an extreme case – it is usually better to follow the railroad to the next town.
Last Resorts
Landing – on a road or in a field - and asking for directions at a farm house or gas
station is likely to provide some humor for local residents and some ribbing for the pilot
but will also probably produce usable information. Even if there are no residents around,
the licence plates on vehicles in the area will provide at least some geographic
information.
One method, which actually has worked in the past, is to refer to – or even follow
- a bus. If one is able to see the name on the front of the bus, either with binoculars or by
using the train station technique described above, then one has two relevant pieces of
information: one is over a relatively major road or highway (because that’s where
intercity buses run) and the town named on the front of the bus is somewhere up ahead of
the bus. Depending on the performance of the plane and the bus, as well as the winds, it
is sometimes possible for a seriously disoriented pilot to simply follow the bus on the
theory that all buses travel to towns and any town with a bus station will likely have its
name posted somewhere and might even have an airport of some kind. Furthermore,
should it turn out that the distance to town exceeds the aircraft’s remaining fuel,
remaining in close proximity to the bus provides the pilot with the option of landing on
FTM/IPM FTM - 75
the highway and completing that part of the journey by bus, which is better than walking
or hitchhiking.
One final possibility, which sounds absolutely ludicrous but has worked on
numerous occasions and was in fact the navigation method of choice amongst some
foreign students, is simply to look for other aircraft and follow them to wherever they are
landing. If nothing else, it is likely to return the plane safely to terra firma. It also has the
added benefit of providing a surprise ending to each flight, if that is the desired effect.
Lost Orientation Summary

All these techniques are designed to provide the pilot with some ideas for taking
positive action to resolve their situation. While they are listed in a more or less logical
order of preference there is, as has already been pointed out, considerable flexibility in
their use. The most important in this situation is to do something. The only unacceptable
choice is that of doing nothing, whether by blindly continuing to follow the last heading
or by mindless circling. Doing nothing leaves the salvation of the aeroplane and its
occupants to pure luck, and the only luck pilots can ever count on is that which they make
for themselves.
Flying in the USA

You will be sent on one trip to the USA as part of your training at Selkirk
College. In the future you will likely fly there often. In this section we discuss the main
differences and considerations for flying in the USA.
U.S. Customs Guide for Private Flyers

This is a publication put out by the American government. The entire document is
available online at http://www.faa.gov/ats/aat/ifim/gpf/
The following is a quote. CBP stands for customs and border protection:
PROVIDING NOTIFICATION TO CBP
In order to have a CBP officer present to provide inspectional services for you
and your aircraft, you must notify CBP of your intention to land and the estimated
time of your arrival.
This notification may be provided by telephone, radio, or by an ADCUS message

(ADvise CUStoms) in the flight plan through the FAA. The term ADCUS should
be clearly identifiable in the Remarks section of your flight plan if you wish to
have CBP notified. Be aware, however, that the ADCUS procedure involves
relaying information and is not as timely or reliable as direct communication
(telephone or radio). CBP recommends that, if possible, pilots communicate
directly with CBP by telephone or other means to assure that an officer will be
available at the time requested. It is the pilot's responsibility to make sure that
CBP is properly notified. Failure to do so may subject the pilot to a penalty. (See
Penalties for Violations [Subpart Q of the Customs Regulations] in the Appendix.)
FTM/IPM FTM - 76
The last section of this guide provides telephone numbers and other information
to help you contact CBP.
The GATE program (GATE stands for General Aviation Telephonic Entry) has
been indefinitely suspended.
FLIGHTS ORIGINATING FROM CANADA
According to Section 602.73 of the CARs, a flight plan must be filed for all flights
between Canada and the United States.
U.S. Customs information on flight plans to U.S. airports from Canada must
include the number of U.S. and non-U.S. citizens on the flight. ADCUS is still
accepted on flight plans to the U.S.; however, the ADCUS remark in the flight
plan may not be sufficient notice for some U.S. airports. At least one hour
advance notice of arrival must be provided. The aircraft operator is solely
responsible for ensuring that Customs receives the notification. It may be
preferable to contact the Customs office by telephone to advise them directly of
your ETA.
SHORT FLIGHTS
If flying time from the foreign airport to the United States airport is less than one
hour, the pilot should: (1) request landing rights when these are required, and (2)
transmit his arrival notice directly to the CBP office before departing the foreign
airport, unless prior arrangements have been made. This is necessary to give
inspection personnel sufficient time first, to be assigned to, and then, to be
present at, the airport before the aircraft arrives. On such short notice, the FAA
cannot guarantee delivery of a message (under the flight-plan notification
arrangement) in sufficient time. It is still the pilot's responsibility to give timely
notice, even though a flight plan has been filed.
USA Weather and Customs Procedures

Prior to departing on your trip to Spokane you should check NOTAMs and
weather in the USA. Check the NOTAMs using the link on the Selair homepage. Type in
KGEG and get the Notams.
To check weather phone call Seattle FSS at 1-206-767-2726
- Press 220 and listen to the Notam summary. It will have a code such as
information X-ray. These are special Notams regarding limiting terrorist
activity. It will advise you about things such as not flying over stadiums,
nuclear power plants, etc.
- Press 1 to get a briefer. Tell him you “have X-ray” (see above.) Check the
weather
FTM/IPM FTM - 77
- Ask whether or not Roosevelt MOA is active.
NOTE: If the MOA is in use try to find out what altitudes. Usually you can still go to
Spokane if you stay below (or sometimes above) the altitude in use. If that is not possible
the trip may have to be cancelled.
NOTE: You cannot file a VFR flight plan with Seattle; you must file your flight plan with
Kamloops.
Once you are in Spokane you can re-check the weather and file your flight plan before
coming home by call the toll free number: 1-800-Wx-Brief (800 not 866 as in Canada.)
Call US customs to file a customs notification, the number is: 509-353-2833
Canadian Customs Procedures

Call FSS (1-866-Wx-Brief) to file your flight plan
Call CANPASS to make a customs notification for your return flight
Read the FAL section of your AIM it explains the CANPASS system you will be
using for your return trip from the USA. In order to meet the two hour advance notice
requirement you will call CANPASS 1-888-226-7277 BEFORE leaving for Spokane. Be
prepared to give them a reasonable estimate of your return time. Remember that you must
call again when you return. Normally they give you a clearance number, but they could
send someone out to check you in person.
Flight Plan opening and Closing in the USA

THIS IS IMPORTANT!
One major difference between flying in Canada and flying in the USA is the
control tower will not open or close your flight plan.
Therefore, after landing you must call (usually on the radio, but if not use a
telephone) the FSS and request your flight plan closed.
On departure the tower will not open your flight plan. Therefore, you must call
the FSS and ask for the flight plan to be opened. Make the call just before switching from
ground to tower frequency; alternatively call once clear of the control zone.
FSS in the USA

In the air FSS in the USA works exactly like in Canada except that the universal
frequency is 122.2 (not 126.7) Therefore, your radio should be on 122.2 enroute, if you
are not using flight following.
FTM/IPM FTM - 78
Most American FSS’s have numerous RCOs. Most RCOs are co-located with
VORs. You will find the RCO frequencies written along the top of each VOR box on the
map. For example Spokane VOR shows several frequencies, 122.2, 122.55, 122.65 (note
122.2 is not usually listed, because it is always available). Walla-Walla shows 122.3 and
Yakima 122.5. Generally you should use the frequency shown since it will be less
congested than 122.2.
The examples listed above are all duplex frequencies, which is what you are used
to in Canada. In other words you will transmit on the designated frequency and also
receive on that frequency. Many RCOs in the USA are simplex. Which means you will
transmit on one frequency but listen for the response on a different frequency (usually the
VOR.) Study the legend for your WAC chart to see how this will be shown. If the VOR
frequency is not underlined on the map then voice capability is available. You should
make sure the volume is set on your VOR, the Nav button is pushed in on the audio
panel, and the volume knob is pushed in on the radio (i.e. not out in the ident position).
You can update your flight plan, or check weather while enroute with an FSS just
as you do in Canada. However, the USA has one added feature called Flight Watch.
Flight Watch
Flight Watch is only to provide weather. Do not try to update your flight plan,
or make a position report. If you do they will not take it, they will tell you to call an FSS.
Flight Watch is an excellent frequency to get the latest weather on. In fact you
should monitor it just so you can hear all the weather passed to other people. It is hardly
ever necessary to ask for weather yourself, just pay attention to the continuous stream of
weather being passed to other airplanes, including airliners.
The same frequency is used everywhere, 122.0 (if you have two radios, put one
on this frequency enroute and listen to it all the time).
If you want to get weather just push the PTT and say “Flight Watch, this is
Canadian Cessna 172 Golf Sierra Poppa Alpha.” When s/he says “go ahead” either ask
for specific items such as METARS or TAFs or for general information such as any
Pireps or reports in a specific area, etc. They are always very friendly and helpful so
don’t hesitate to use the service.
Flight Following
Flight following means to talk to an IFR controller while enroute, even though
you are VFR. In Canada the equivalent service is called radar surveillance. This is an
excellent service (in either country,) since it will keep you clear of any restricted airspace
and make sure you call the tower at the right time, keep you from getting lost, etc. On
departure tower controllers will usually tell you the recommended frequency when you
report clear of the zone, if not you can ask them, or just call the frequency listed in the
Flight guide, for example 133.35 when departing Spokane.
FTM/IPM FTM - 79
You are strongly urged to fly under flight following when in the USA as this will
prevent you from stumbling into any restricted airspace.
FTM/IPM FTM - 80
Valley Crawl Exercise

This exercise will be your first cross-country flight at Selkirk College. The
following advice will help you plan and execute the trip. The trip is a “valley crawl” so
read all the advice in the mountain flying section.
To keep your instructor happy BE ON TIME!!! Many students underestimate the

amount of time it takes to prepare the navlog and file the flight plan. All planning,
including filling the flight plan must be done BEFORE the booked flight time.
Most preparations can be done in advance – i.e. many days before the trip.
Laying out the map

Layout your map with the six legs shown below:
FTM/IPM FTM - 81
Note the following points:

Six legs, as shown on the map
Include a circuit “leg” on the navlog for CZNL and CAD4 (allow time and fuel)
Estimate headwind / tailwind component ONLY – add that to TAS to get G/S
Measure the length of each cruise leg but “adjust it” if the valley is curved
Calculate the time and fuel for each leg (fuel is not shown in diagram below)
Make your navlog using the following as a guide – see notes about navlog below:
The Navlog
ALT: the instructions say to plan your cruise altitude of 5,500’.
TAS: plan 65% power and look on page 5-16 of the C-172P POH. Determine the
rpm for 65% then determine the TAS and Fuel Flow (write the rpm and fuel flow in the
appropriate column – see example below).
IAS: use you CR computer to determine IAS
MAG TRK: estimate this to the nearest 5 degrees
MAG WIND: In the navlog above notice that the pilot estimated the headwind or
tailwind in each valley and simply shows +/- values for the wind.
FTM/IPM FTM - 82
HDG: There is no crosswind consideration on this trip so HDG is equal to MAG

TRK.
G/S: Groundspeed is simply TAS plus or minus the tailwind or headwind.
TIME: Use your CR computer to determine the time for each leg. Include an
estimated amount of time for circuits. Remember that you must do a low and over before
landing so allow enough time.
Once the above calculations are complete

fill in the fuel section as demonstrated to
the left. The numbers shown here are only
examples.
RAMP fuel should be full tanks.
Taxi fuel allowance is given on page 5-15

of your POH. Applying that give the T/O
fuel of 38.9 gal.
Fill in the cruise rpm, interpolating to get

exactly 65% power. The example shows
2415 rpm, but this is only an example.
Allow for both climb fuel (page 5-15) and

cruise fuel (page 5-16.)
Fill in the EST RMG (remaining fuel) at the end of each leg.
Fill in reserve fuel and time (shown above). The reserve fuel is all the remaining
fuel at the end of the trip.
Next fill in the ETE and Total Fuel time boxes in the center of the navlog. ETE is
just the sum of all the individual enroute times previously calculated. Total fuel time is
the ETE plus the reserve time – i.e. it represents how long the engine can run from
takeoff until total fuel starvation.
Prepare to File the Flight Plan

From the flight planning page of the INTRANET click on the link to “Flight plan
Form.” Complete the form following the instructions in the A.I.M. When the form is
complete print two copies--one for you and one for the dispatcher.
Don’t file the flight plan until your instructor looks at it.
FTM/IPM FTM - 83
You are now ready to go on the flight.
Completing The Navlog Enroute

Just before takeoff, when the pre-
takeoff checklist says “take off time …
noted” write the time in the takeoff time
box as shown to the left. In this example
the airplane took off at 17:50 UTC.
Once you are clear of the circuit fill

in the whole ETA CALC column. In the
example the first leg is 11 minutes so, with
takeoff at 17:50 we will end this leg at
18:01. Leave out the 18 and simply write
01, as shown.
The second leg takes 8 minutes so

the calculated ETA is 09, etc.
Fill out the whole CALC ETA

column shortly after leaving the circuit at
CYCG.
Also fill in the fuel expiry time and

the ETA boxes in the center of the navlog
(not demonstrated in the diagram).
As the flight progresses you will write your actual time at each point in the ATA
column – look at the diagram above and make sure you know where you will write the
actual time of arrival (not demonstrated in the diagram).
You will compare your ATA time to your CALC time and note discrepancies.
Based on these you will estimate a revised ETA and note it under the REV 1 column
when needed. If you further revise your ETA list it under REV 2.
Turning Around in a Valley

On this exercise you will learn how to turn around in a mountain valley. Please
read the information on page 178. It would be a good idea to read the entire mountain
flying section, starting on page 173.
FTM/IPM FTM - 84
24 – Instrument Flying
Chapter 24 of the Flight Training Manual has an excellent section on instrument
flying. Despite that each year many students do not develop a good instrument scan. All
too often students have a scan that is fatiguing, and results in less than ideal accuracy of
flight. Most commonly this is due to not using the Attitude Indicator (AI) properly.
The thing to realize is that the AI must be scanned carefully. Your eyes must take
in both the pitch and bank pointers. Many people only look at the center of the instrument
and never at the top where bank is indicated. To clarify this point go to the simulations
section on the Intranet site and watch the simulation called Selective Radial Scan.
Attitude Plus Power Equals Performance

A good instrument pilot realizes that there is only one attitude and one power
setting that will provide the desired performance at any given moment. In other words if
you wish to fly at 85 knots there is a specific attitude and a specific power setting you
must use. If you use too much attitude the airplane will fly too slowly and conversely if
the nose is too low the plane will fly too fast. If you have too much power the airplane
will climb, too little power and it will descend.
For those mathematically inclined the relationship between thrust and climb is:
Sin(climb angle) = (Thrust – Drag) / Weight
When you climb and descend at a constant airspeed your angle of attack does not
change significantly. Therefore as you raise and lower the nose your angle of climb
changes the same amount as your attitude changes, if airspeed remains constant.
Knowing that you could calculate the vertical speed that results from a 1-degree pitch
change. The formula would be:
Vertical speed = sin(1) x TAS x 6080 / 60 [ in feet per minute]
For a C-172 (or any airplane flying 100 knots) evaluate the above formula. You
should get 177 feet per minute. In other words every one-degree pitch changes your
vertical speed by 177 feet per minute. For an airplane flying 150 KTAS (B-95 speed) the
formula produces 265 fpm.
When you slow down or speed up in any airplane you must change angle of attack
(AOA). For an airplane flying at 100 knots 1 degree of AOA change is required for 10
knots airspeed change. But, as you fly faster less AOA change is required. For example if
you are flying 150 knots and wish to make a 10 knot speed change it will require only
about ½ a degree AOA change.
Power changes and airspeed

Think of the propeller as a screw, turning through the air like a screw turns
through wood. You move forward with each revolution. If an airplane flies 100 knots
with a FIXED PITCH propeller turning 2,500 rpm we can say:
FTM/IPM FTM - 85
100 knots = 2,500 rpm

10 knots = 250 rpm
1 knot = 25 rpm
Using the above method you can come up with a formula for how much to change
the rpm to change airspeed in any airplane you fly with a fixed pitch propeller. You just
need a known starting point, which you get by flight testing, or consulting the POH.
For airplanes with a constant speed propeller the above method doesn’t work
because the propeller blade angle keeps changing. Instead you need a rule of thumb for
manifold pressure change. Our recommendations are below.
Rules of thumb
Based on the above theory we recommend the following rules of thumb:
Change Result
C-172 1-degree pitch ~ 200 fpm
1-degree pitch 10 knot speed change
100 rpm ~ 5 knot speed change
B-95 1-degree pitch 250 fpm
0.5-degree 10 knot speed change

pitch
1.0 inch MP 5 knot speed change

change
1.0 inch MP 100 feet per minute

change
NOTE: When using the rules above they can be proportioned.
Examples:
If you want to slow down 10 knots in a C-172 and make NO CHANGE to

vertical speed you will need to raise the nose 1 degree and reduce power 200
rpm.
If you want to climb at 100 feet per minute and make NO CHANGE to airspeed
in a C-172 flying at 100 knots – raise the nose 0.5 degrees and increase power
100 rpm.
FTM/IPM FTM - 86
If you want to climb at 100 feet per minute and are willing to do that by
sacrificing airspeed then (for the C-172):
o Pulling back so that you lose 5 knots will produce a 100 fpm climb (NO
POWER CHANGE)
If you are on approach and a bit high pushing forward to increase the VSI by 100
fpm will cause the airspeed to rise by 5 knots (in a C-172)
In addition to the above rules of thumb that relate to the “attitude plus power
equals performance” concept there are several other technique related rules of thumb the
instrument pilot should know:
1. When turning roll out of the turn when the heading is half the angle of bank from
the desired heading (i.e. for a 20 bank turn roll out 10 before your heading.)
2. When climbing or descending, start to level off 10% of your VSI before the
altitude (i.e. if climbing 500 fpm, start to level off 50 feet from your altitude.)
3. Extending the gear is the equivalent of throttling back 5” of manifold pressure.
(i.e. is just enough to start a 500 fpm descent.)
Tips For Smooth Full Panel Instrument Flying

You should have already read the section on selective radial scan in the Transport
Canada Flight Training Manual. This section provides a few additions tips to keep in
mind.
Keep a light touch on the controls. In order to do that you must keep the airplane
in trim. Trimming is NOT an afterthought; it is an important technique that must be done
properly. Here is how to do it, step by step:
1. When leveling from a climb or descent slowly set the elevator trim to
approximately the required setting while waiting for cruise speed to settle it. DO
NOT wait to trim.
2. Anticipate rudder inputs when leveling from climbs and descents or changing
airspeed and make a tiny rudder trim adjustment in anticipation.
3. Once cruise speed is established always trim in the following order: Elevator trim,
then rudder trim, lastly aileron trim.
4. When setting elevator trim take a firm grip on the control wheel and move the
pitch attitude to the desired attitude – then let go briefly. If the nose moves up or
down take a firm grip and gain and move the nose back where it belongs; then
adjust the elevator trim. Once more release the wheel briefly and if the nose move
repeat the above process until the trim is perfect.
5. Confirm that airspeed has stabilized before you consider step 4 to be complete.
6. AFTER step 5 – hold the wings level and pull your feet up off the rudder pedals.
Check the heading indicator; if the airplane drifts off its heading adjust the rudder
trim. Repeat until the airplane flies straight.
7. AFTER all the above; release the control wheel. If the airplane rolls adjust the
aileron trim.
FTM/IPM FTM - 87
Once you have the airplane in trim, as described above use a “pulsing grip” to
prevent yourself from tensing up on the controls. The pulsing grip involves holding the
controls as firmly as is needed (discussed below) then forcing yourself to relax your grip
to almost nothing for one or two seconds a few times per minute. This variable pressure
grip prevents you from gripping tighter and tighter and tighter, which is what you will
tend to do under stress.
How tightly should you hold the controls? The answer depends on the type of
airplane you are flying. A C-150 is so light you can fly it with two fingers. But a twin,
such as the Travelair requires your full hand to be on the control column. The C-172 is
light enough to fly with two fingers in cruise, if there is no turbulence; but most of the
time you need two or three fingers, plus your thumb to produce enough force to control
the airplane. Most airplanes have a grip with a shape similar to a gun grip. You have seen
cop shows on TV and have never seen someone hold a pistol with two fingers while
trying to aim it at someone. So, DON’T attempt to do that when flying. Hold the control
wheel with your thumb on the thumb rest and two to four fingers curled around the grip –
then use the pulsing grip as described above. (Only in cruise, when conditions are
smooth, should you ever cup the wheel with thumb and one finger at the lower left
corner.)
Perhaps the most useful piece of instrument flying advice we can give you is to
fly the know attitude. For example, it normally takes about 7 degrees nose up for a
cruise climb – so fly 7 nose up if you are doing a cruise climb. That should be obvious,
but in fact people will often throw the attitude all over the place while chasing minor
fluctuations in airspeed due to turbulence, wind shear, etc. The same advice applies to
every aspect of flight. So get to know what attitude you need for:
Climb at Vy (right after takeoff)

Cruise climb
Downwind / procedure turn
IFR approach configuration – at 500 fpm descent
IFR approach configuration – in level flight
The secret to good instrument flying is to know the attitudes above and USE
THEM. After establishing an attitude for several seconds, if you notice that you are
drifting off the desired performance (whether that is a certain altitude, airspeed, or
descent rate) make a slight adjustment in you “target” attitude. But DO NOT chase the
airspeed or vertical speed around. A good instrument pilot is a pilot who is always
targeting a particular attitude. For example: in a climb you may start by targeting 7 nose
up attitude and desiring 85 KIAS. After a few seconds you note that the airspeed is
bouncing around a bit in turbulence but on average is 80 KIAS. You therefore adjust your
target attitude to 7.5 - and re-trim slightly to accomplish that.
In the B95 we establish a range of cruise climb speeds from 105 to 122 KIAS. In
all cases we desire a vertical speed of at least 500 fpm. To accomplish this you must
establish a certain climb attitude (usually 6 nose up). If your speed is in the desired
FTM/IPM FTM - 88
range and the VSI is adequate simply hold the attitude and allow any airspeed
fluctuations that may occur in turbulence to average out. If the average VSI is too low or
the airspeed is outside the acceptable range then adjust the attitude, say to 7 nose up –
but do not chase every little airspeed fluctuation – fly the attitude.
Tips for Leveling Off

In the rules of thumb above we recommended starting to level off from climbs
and descents 10% of your VSI before the altitude. For example, if you are climb 700 fpm,
start to “push over” into level flight at 70 feet below your assigned altitude. There are a
few additions tips for this procedure however.
Leveling off from a climb or descent is one of the most difficult challenges in
instrument flying. The reason is that the pitch and power changes cause yawing moments
that will swing the airplane off its heading just at the very moment the pilot is inherently
distracted by the altimeter and VSI. Consequently, to do a good job of leveling off we
must scan all six primary flight instruments, plus the power instruments (tachometer and
manifold pressure gauge). This is a very challenging task, so you must practice, practice,
and practice.
We define a “good job” of leveling-off as one where the climb or descent stops
exactly on the assigned altitude, the heading does not change (assuming straight flight)
and the power is set accurately, but at the correct time. None of the preceding will be
possible if trim is not also used appropriately. Let us know discuss the details.
The easiest level off procedure is one where the climb or descent airspeed is the
same as the desired speed in level flight. For example, in the circuit we may be climbing
at the same speed that we intend to fly downwind at. Another example is on an IFR
approach where we may make a “step descent” involving leveling off with no change in
configuration or airspeed, then resuming the descent, again with no change in
configuration or speed. In all these cases the pitch attitude and power must be change in
unison. In other words at 10% of the VSI before the altitude the pilot begins to
simultaneously change power and pitch attitude from the climb/descent settings to the
level flight settings. The hard part is synchronizing the two. The new attitude and new
power setting must both be established simultaneously. If, for example, you lower the
nose quickly but reduce power slowing when leveling for downwind the airspeed will
increase, then fall back to the desired value (not what we want). So, you must ensure that
the new attitude and new power setting are achieved simultaneously. Another example is
leveling off on an IFR approach. You must start to add power and raise the nose at 10%
of the VSI before the new altitude. Many pilots raise the nose faster than they add the
power. Consequently, the airplane loses some airspeed as it levels off.
In the situations described above the change in power setting causes a slight
“swing” of the nose. When reducing power to start a descent or level off from a climb a
bit of left rudder (or reduction or right rudder) will be needed. Because the airspeed does
not change the angle of attack also does not change so the swing is quite minimal, and
easy to control. Assuming the pilot has taken the advice above and knows the required
power setting and attitude it should be possible to drop the ASI from the scan for a
FTM/IPM FTM - 89
moment and check the HI and TC in addition to the obviously necessary ALT and VSI
for a few seconds. This will ensure the airplane remains straight. After a few seconds the
pilot should then find it easy to check the ASI and confirm the airspeed has not changed.
Most light airplanes climb at a speed considerably slower than cruise speed.
Consequently we must accelerate after we level off, from climb to cruise speed. Pilots are
familiar with the saying “attitude, power, trim” to describe the sequence of actions, but
many do not do it properly. Unfortunately the simple saying above is a bit misleading in
this situation because the real sequence is more like “attitude, trim, attitude, trim, attitude,
trim, attitude, power, trim.” That doesn’t exactly roll of your tongue though, does it? The
thing to remember is that there should be two or three “attitude, trim” cycles before the
final “attitude, power, trim.” The next paragraph give a step by step analysis of leveling
off for cruise.
Assume you are climbing at 105 KIAS with 6 nose-up and your vertical speed is
800 fpm. You wish to level off and cruise at 150 KIAS. Here is what you should do. At
80 feet below you altitude lower the nose to 3 nose up (half the climb attitude). You
know the actual vertical speed of the airplane will change almost instantly but the VSI
will lag. You also know the ALT will slow down, but you also know the airplane will
start to veer a bit right if you don’t apply some left rudder. So you should can from your
AI to the HI and ALT primarily, with a glance or two to the ASI to confirm it is starting
to rise and the VSI confirm it is starting to drop. Once the airspeed starts to rise you
MUST put is a “smidge” of nose down elevator trim or back pressure will develop in the
control wheel. At 40 feet below your altitude lower the nose to 1.5 nose-up (half again).
Continue to trim slowly as the airspeed builds and check the HI and TC to confirm you
are going straight. If you have done things correctly your airspeed should be getting quite
close to the desired cruise speed as you reach your altitude. If that is the case you can
lower the nose to zero pitch as you reach the altitude and the airplane will fly level
(remember that if your airspeed is below cruise you will need a slight nose up attitude to
stay level). Once your airspeed reaches the desired cruise speed set cruise power.
Remember that the reduction of power must be accompanies by a slight left rudder input,
so check the HI and TC as you reduce power. You should find this relatively easy to do if
the elevator trim is reasonably set, as encourage above. But if you have unwisely chosen
not trim the elevator before this point you will either find the nose “springing up” as you
check the HI or, your concentration of the pitch attitude to prevent the nose spring will
keep you from checking the HI and you will go off your heading.
To recap the above, you trim at least two of three times as the airspeed increases
from climb to cruise speed so that pressure on the wheel is light as you make the final
power adjustment upon reaching cruise speed. If you do things properly the nose goes
down in increments from climb attitude to zero as the airspeed increases.
The above describes what should be done. What is actually done in many cases is
more like: At 80 feet below the attitude is lowered all the way to zero – airspeed starts to
rise rapidly and since the pilot does not trim the back pressure is soon so great that the
nose “flies up” to more than the original climb attitude. The results is a “zoom” through
the assigned altitude and a desperate pilot reducing power and pushing forward to get
FTM/IPM FTM - 90
back to the assigned altitude. Don’t let this be you. Read the above and practice until you
can do it smoothly and accurately.
A final note should be made about an often-used technique, which is to purposely

overshoot the assigned cruise altitude when climbing and then descend back to cruise
altitude. For example if you are assigned to level off at 8,000 feet you actually level off at
8,100’, then leaving climb power on you “dive” back to 8,000’ and consequently
accelerate rapidly to, or even beyond cruise speed. Many pilots feel they can get the
airplane up to cruise speed faster this way. In some airplanes this technique works quite
well, in most airplanes it is a waste of time however. If only works if the CDp in climb is
substantially higher than in cruise (as for example with certain laminar flow wings).
Theory notwithstanding, we do not use this technique at Selkirk College. It is presented
here only to make you aware of alternative viewpoints that you may encounter after
graduation.
Partial Panel Instrument Flying

Read the section on partial panel flying in the Transport Canada Flight Training
Manual, pages 158 to 163.
“Partial panel” simply means flying with some instrument not working. It could
be any of the six primary instruments (ASI, AI, ALT, TC, HI, and VSI).
In the C-172 the HI and AI are both powered by vacuum from an engine driven
vacuum pump. These pumps fail fairly often so practicing flight with these two
instruments failed provides the greatest level of safety. In Selair’s Beech Travelairs the
AI is vacuum driven but two of the HIs are electric, while the third is vacuum driven. In
such a system failure of all the HIs is unlikely. The AI could however still fail so we
practice partial panel with no AI regularly.
The discussion below is specifically directed to flying with both the AI and HI
failed.
Recognizing Instrument Failure

Instruments can fail, or the power source that drives them can fail. If both the AI
and HI fail simultaneously we of course would suspect the power source. If only one fails
then the problem would likely be in the instrument itself.
Ideally the airplane would be equipped with a warning light or flag that would
advise the pilot that the power source has failed. GOSQ used to have a low vacuum
warning light, but it is now unserviceable. All our other C-172s have no warning light, so
it becomes the pilots’ responsibility to monitor the vacuum gauge in flight. It is highly
likely that if the vacuum pump failed you would not notice the gauge drop to zero until
the AI and HI began to operate incorrectly however. So, what indications will you get,
and what should you do?
When the AI looses power it slowly banks over and drops to a nose down attitude.
You have seen this “no power” indication every time you get in the airplane, before you
FTM/IPM FTM - 91
start the engine. In flight you will be tempted to follow the slumping instrument and put
the airplane in a spiral dive. If you follow the failing instrument then to you the attitude
indicator would look “normal”, but the airplane would actually be entering a spiral dive.
How will you know? Your altimeter and VSI will show a rapid descent developing, and
the airspeed will start to rise. The TC will also show a turn, even though the wings look
level on the AI. Psychologically you may feel that everything except the AI seems wrong.
When these indications arise you must immediately recognize an AI failure and switch to
a partial panel scan (as described in the Flight Training Manual pages 158 to 163).
AFTER you recover from the spiral dive you should check the vacuum gauge to
confirm it has dropped to zero. Once confirmed you should stop relying on the HI for
heading and start using the compass and timed turns (see below). If the vacuum gauge is
normal then perhaps only the AI has failed so you should check the HI against the
compass and use it with caution until you confirm that it is still working properly.
During flight training your instructor normally covers the AI and HI to simulate
partial panel. This eliminates the whole scenario above. However in the simulator we can
give you a more realistic failure and you may wish to practice it on your own by having
your partner spring an unannounced vacuum failure on you.
It is an excellent idea to cover the failed instruments because they will distract
your scan if you don’t. To cover the AI and HI take a piece of paper and fold it until it is
the right size to cover the two instruments. Poke a whole in the middle with your pen then
place it on the knob of the AI. (Note that Selair C-172s have an aluminum instrument
cover in the map box that works very well.)
Partial Panel Scan

Assuming that the only instruments available to us are the compass, ASI, ALT,
TC, and VSI we must devise a scan that keeps the airplane under control and allows us to
navigate from IMC conditions to a safe landing. As part of your Commercial Pilot
training you must show competence at cruising flight on partial panel and the ability to
make a timed turn to a chosen heading. But as part of your IFR flight test you may be
required to descend from cruise and conduct an entire IFR approach on partial panel. So
it is important that you develop the required skills. Regardless of flight test requirements
if you are on partial panel in IFR flight you are facing the task of completing an approach
with all the requisite speed and configuration changes, not to mention radio navigation
without the aid of the AI and HI.
Just as on full panel your scan must be selective. In full panel flying we
emphasize different instruments in our scan for cruise, climb, turns, etc. The same is true
for partial panel flying. The required selective scans are described quite well in the Flight
Training Manual – read them now. The information below expands on that information.
We will now start our discussion of partial panel scan by specifying what
information we get from the available instruments:
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Airspeed changes with climbs and descents
FTM/IPM FTM - 92
Altimeter (ALT) Altitude changes when power or pitch

attitude change
Vertical Speed (VSI) Vertical speed changes when power or
pitch attitude change
Turn Coordinator (TC) The turn coordinator deflects when the
airplane is turning. The airplane could be
yawing or could be in a coordinated turn
(i.e. banked.) We know it is coordinated
turn if the ball is centered.
Compass Gives us headings but is subject to turning
errors and acceleration errors.
Proxy for Attitude

Notice from the table above that we have NO INSTRUMENT that directly gives
us the airplanes attitude. To control the airplane we MUST know the attitude (and power)
therefore we need substitutes or “proxies” for the pitch and bank information that we
normally get from the attitude indicator. The following paragraphs explain what proxies
are available. Later we will discuss which ones we should select in a given situation.
If you leave the power constant then airspeed tends to decrease if you pitch nose
up and increase if you pitch nose down; this is the same phenomenon you experience
when driving your car up and down hills. Therefore airspeed is a “proxy” for pitch
attitude.
If you leave the power constant the airplane tends to climb if you pitch the nose
up and descend if your pitch the nose down. Therefore the ALT and VSI are proxies for
pitch also.
If you are banked the airplane turns unless it is slipping. Therefore, if we avoid
slipping the turn coordinator is a proxy for bank. It is important to remember that when
we make quick power and/or attitude changes such as starting a climb or descent that the
airplane tends to slip; therefore we may be “fooled” into thinking the airplane is banked if
we rely on the TC. It should be clear that using the TC as a proxy for bank will require
some finesse.
With all the above in mind you should read the descriptions of partial panel scan
for straight and level flight, climbing, descending and turns in the Flight Training Manual
(starting on page 158).
Timed Turns
The compass is the only heading indicator available when flying partial panel;
unfortunately it is very difficult to use due to turning errors and acceleration errors. Read
about compass errors starting on page 2-22 of the Transport Canada Instrument
Procedures Manual. We can only get an accurate heading indication if we are NOT
accelerated. Therefore all turns on partial panel must be timed using the turn coordinator.
FTM/IPM FTM - 93
In Selair airplanes we use the stopwatch built into the ADF for timing. To use the
stopwatch first set the ET mode by pushing the second button from the right until ET
appears. Then push the right button to start the stopwatch. To time a turn first determine
how many seconds you need to turn. When ready press the stopwatch just before rolling
into the turn. Continue to turn until the time is completely expired and then start to roll
out. The entry and exit of the turn will cancel each other if you roll at the same rate when
beginning and stopping the turn.
To calculate the amount of time required for a rate one turn you must know that a
rate one turn is defined as 360 in two minutes, which is why the words “2-minute” are
printed on the face of the instrument. This equals 3 of heading change per second. It is
more useful to memorize:
1 minute for 180 degrees

10 seconds for 30 degrees
3 (or 3.3) seconds for 10 degrees
7 seconds for 20 degrees
Whenever you are facing a timed turn break the turn into segments consisting of
the above 10, 30, and 180 degree segments. Use a handy reference such as the ADF or
OBS to help you do this. For example count out the number of 30-degree segments
(counting 10, 20, 30, 40) then add the number of 10-degree segments (counting either 3
or 7). The total is the time for the turn (with no complicated dividing required).
Unusual Attitude Recoveries

The Transport Canada Flight Training Manual gives a fairly good description of
unusual attitude recovery procedure starting on page 161. Please read it before reading
below.
There are three possible unusual attitude scenarios:
1. Nose up
2. Nose down
3. Spinning / stalled
The fact that the airplane is in an unusual attitude of some sort is usually first
indicated by a sense of disorientation. Typically the pilot has been distracted, perhaps
trying to find a pencil that fell on the floor, or refolding a map. When s/he looks back at
the instruments things are not as they should be. The situation could also be the result of
delayed recognition of a vacuum pump failure (discussed above), an autopilot
malfunction, a wake turbulence encounter, or any number of other situations that put the
airplane in an unusual attitude.
Once you realize you are in an unusual attitude the first instrument to check is the
ASI. It is the TREND of the ASI that you are checking (i.e. is it increasing or decreasing
and how fast is it changing). If it is “normal” i.e. steady at the speed you are supposed to
be at then you probably are not in an unusual attitude. Perhaps your AI has failed, and
FTM/IPM FTM - 94
that fooled you, or you have vertigo. Cross check the turn coordinator (TC) to confirm
you are flying straight and if you are, trust your instruments while you sort out the
situation.
When in an unusual attitude the ASI will be the first and most reliable instrument
to inform you. There are three possible indications:
Indication Interpretation
ASI decreasing Nose up attitude
ASI increasing Nose down attitude – spiral dive
ASI low and constant Stalled – possibly spinning.
The more rapid the rate of change of airspeed the more extreme the attitude is!
The T.C. Flight Training Manual explains how to recover from each of the above
situations (pages 161 to 163). Below are a few extra points to consider.
When you recover from a nose up attitude you should apply full power, push
forward on the control wheel and roll the wings level referring to the TC. You stop
pushing forward when the airspeed needle stops decreasing. It is important to think about
the trim of the airplane at that point. If the airspeed stops at a low speed you will be
flying level in a relatively nose high attitude. The airplane is most likely trimmed for
cruise however, so if you were to let go of the controls the nose would “flop down.”
Therefore you must anticipate that you will need a bit of backpressure, just after you
finish pushing forward on the controls. Failure to realize this is the most common reason
why people over control during this scenario.
When you recover from a spiral dive you pull ALL POWER OFF then roll the
wings level using the TC. You then pull back until the airspeed stops increasing.
Typically you are at a speed greater than cruise speed at that point and flying with no
power. Common sense tells you that the airplane will be in a modest descent at that point,
so you must then use the altimeter to level the airplane off by pulling back a bit more.
Failure to realize this is the reason many people under control in this scenario.
If the airspeed is low but constant you could have a failed ASI. If altitude and
heading (TC) are constant and VSI rate is normal suspect a partially blocked pitot tube.
(Turn on the pitot heat and check your copilot’s ASI if available.) When airspeed is low
and the airplane is losing altitude rapidly you are probably stalled. If the AI, TC, and HI
show rapid turning and rolling you are spinning. If not you are “mushing.” Mushing can
occur, especially in a large airplane, following a wind shear encounter on approach.
Execute the wind shear procedure from your POH. If the airplane is spinning execute the
spin recovery procedure (this is much more likely than mushing in a light airplane).
In your training you will have one or two opportunities to experience a spin under
the hood. Be sure to take the time to notice that the airspeed remains low throughout the
spin – i.e. it does not increase until you recover, even though the nose is very low in the
spin. Once you do recover the first indication is that the TC “snaps” off the stop – but
don’t expect it to perfectly center. Momentarily thereafter the airspeed starts to increase
FTM/IPM FTM - 95
rapidly. Once you see the airspeed increase you know you are no longer spinning so you
should release the rudder to neutral and recover from the dive, just as in the nose down
attitude recovery discussed above.
Loss of Control – Spatial Disorientation

Every year a number of pilots lose control of their airplanes and crash out of
control, often striking the ground in a near vertical attitude either spiraling or spinning. A
lot of these are non-instrument rated private pilots who flew into IMC conditions on VFR
flights, but sometimes even instrument rated pilots are involved in such accidents.
Sometimes the accidents result from a partial panel situation, but sometimes spatial-
disorientation is the cause. When spatial disorientation is the culprit the pilot actually puts
the airplane into the spin or spiral while attempting to control the airplane. For example a
pilot can become so panicked by a “falling” sensation s/he is experiencing that s/he pulls
back as hard as possible on the control column (subconsciously attempting to “hold the
airplane up”) and thereby stalls the airplane. A spin normally follows and the pilot, who
may realize that the airplane is descending toward the ground, pulls as hard as possible to
stop the descent thereby keeping the airplane in the spin until the airplane hits the ground.
Alternately the backpressure may tighten a steep spiral dive so much that the pilot blacks
out2. Either way the result is the same.
If you have never had vertigo you may not be able to believe that the above can
happen, but every pilot will get at least mild vertigo at some time or another. You must
however ensure that it never reaches the point of blind panic that causes you to pull the
airplane into a spin or a tight spiral. To avoid extreme vertigo avoid flying when ill, stay
well rested and practice IFR flight regularly. If you start to experience vertigo try to stay
relaxed. Engage autopilot if available. If not, then concentrate on the AI. Pay attention to
your body – control your breathing rate, and don’t let yourself tense up. Relax your grip
on the controls and keep the wings level with gentle smooth nudges (some people like to
use the rudder for this, but others find the yawing makes vertigo worse and prefer to use
the ailerons, but gently). Concentrate on keeping the wings level and try to let the
airplane natural stability work for you. As long as you keep the wings level the airplane
won’t dive rapidly toward the ground – so avoid large forceful control inputs. Most
importantly, trust the instruments. You may feel like you are in a turn when you are
actually flying straight – confirm you are straight with the TC and gently roll to level.
Most vertigo/spatial disorientation encounters can be ended without escalating

into an unusual attitude recovery if you take the advice given in the preceding paragraph.
If however you wind up in an unusual attitude follow the unusual attitude procedure
described above. Once you have “gross control” reestablished follow the advice in the
preceding paragraph until the vertigo clears or you get out of IMC conditions.
2
A distraction such as tuning radios, folding maps, etc frequently result in the airplane starting into a spiral
dive if not on autopilot. Pilots are supposed to roll the wings level before pulling out, but in a panic the
pilot may only pull.
FTM/IPM FTM - 96
25 – Night Flying
The night endorsement is a requirement of the commercial pilot license. You may
chose to obtain a night endorsement during the summer break between first and second
year. Doing so is an excellent idea because it provides you with 10 hours of deductible
flight training in what might otherwise be a four month period with no flying and if you
have your night flying completed you will graduate several days earlier in the Spring of
second year.
The legal requirement for the night endorsement can be found in CAR 421.42. Be
sure to read and understand al the requirements. Note that you require 10 hours of dual
instrument time and that 5 hours of simulator time can be counted – but only if you
increase the total night time to compensate. In most cases you will have 10 hours of dual
instrument time in airplanes by the end of first year so it should not be necessary to count
your simulator (Frasca) time when applying for a night endorsement. Be sure to have
your logbook certified before leaving for summer vacation in order to prevent any delays
in having your night endorsement issued.
VFR Night Flying - CAR 605.16

Read CAR 605.16 and understand the equipment that you must legally have
operating on your airplane for night VFR flight. All Selair airplanes have the required
equipment but it could become unserviceable. If any required equipment is not working
you must not fly at night.
In addition to the above CAR be sure to read CAR 602.60, which among other
things specifies the need for a flashlight when night flying. Note that there is no legal
standard for the type of flashlight you use, but to be of value in the cockpit it needs to be
fairly small so you can wield it easily. The ideal flashlight has a variable intensity light so
that you can dim it when you only need a little light to read a checklist, etc. You may like
to have a larger, brighter, flashlight for conducting the preflight inspection.
Airport Lighting
Your Flight Training Manual gives an extremely short overview of airport
lighting systems. Learning the various light systems, what they look like and how to use
them is one of the most important tasks you must undertake when learning to fly at night.
You must know the color and operation of:
1. Runway edge and threshold lights

2. Airport rotating beacon
3. Approach lights
4. RILS
5. Taxiway lights
6. Taxiway entrance lights
7. Apron entrance lights
8. Obstruction lights
FTM/IPM FTM - 97
All the information about the above lights is found in your AIM section AGA 7.0.
You must read and understand all the information in AGA 7.0, it is NOT repeated here.
The information that follows supplements the information in your AIM.
You must also read the information on “Lighting” in the general section of your
CFS. Become familiar with how the various lighting systems are indicated in the
Aerodrome Facility Directory and learn where to find information such as how to use
ARCAL (these points are covered below).
Runway edge and threshold lights

CAR 301.07 specifies the minimum lighting required for night operations. You
must read this CAR and understand it. Also AGA 7.8.1 in your AIM
One thing not mentioned in the CAR is that the white lights along the edge of the
runway do not need to be of equal intensity in all directions. You will discover when you
go night flying that the lights are much brighter when on final than when viewed from the
side, such as on downwind. As a result it can be quite difficult to see the runway as you
approach the airport, unless you happen to be making a straight in approach. As a result
most airports have a rotating beacon, which we will discuss next. It is also MUCH easier
to see the approach lights than the runway lights, if the airport is so equipped. We discuss
approach lights below.
There are also runway threshold lights at the beginning and end of each night
runway (see AGA 7.8.2 and 7.8.3 in your AIM). These lights are green on one side and
red on the other so that on approach the closest threshold lights appear green and the
departure end lights appear red. They are also directional, so they are more easily seen
once on final than when viewing from downwind.
In the CFS the lighting available is indicated for each airport. As an example, for
Abbotsford the CFS reads:
Lighting 01-AS(TE ME) P2, 07-AN(TE HI), 19-AD(TE ME)P2, 25-AO(TE HI)P2
As mentioned above, you should read about lighting in the general section of the
CFS to learn to interpret these codes fully.
In Abbotsford runway 01 has AS type approach lights (discussed below) it also

has TE (threshold lights), which are the green lights at the threshold and red lights at the
departure end (see AIM – AGA 7.8.2 and 7.9.) It also has ME, which means medium
intensity runway edge lights. Medium intensity edge lights can be adjusted to three
different brightness levels. Normally the tower sets them to level 1, but you can ask to
have them turned up to 2 or 3. Notice that runway 07 and 25 have HI, which means high
intensity runway edge lights; these have seven intensity levels. The tower normally sets
them on level 1, so they look just like the lights on runway 01, but you can ask to have
them turned up. At level 7 they are dazzlingly bright – far too bright to land with. But
very useful if you get lost and can’t see the airport.
FTM/IPM FTM - 98
Now look up the lighting for Chilliwack in your CFS. Note that it has ME runway
edge lights. Normally the airport manager sets them to level 1, and there is no way to
change them from the air (see discussion below about changing light intensity).
While you have your CFS open to Chilliwack look at Chinchaga (the next
airport). It has LO runway edge lights, which means they only have one setting. Note that
they will look just like Chilliwack’s or Abbotsford’s lights, set to level 1.
Airport Beacon
Most airports have an airport beacon,
see AIM AGA 7.2 for details. The picture to
the left shows a typical beacon, which rotates
so that the light flashes at between 20 and 30
times per minute.
The beacon is supposed to make it

easier to see the airport at night, and they do
help. But in an urban area the beacon is often
washed out by surround lights from buildings,
roads, etc. Don’t count on being able to see it.
Spend some time reviewing the map before
setting off on a night cross-country to make
sure you know where the airport will be
relative to the town and major highways.
Windsock Lighting
At night lit airports often a floodlight is setup to shine on the windsock so you
can “supposedly” see it. You need pretty good eyes to make out the windsock in the dark
from 1,000 feet up. So it is imperative that you recheck the windsock on short final when
you will be much better able to see it. You should do this on daytime landings anyway, so
you are encouraged to get in the habit if haven’t yet done so, that way night flying won’t
require you to develop a new procedure. Windsock locations are described your AIM
AGA 5.9.
The surest way to find out the wind at night is over the radio. If FSS or tower is
available they will tell you of course. Some airports have automated systems you can
tune in and listen to. The frequency should be listed in the CFS.
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Approach Slope Indicator Lights

You should already be familiar with VASI and PAPI systems from your daytime
flying. At night (and in IFR) these systems are much more important as a safety feature
than in day VFR flight.
Normally a PAPI or VASI provides guaranteed terrain clearance for the last 4NM
of a final approach. In other words if you are on the PAPI you are guaranteed not to hit
anything in the last three miles. If you follow the PAPI in from many miles out there is
NO guarantee. Read all the details about approach slope indicators in AIM AGA 7.6.
At some airports the PAPI is clear for less than 4NM and this should be indicated
in the CFS, for example lookup the lighting in Kelowna, how far does the PAPI
protection extend at that airport? How would you allow for that if making a straight in
landing on runway 15 starting from 10 miles north?
Approach Lights
Approach lights are normally installed to assist IFR pilots in acquiring the
necessary visual reference for a safe descent from MDA or DH to landing. When
available they are very helpful to the VFR pilot, especially at night.
It can be quite difficult to see runway edge lights, as mentioned above, but
approach lights stand out so you will usually be able to see them when inbound to the
airport. But it is very helpful if you know what you are looking for. Therefore, as part of
your preflight preparations always note what type of approach lights the airport has and
lookup in your CFS, AIM, or CAP GEN what they are going to look like.
Using the Abbotsford example above note that runway 01 has AS lights (also
known as RILS), which are not really approach lights at all; they are just two strobes at
the corner of the runway threshold. Lookup Castlegar in your CFS and note that runway
15 has the same system (so you know what that is going to look like).
Runway 07 in Abbotsford has AN approach lights (also known as SSALR or

HIAL). Read your AIM AGA 7.5.2 and note that this type of lighting is installed on
runways with precision approaches (ILS).
Runway 25 in Abbotsford has a simple AO lighting system. This system is also

known as ODALS, it is described in your AIM AGA 7.5.1. Note that your AIM mentions
that such lighting systems are normally on non-precision runways, i.e. runways that do
not have ILS approaches.
Runway 19 is the most used runway in Abbotsford and it has AD lights. These are
described in AIM, AGA 7.5.1(a). Make sure you know what they look like, or the first
time you arrive at the airport in the dark you may have trouble seeing the runway.
Now lookup Chilliwack in your CFS; does it have any approach lights?
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Other Airport Lighting

After you graduate and begin working as an IFR pilot many other types of airport
lighting will become important to you; centerline lighting, rapid exit taxiway lighting,
etc. All these are described in AGA 7.0. Read this material and expect to be examined on
it. More importantly try to visualize how the different lighting systems will allow you to
stay oriented after landing in very low visibility, whether by day or by night, VFR or IFR.
Variable Lighting Intensity

Many of the lights at an airport can be set to different intensity levels. Having the
lights turned up to maximum intensity can be VERY useful in locating an airport within a
sea of other lights. It can even be quite helpful during a daylight IFR approach in foggy
conditions or when landing into the sun. Usually the procedure is to ask the tower or
AAS personnel to change the light intensity. By default they set them to the lowest
setting to save electricity.
Don’t attempt to land at night with the runway lights at maximum intensity, they
will be too bright and will blind you. Only request high intensity until you get the runway
in sight and also perhaps while circling. Then request the lights be turned back down for
landing.
At some airports the intensity of the lights is controlled through the ARCAL
system. We discuss ARCAL below.
At small airports (Chilliwack as an example) where no ARCAL is provided and

no one is available on the ground to adjust the light intensity, you will have to make do
with whatever intensity setting the airport operator has set. If you know you need a
different intensity be sure to specify that when calling to ask/confirm the night lighting
will be on prior to your flight.
Will the Lights Be On?

If the airport has ARCAL, or there is a tower or AAS operating you can be
assured of getting the lights on – baring failure of your radios.
At many other airports the operator only turns the lights on if someone calls
during the day, to ask that they be left on. Remember you will need to speak to the airport
manager who may well go home at 5pm, so don’t assume you can call at 10pm to ask for
the lights to be turned on. In some cases the specific instructions are listed in the CFS, but
not always. If in doubt contact the airport operator before the flight. Nothing could be
worse than to arrive at your destination with minimum fuel only to discover the lights are
not on and there is no way to turn them on. Remember that the same thing could happen
to you if you are relying on ARCAL and have a com radio failure. You need a backup
plan – at a minimum two radios, and preferably an alternate airport where the lights are
always on.
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ARCAL
At airports with a control tower or AAS ground personnel turn on lights manually
when pilots request them.
Some airports leave the lights on all night – this is convenient but wastes
electricity.
Some airports provide a pilot controlled system called ARCAL (Aircraft Radio
Control of Airport Lighting). There are two type of ARCAL knows as Type-J and Type-
K. These are fully explained in your CFS general section. Be sure to read and understand
how they work because you will be using them.
Lookup Boundary Bay in your CFS. Under lighting note that it has ARCAL type
K, when the tower is closed. Look in the general section of the CFS to see that type K
ARCAL can be used to change the intensity setting of the lights through three settings
(low, medium, and high). Make sure you know how to do it. Note that type K ARCAL
turns on the lights for ALL runways.
While you are looking at Boundary Bay note the non-standard lengths of the
approach lights.
Now lookup Pitt Meadows lighting; it has a non-standard ARCAL, i.e. it is not
type K or type J. The specific instructions are in the CFS – they allow you to choose
which runway lights to turn on (most ARCAL systems turn ALL lights on) but do not
allow you to change light intensity.
Lookup Oliver’s light system; it has a type-J ARCAL, which means that it turns
the lights on but does not vary the intensity. Read about this in the general section of your
CFS. What type of runway edge lights do they have in Oliver? Does that explain why it
has a type-J ARCAL?
Aircraft Lights
Spend a few minutes learning how to operate the cockpit night-lights for the C-
172 during the daylight. You need to know how to operate:
Panel lights
Map light
Nav lights and strobes
Beacon
Dome light
Taxi and landing lights
Courtesy lights
Tip: Memorize the location of all the switches because you won’t be able to read
the labels and night and if you need to turn you strobes, or pulse light on or off you don’t
want to be fumbling for you flashlight first.
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Read the “Lighting System” part of section 7 in your C-172P POH.
Panel Lights
The rheostat switch has an inner an outer knob. The outer knob controls the
brightness of the panel lights, the inner knob controls the brightness of the backlighting
for the audio panel, transponder, oil pressure gauge, and fuel gauges.
On GSPA, GSPQ and GOSQ the panel light consists of a single red flood light on
the overhead panel. As you rotate the outer ring of the rheostat the light gets brighter or
dimmer. The same rheostat also controls the brightness of the map light.
Red floodlights were once thought to be the best option for panel lighting because
they have the least detrimental effect on night vision adaptation. Unfortunately they
distort the color scheme on maps and make any red makings on maps (e.g. roads)
impossible to see. Most modern airplanes use white panel lights. Our C-172s however
have red panel lights.
Note: the white backlighting for the fuel and oil pressure gauges is impossible to
see in the daylight. The only way to know it is working is to test it during darkness.
On GSPY and GSPD the panel is equipped with post lights (white). Post lights are
individual lights that shine directly on each instrument. They provide much more light
than the flood light system described above. GSPY and GSPD also have the red
floodlight described above. There is a switch on the overhead panel, in front of the dome
light, with which you can select flood, post, or both. Normally you would leave this
switch in the both position. If you set it to flood then the lighting becomes the same as in
GSPA, GSPQ, and GOSQ. Be sure you know where this switch is and how to use it.
During day operations it is a good idea to set this switch to flood so that inadvertent
activation of the rheostat does not “waste” the post-lights (they are nearly impossible to
see in daylight).
If a post-light is not working it can be pulled out – no twisting is required just pull
it straight out. It can then be exchanged with another light from a less needed location. Be
sure to write-up the defect so that it can be repaired for the next night flight.
Map Light
There is a map-light on the left doorpost. A switch on the doorpost below the light
can be set to red, white, or off. This light is very useful for reading maps and checklists in
flight. It is preferable to using the dome-light for that purpose.
The brightness of the map-light is controlled with the outer knob of the panel light
rheostat switch. In other words the brightness of the map lights varies as you change the
brightness of the panel lights
TIP: If the backlighting for the fuel or oil pressure gauges is not working direct
the map-light toward these gauges, set it to red and adjust the intensity with the rheostat
as needed to make the gauges readable.
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Nav and Strobe Lights

Nav lights should be turned on immediately after starting the engine(s). If the
apron is very dark you might even consider turning the nav-lights on before starting the
engine. The reason is to prevent a pedestrian from walking into your airplane (propeller)
in the dark.
Strobes should NOT be turned on until ready for takeoff. Avoid flashing the
strobes while other airplanes are on final approach or in the eyes of other pilots during
ground operations. Read AIM AIR 4.6.
Get to know which switch is for the nav-lights and strobes by memory because
reading the switch labels in the dark is nearly impossible and you don’t want to have to
break out your flashlight just to read the labels. (Remember that if you inadvertently fly
into a cloud you are going to need to turn the strobe lights off quickly to prevent
disorientation, so you need to know which switch that is).
Beacon
Standard Selair practice is to leave the beacon switched on all the time. At night it
may be the only visible sign to passersby that the engine is about to start. Get to know
which switch is the beacon by memory because reading the labels in the dark is nearly
impossible.
TIP: In some airplanes (not Selair airplanes) the beacon is a white light, which if
it flashes on the wings (low wing airplanes) is very distracting. Selair airplanes don’t
have this problem but if you encounter one in the future speak to your employer about
changing to a red beacon to avoid this problem.
Taxi and Landing Lights

Among Selair airplanes only GSPY has both taxi and landing lights; all our other
C-172s have only a landing light, which is also used for taxiing.
You should NOT taxi at night without a light any more than you would drive your
car at night without headlights. Having said that you don’t want to blind other nearby
pilots by shining your landing (taxi) light in their eyes any more than you keep your high
beams in other drivers’ eyes. Therefore, if the ramp area is well lit, and other people are
about, consider leaving the landing/taxi light off until you have turned away from the
apron area.
On GSPY the difference between taxi and landing light is like high and low
beams in a car; the taxi light is aimed lower. Make sure you know which switch is which
without the need to read the labels. When landing there is nothing wrong with turning on
both switches if you so desire.
Dome and Courtesy Lights

The dome and courtesy lights are for ease of passenger loading and deplaning.
The dome-light is in the overhead panel and there is a courtesy light under each wing. A
FTM/IPM FTM - 104

single switch labeled “dome” on the overhead panel turns all three lights on. There is no
rheostat – they are simply on or off.
In GSPY and GSPD you need to learn which switch is for the dome light and
which is the post-flood-both switch. Learn this in the daylight because it is impossible to
read the labels in the dark.
Avoid use of the dome light to read checklists and maps in flight because it is too
bright and it will spoil your night vision adaptation. Use the map-light or a dimmed
flashlight instead.
Mental Alertness at Night

Flying at night is really quite easy except for one problem. You have to do it at
night.
Many night flying accidents are the result of the pilot falling asleep at the
controls, or being so tired that a judgment error is made. You must evaluate your physical
preparation for all flights. If you are too tired then don’t fly. Only you know your mental
and physical state, although others may see signs (excessive yawning, dozing off, etc.)
and should speak up. If others warn you that you seem tired don’t ignore it. One of the
symptoms of being too tired to safely fly is complacency.
Be especially alert for danger if your flight extends past midnight. Most people
are unaccustomed to staying up that late. Be extra vigilant if you are not accustomed to
being awake during these hours. If you have a job that involves regular flying into the
small hours of the morning you must arrange your life to accommodate that by sleeping
during the day and adjusting the time you take your meals. If you do this properly you
can be perfectly safe flying all night. A real danger arises when you are not accustomed
to this type of operation and are called upon to make a long night flight after a full day
awake and a large supper. Remember that in the hours after a meal your body becomes
drowsy as it digests the food.
Don’t count on a stiff coffee to keep you awake either. It will wear off, and too
much coffee will have you looking for a non-existent urinal in flight. If you feel the need
for coffee or other stimulants to keep you awake you are not fit to fly.
If you start to become drowsy during a night flight cut the trip short. In the case of
your flying at Selair – return to CYXX, land and call it a night. There is never any
pressure to complete a flight. You can always go up again another night when you are
alert and will enjoy the flight all the more.
Night Vision Adaptation

The diagram below shows a cross-section of the human eye:
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Before discussing night adaptation specifically we must review the basics of how
human vision works.
Light enters the eye through the pupil and is focused by the lens onto the retina.
The retina is the interior coating of the eye and is located along the sides and at the back.
Within the retina there are two types of light sensitive receptor cells known as:
1. Cones
2. Rods
The cones and rods are stimulated by light. The cones are specialized for color
vision and permit us to see fine / sharp detail. They are stimulated only by bright light;
that is why you cannot see color by moonlight. The cones are concentrated in the center
of the retina in the area known as the fovea (see diagram above). The fovea is in the
center of the retina along the axis of the eye.
There are cones only (no rods) in the fovea. This section of the retina captures a
1 arc of vision. Surrounding the fovea the concentration of cones diminishes in
concentric circles such that beyond a 10 arc of vision there are no cones, only rods.
Beyond the small central region only rods populate the retina. Rods are sensitive
to shades of dark and light; they permit us to detect shapes and movement. They do NOT
see color, and they provide much less sharp vision.
One cone can activate the optic nerve but rods are grouped together with many
rods activating a single ganglion within the optic nerve. This explains why rods require
less light to activate; it also explains why vision is much less sharp in this part of the
retina.
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The “First” Blind Spot

At the spot on each retina where the optic nerve connects there are no rods or
cones. As a result there is a blind spot. You normally don’t notice this because the field
of vision of your two eyes overlaps and the other eye compensates for the blind spot.
There is a second blind spot that applies only to night flying. This one is more
serious and requires effort to overcome since both eyes have the same blind spot and so
cannot compensate for each other. To understand this blind spot we must review the field
of vision and the nature of the fovea.
Field of Vision
Each eye has a field of vision approximately 160 wide and 135 vertically, see
diagrams below:
The fovea sees only the 1 arc at the center of vision. A 1 arc can be simulated
by taping a quarter to the window and standing back 4.5 feet; close one eye and look at
the quarter. You are seeing it entirely with the fovea; i.e. with cones and no rods. The
quarter will be seen with good sharpness.
The area immediately surrounding the quarter, up to a 10 arc, is seen with some
cones and so is reasonably sharp. Beyond the 10 arc, which is only a fraction of your
FTM/IPM FTM - 107

entire field of vision, you are seeing entirely with rods. Objects in this area are only 1/10
as distinct.
For daytime flying pilots should make an effort to turn their heads from side to
side and scan up and down to spot traffic within the fovea, or at least the small area
around it where cones predominate. It is ten times easier to see an airplane within the
fovea than with peripheral vision – IF lighting is good. (Note: all peripheral vision is
with rods).
At night the opposite situation applies. The fovea becomes a second blind spot.
Since the cones in the fovea require light 10 times as bright to activate as rods any dimly
lit object directly along your axis of vision and within the 1 foveal field will not be
visible.
At below the equivalent of ½ moonlight there are two blind spots. To compensate
for the foveal blind spot you must train yourself to turn your head slightly (4 to 12 ) off
center from an object. It will then be visible, as it will be seen with the rods. This
technique is called off-center vision and can be developed with practice.
Night Adaptation
The rods contain a substance called rhodopsin (visual purple) that darkens in
bright light to protect the rods from too much light. In effect rhodopsin is a built in pair of
sunglasses for the rods in your eyes to keep them from being fried by bright lights. Once
the rhodopsin darkens your ability to see in low light is substantially diminished.
When you enter a dark room, or step out into the darkness to go flying, the
rhodopsin pigment in your eyes begins to lighten. Unfortunately it takes 30 to 60 minutes
for all the pigmentation to disappear. We call this “night adaptation.” During the
adaptation period your night vision is substantially less than after you are fully adapted.
Objects that are difficult to see at first will gradually become easy to see. You will find
that you can turn down the panel light rheostat because the lights seem to become
brighter.
Obviously you should attempt to night adapt your eyes BEFORE you go night
flying so you don’t spend the first 30 minutes unable to see properly. Try to stay out of
brightly lit areas, especially white light areas while flight planning and performing the
walk around. Consider wearing your sunglasses while flight planning. Don’t test your
flashlight by shining it in your eyes.
Avoid destroying your night adaptation by shining a flashlight, dome light, or

other bright light in your eyes, either before or during a flight. Remember that while it
takes 30 to 60 minutes to night-adapt you will lose the adaptation in a few seconds of
bright light.
Altitude Effect on Night Vision

To function properly your brain requires considerably more oxygen than any
other part of your body. Your eyes are just an extension of your brain, so vision is much
FTM/IPM FTM - 108

more affected by high altitude (where there is less oxygen) than are other aspects of your
physiology.
In second year you will go on a field trip to Fairchild AFB where you will
experience hypoxia in an altitude chamber. An additional demonstration will be to have
you take off your oxygen mask at 18,000’ and look at an image. You will then put on the
mask and you will “swear” that someone just turned the lights on. In reality it is just your
eyes becoming much more able to process light with sufficient oxygen supply.
Another effect of altitude is on ability to focus on objects nearby. Everyone has

increasing difficulty with near vision as they get older, but at night the extra ocular
muscles that control the lens weakens, as a result objects nearby, such as your approach
plate, become harder to focus on. When you are young you may not notice this effect, but
as you reach middle age it will become a factor.
As a result of the above considerations it is recommended that when flying at

night you use oxygen at lower altitudes than those mandated by regulation. There is no
legal requirement, but prudence dictates the use of oxygen for night flying even below
10,000 feet. Some experts recommend using oxygen for night flying at 5,000’ ASL or
above.
Spotting Traffic and Checkpoints at Night

It is much easier to see other airplanes at night (unless they turn their lights off) so
spotting traffic is usually much easier at night. Make sure you know which side has the
red light and which side has the green light so you can tell at a glance which way the
airplane is heading.
When looking for checkpoints on cross-countries things are very different at

night. Some things are quite easy to see, such as towns with all their lights, or highly
traveled highways where the string of headlights will stand out. But less traveled roads,
railway tracks, and rivers will completely disappear at night. So, give careful
consideration when flight planning as to what checkpoints you will look for. Common
sense will usually tell you which ones will be visible in the dark and which ones won’t.
During the day it is quite hard to see towers, but at night the hazard beacons make
them stand out.
Distance Judgment, Auto-kinetic Effect & Collision Courses

At night brightly lit objects look closer than they really are. A town that is 20
miles away may seem only 5 miles away to you. This contributes to the CFIT accidents
described below.
A stationary and solitary light will appear to move if you stare at it. This is known
as the auto-kinetic effect. It usually isn’t a big deal in night flying because there are
multiple lights. But if you are flying in a black hole environment (described below) with
only a single collision light visible (one other airplane, an anti-collision beacon on a
tower, etc.) it may seem to start moving to you. You might begin to think your airplane is
FTM/IPM FTM - 109

out of control and in your effort to “correct” put yourself out of control. Psychologists
have determined that the illusion can be exaggerated if another person (e.g. your copilot)
is responding to the illusion at the same time – the illusion is powerful so you need to be
aware of it. To compensate you must take your eyes off the light – refocus on the
instrument panel and the illusion should go away. NEVER attempt to control your
airplane’s attitude by reference to a single light source viewed through the window.
In the day or at night an object on a collision course with you does NOT move in
the window. Therefore, any stationary light in the sky is on a collision course with you
(unless it’s a star)!! Take evasive action, because you may easily be misjudging the
distance to the object.
At a distance an airplanes’ nav lights, and beacon will seem as one, they will
become distinguishable as it gets closer. Your mind will judge distance to the object
based on a subconscious “calculation” of the size of the airplane. If you think it is a B747
but it is actually a C-150 your mind is going to think it is a lot further away than it really
is.
Keep in mind that very few mid-air collisions happen head on. Most happen with
airplanes on converging courses or when one airplane overtakes another. If you are
overtaking an airplane the only light you may see is the single white nav light, and
perhaps the beacon, which will be so close to the nav-light that you can’t distinguish
them. You could very easily misjudge the distance because your brain has no means of
developing perspective in this situation. You could think the light is miles away when it
is actually only feet away. Be on guard.
When an airplane is on intersecting trajectory with you the distance between left
and right nav-lights will be foreshortened by perspective, so your judgment of distance
may be impaired in this situation also. The airplane will appear to you as further away
than it really is.
The Black Hole Effect and CFIT

In most of the lower mainland of B.C. there are so many houses that the ground is
a sea of lights. When flying VFR at night in that area you won’t have any trouble telling
where the ground ends and the sky begins. If you venture out over the Straight of Georgia
that is a different matter. In 1999 a DC-3 flying VFR from CYVR to CYYJ crashed into a
mountain on Mayne island – the pilot couldn’t see it in the dark. This accident is
classified as a CFIT (controlled flight into terrain). This sort of thing happens much too
often in night VFR. We pilots are entirely responsible for these types of accidents – we
can’t blame maintenance, aircraft manufacturers, or anyone else. I know you are thinking
that you will never do this, but you must do more than just say that you won’t, you must
develop procedures (SOPs) that prevent this type of accident and then ALWAYS follow
them.
In northern Canada, or the prairies, often the only light for many miles around is
the runway-lights. In this situation we say the airport is surrounded by (or in) a black
FTM/IPM FTM - 110

hole. The black hole illusion is increased if the sky is overcast, eliminating all stars and
the moon from view.
The black hole illusion is very dangerous – potentially fatal. Your ability to judge
your altitude completely disappears and many pilots have crashed by flying into the
ground. These pilots simply lost track of their altitude and struck the ground –
undoubtedly believing that they were at a safe altitude the whole time. Our ability to
perceive a natural horizon becomes impaired at night, especially in sparsely populated
areas, even when visibility is good. When flying in these conditions we must supplement
our visual judgment with basic instrument techniques – i.e. we need to think in terms of
safe MEAs just as we do when flying IFR and keep our eyes on the attitude indicator.
One common CFIT at night scenario involves a pilot taking off then flying into
trees or other obstacles, sometimes well beyond the end of the runway. Often accident
investigators find airplanes have struck trees at less than 100’ agl and more than one mile
past the departure end of the runway. Obviously the airplane is capable of clearing these
obstacles, but the pilot fails to realize the airplane is not climbing at the normal angle and
is surprised by the loud banging noises just before his/her life ends (see takeoff at night
below). The CFIT just after takeoff may be even more likely if the pilot’s night vision is
not fully adapted (see above) and the tree is in his/her blind spot (see above).
CFIT accidents occur enroute as well as on takeoff and landing, for example the
Mayne island crash mentioned above. To avoid these you must always know the safe
enroute altitude and stay well above it. All VNC charts have maximum elevation figures
(MEF) and it is recommended that you stay 2,000’ above those when enroute. This is
absolutely necessary when the ground is not inhabited, and therefore not lit. Much of
Canada falls into this category.
The simplest way to avoid a CFIT accident at night is to fly IFR and do an
instrument approach even if the weather is VFR. Doing this assures terrain clearance, but
many pilots are reluctant to spend the extra time the IFR procedure requires – and some
airports don’t have IFR approach procedures.
If you are unable or unwilling to make an IFR approach at your destination you
will need to work out a VFR descent plan that keeps you safe. This is particularly critical
if the airport is in a black hole. We discuss night landings below.
Takeoff At Night
Read the section on night takeoffs in your Flight Training Manual. It tells you
most of what you need to know.
Many CFIT accidents occur just after takeoff at night due to a somatogravic
illusion knows as the “pitch-up illusion.” As the airplane accelerates your mind
subconsciously combines the acceleration force with gravity causing you to
subconsciously believe the nose is being pitched up. As a result you tend to keep the nose
lower than it should be. If you can see the horizon clearly, as during the day or when the
ground is well lit at night, your vision overrides this illusion and you climb out safely.
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But when there is a black hole effect off the departure end of the runway the only way to
protect yourself is to refer to your instruments. Check the AI, ASI, and VSI as you climb
out and make sure you climb to a safe altitude on your ALT before leveling off.
Inadvertent Encounter With IMC at Night

During the day it is easy to see clouds, and as VFR pilots we avoid them. But at
night you can’t usually see clouds so you may be startled when suddenly all the ground
lights disappear and your strobes start reflecting back at you – and you realize you have
just flown into a cloud.
As an IFR trained pilot you should be fine – just don’t panic. Turn the strobes and
pulse light off (you do know which switches they are without needing to read the labels –
right)! Then make a 180-degree turn and fly back out of the cloud. It is safer to make a
180 rather than descend.
Be alert for ground fog formation at night. You may be in good VFR conditions at
altitude but radiation fog may be forming at ground level that will make a safe landing
impossible. Sometimes you can tell this is happening when you see a halo form around
ground lights. Sometimes it may catch you completely by surprise – your first clue being
when the runway disappears at 10’ agl, just as you are about to flare for landing. If that
happens apply full power, overshoot, and go to your alternate (good thing you always
have one – even on VFR night flights, right?).
Always make extra weather checks on extended night cross-countries. Many

pilots refuse to fly extended VFR night cross-countries and we certainly agree that if you
are able to go IFR that is much safer. Night VFR in anything less than excellent weather
is asking for trouble, and if you do it often trouble will find you.
Landing at Night
Read the section about night landings in your Flight Training Manual. It gives you
all the basic tips you need to make good night landings under normal circumstances.
Once you have had a small amount of practice you will find landing at night is no
big deal. In many ways it is easier because calm winds and smooth air is more common at
night – although not guaranteed. The real danger in landing at night is the CFIT type
accident, which is much more likely in unpopulated areas where the airport is in a black
hole. If there are no surface lights between you and the runway you are by definition in a
black hole and you should be VERY nervous.
In 1991 a Canadian Air Force C-130 struck the ground on a clear night 10 miles
short of the runway at Alert NWT. This is typical of night-landing CFIT accidents. There
is something in our visual judgment that causes humans to misjudge altitude in black
holes. You can’t change your physiology, nor can you compensate for this illusion. The
only thing that will save you is to observe the altimeter and correlate it with distance to
the airport. In the Alert crash just mentioned we know that at 10 miles from the airport
the airplane should have been at least 3,300’ agl. The only thing the pilots needed to do
FTM/IPM FTM - 112

was watch the altimeter, but instead both pilots were looking out the window at the
runway lights, which they could see clearly.
When a black hole situation exists: If there is an IFR approach available use it. If
not, consider maintaining MEA all the way to the airport then descend in the circuit. If
you insist on a descending prior to reaching the airport at least know the safe attitudes
and check them all the way in (as described above – use the 1,000’ for 3NM rule). Never
make a straight in approach unless you have accurate distance information from a GPS,
DME or similar. In the absence of this information the only safe thing to do at a black
hole airport is arrive overhead at a safe altitude and descend into the circuit from there.
The extra two minutes will save you an eternity.
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28 – Type Conversion
Using a Constant Speed Propeller
Your first introduction to the constant speed propeller will be in the simulator.
Using the constant speed propeller is the aviation equivalent of learning to drive a manual
transmission car. A fixed pitch propeller is like driving a car with only one gear.
If you have driven a car with a clutch you know that you can’t drive around a
parking lot in fifth gear. The car bogs down, the rpms are too low – it just doesn’t work.
Even more you know that if you drive up a hill you must shift to a lower gear (if you
drive an automatic you probably notice the transmission switching to a lower gear
automatically). The engine produces more power when you shift to a lower gear, i.e. the
rpms increase.
All the above is also true of your airplane.
In the airplane you have two controls – an rpm control (blue knob) and a throttle
(black knob). These are roughly equivalent to the gearshift and gas pedal of a car.
To change power you must change both of these levers. And, just as in you car it
DOES matter which one you move first. When increasing power always increase the rpm
first, and then increase the throttle. But, when reducing power always reduce the throttle
first, and then reduce the rpms.
Power settings are always expressed as two numbers. For example in the B-95 the
following power setting will be approximately correct:
Cruise 23 x 2400
Hold 18 x 2400
Circuit 18 x 2500
Climb 25 x 2500
Takeoff power 30 x 2700
The first number is the manifold pressure, and it is set with the throttle. The
second number is the rpm, and it is set with the prop control (blue knob).
Let’s say you are at takeoff power and wish to set climb power. According to the
rules above you would reduce the throttle to 25 and then AFTER THAT reduce the rpm
to 2,500.
Let’s say you are in a hold (19 x 2,100) and wish to set cruise power. According
to the rules above you would first increase the rpm to 2,400 and then AFTER THAT
increase the manifold pressure to 23.
A “saying” many pilots find helpful to remember the sequence is “Rev up –

throttle down.”
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Multi Engine Flying

Multi-engine Takeoff Considerations
In this section we discuss how engine failure at various points during a takeoff
should be handled. The pilot must know when to continue and when to reject.
A safe takeoff starts with proper preflight calculations. We need to know:
1. Normal takeoff distance

2. Accelerate-go distance (AGD, the distance to reach a safe altitude after Vgo with
one engine only)
3. Accelerate-stop distance (ASD, the distance to accelerate to Vgo then stop)
The POH will tell us what speed to rotate at (Vr). In ALL cases Vr should be
above Vmc and Vs.
The diagram above shows that for most light twins Vmc is higher than stall speed,
Vs. Note that for a few very low powered twins Vmc is lower than Vs. In that case Vr
must be more than Vs. For the Travelair Vmc is 71 and we normally rotate at 74 KIAS.
Vgo – The Decision Speed

Transport category airplanes have a takeoff decision speed known as V1. The V1
concept will be discussed in detail in Avia 240. For light airplanes we define a decision
speed known as Vgo. Vgo is the speed at which the takeoff should be continued if an
engine fails. If the engine fails before Vgo the pilot MUST reject the takeoff. It is called
the decision speed because we DECIDE in advance to reject the takeoff if below Vgo and
continue the takeoff if at or above Vgo.
In transport category airplanes the POH will contain charts that the pilot uses to
lookup the V1 speed at a given weight and density altitude. There will also be charts that
give the accelerate-go distance (AGD) and the accelerate-stop (ASD) distance based on
V1. In a transport airplane there are usually adjustable bugs on the airspeed indicator that
the pilot sets for V1, Vr, and V2.
For a transport category airplane V1 is always less than or equal to Vr. In other
words, by the time the airplane has lifted off it is committed to flight. If an engine fails
the pilot continues the takeoff. To achieve the distance on the accelerate-go chart the pilot
must climb at a specified speed known as V2.
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Unfortunately light twins have much less reserve power than jet transport
airplanes. Therefore in any light twin you will not be able to continue the takeoff until
after liftoff at the point where the gear is retracted. In some high density-altitude
situations you will not even be able to continue the takeoff after the gear is retracted,
more on that later. As a result Vgo is after Vr in a light twin, such as the B-95, and in
some cases there is no Vgo speed (more on that later).
The POH sometimes does not give AGD charts or useable ASD charts for light
twins. You will see later that we have created our own for the Beech 95s.
Before proceeding further with calculations of AGD and ASD we must discuss
takeoff philosophy. Let us start with the following often-proposed philosophy – “If an
engine fails while there is still enough runway ahead to land on you should reject the
takeoff and stop.” If this is your philosophy you should NOT retract the gear after liftoff
if there is enough runway ahead to land on. In the diagram below the “gear up” speed is
VGU.
Are there any flaws in this proposed philosophy? There are at least two. One is
that single engine performance may be so poor that even after VGU the airplane is not
capable of continuing the departure. The operating engine will just drive the airplane into
the ground, or trees, at the departure end of the runway. The other problem is a human
factors problem. The proposed philosophy requires that the pilot judge when to retract the
gear based on the length of the runway. This will obviously be hard to do and humans
being human will tend to not give it the concentration it deserves.
To be realistic a pilot is a creature of habit, and rightly so. Many of the safety
gains we aviators have made over the years have come from standardizing procedures –
in other words following SOPs. Therefore, in order to maximize safety, at Selkirk we
choose a Vgo speed and stick with it for most takeoffs; our chosen Vgo speed is 89
KIAS. We will retract the gear at Vgo on every takeoff, i.e. VGU is also 89. We would of
course make some exceptions, such as on a short field takeoff, or when AGD is not
FTM/IPM FTM - 116

available (discussed below), but for “most” operations we will designate 89 KIAS as both
Vgo and VGU in the Travelair. How was this speed chosen?
Many light twin POHs do not specify a Vgo speed. When non is specified you
must establish you own. Our recommendations follow: Light twin pilots should relate
Vgo to Vr setting it at some value such as Vr, Vr+5, Vr+10 or Vr+20, etc. The more
powerful the airplane the closer Vgo should be to Vr. For example in a KingAir Vgo =
Vr. For a relatively low power airplane such as the Travelair Vgo is best set at about Vr +
15 or more. In addition to engine power take into account the length of the runway. For
Selair we do most takeoffs on runways that are about 5000 feet long. Longer runways
would warrant a higher Vgo, say Vr+20, but for a 5,000 foot runway our judgment is that
Vgo = Vr+15. Note that Vr=74, therefore we have set Vgo at 89. Some reference sources
recommend that Vgo should never be less than Vxse. We recommend that you never
establish a Vgo less than Vxse unless the POH specifies a lower Vgo.
Let us now look at the consequences of the Vgo value.
Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)

ASD is the distance to accelerate to Vgo, have an engine failure, and then come to
a full stop. For a light twin Vgo/VGU is an airborne speed, as we saw above.
In your Canada Air Pilot the ASDA (accelerate stop distance available) is listed
for every IFR runway, on the aerodrome chart. The ASDA includes overrun areas. For
runways not listed in the CAP you may have to estimate your own ASDA.
For the Travelair there is no satisfactory ASD chart in the POH so we have
created one that you will find in appendix 14. You are expected to use this chart before
every takeoff you make at Selkirk College.
It is not a legal requirement to have a runway as long as ASD but obviously it is

safer if you do. In Selair operations we require that the runway be at least as long as ASD
unless specifically authorized by the CFI for a particular takeoff.
As long as you have ASD you know you can reject the takeoff at any time up to
Vgo and stop on the remaining runway, provided you follow the proper procedure and
obtain full braking once on the ground. It is important to note that the chart provided does
NOT allow for runway slope, contamination on the runway, or surfaces other than
pavement. All of these factors will increase the actual ASD.
Accelerate Go Distance (AGD)

In Avia 240 you will learn that for transport category airplanes there are very
specific performance criteria you must follow if an engine fails at Vgo. These criteria
lead to a very specifically defined accelerate go distance (AGD). Transport category
airplanes always have “go capability” that is to say they will never have such poor single
engine climb performance that they cannot continue the takeoff from Vgo. Sadly the
same is not true of the Travelair, or most light twins.
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For the Travelair we have prepared an AGD chart but the criteria are not the same
as for transport category airplanes (the chart can be found in Appendix 14.) Our AGD
chart is based on an engine failure at Vgo, which is 89 knots. The chart assumes you will
be 35 feet agl when the engine fails. The chart allows you 20 seconds to complete the
engine failure drill (described below), feather the engine, and establish the speed at Yyse.
The chart then allows you enough distance to climb up to 50 feet agl.
When you use the chart you will see that some combinations of weight and
density altitude enter a “grayed out” area. That means that either, single climb
performance is nonexistent, or the airplane will strike the ground before you have time to
feather the engine, if there is an engine failure at Vgo. Obviously in such cases you
should NOT attempt to continue a takeoff if an engine fails at Vgo. In this case you don’t
really have a Vgo speed, you need a “decision altitude” instead. We will discuss the
decision making process when such conditions exist later, but first we will go over the
engine failure procedure, which we call CAPDIF. (See B-95 Takeoff When AGD Not
Available below for detailed discussion of decision-altitude concept).
The Engine Failure Procedure (CAPDIF)

In this section we will speak generically about engine failure drills, then we will
discuss the details of the engine failure drill for the B-95.
We use the acronym CAPDIF to help us remember the engine failure drill.
CAPDIF stands for, Control – Attitude (or altitude) – Power – Drag – Identify – Feather.
You can use this drill in every multiengine airplane from a B95 to a Boeing 777.
Control
When an engine fails
the first thing you must do is
control the airplane. It is
obvious that you must step on
the rudder; it is less obvious,
but you must also use the
ailerons.
In any airplane where

the engines are mounted on
the wings and the slipstream
from the propeller flows over
the wing there is some lift
created due to that slipstream.
If one engine fails there is a loss of lift on that side and the airplane begins to roll
toward the dead engine. As a result you will need to turn the ailerons toward the good
engine.
Summarizing: Control requires both rudder and aileron to keep straight. Rudder
application is generally instinctive. Apply rudder as needed to keep straight. Then turn
FTM/IPM FTM - 118

the ailerons substantially in the same direction the rudder is being applied. In very
powerful airplanes aim for a five (or more) degrees of bank momentarily then reduce
bank to the “zero slip” value (see above), in the Travelair you won’t need more than 5
degrees of bank.
Attitude (or Altitude)

The “control” step dealt with directional control. Now we deal with pitch control.
The closer we are to Vmc when the engine fails the more difficult, and dangerous, the
situation is. Remember that for the Travelair Vmc is 71 knots and we rotate for takeoff at
74 knots. So, if an engine fails just at liftoff we are dangerously close to Vmc.
If the engine fails when we are cruising at 150 knots there is no reason to be
concerned about Vmc. In this case our primary concern is maintaining altitude, especially
if we are cruising IFR. (Note that if we are above the absolute single engine ceiling that
within a minute or so we must start a descent).
With all the above in mind what should we do?
First – if our speed is within 10 knots of Vmc we should NOT let it get any
slower. So we will lower the nose however much is required to gain and keep the speed at
Vmc + 10. This will almost certainly require us to sacrifice altitude. If we are close to the
ground, such as on takeoff, we would just close the throttle on the remaining engine and
land.
Second – if our speed is at or below Vyse we will NOT let it get any slower,
unless we are about to hit the ground. So we will lower the nose to keep the speed at its
present value. As noted, we can allow the speed to drop to Vmc + 10, but would only do
so if about to hit the ground. For example in the Travelair, if the engine fails at 89 knots
(Vgo) we will lower the nose to maintain 89 knots (18 knots above Vmc), if we
absolutely must we could let the speed drop to 81 knots (10 knots above Vmc).
Third – if we are above Vyse and in level flight, such as if an engine fails in
cruise, we will pitch to an attitude that maintains altitude and allow the airspeed to start
decaying (thrust will be less than drag so the airplane will definitely slow down if we
maintain altitude). Eventually the speed will decay to Vyse. Once we are at Vyse the
second situation above applies, so we will lower the nose to maintain Vyse and descend.
Power
For power we want to increase thrust. Some people advocate applying full power,
and that is often good advice in light twins such as the Travelair. But in a powerful
airplane you won’t likely need full power. A commonly used rule of thumb is based on
thinking of power settings as 5 steps:
1. Emergency – i.e. full power

2. Takeoff power
3. Climb power
4. Cruise power
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5. Approach power
Every airplane you will ever fly from a Travelair to a B777 will have power
settings you are familiar with and that can be categorized into the five steps above. For
the Travelair step 1 and 2 are the same. (Tip: when you fly the KingAir simulator make
mental note of the rpm and torque settings for the above five steps, you will need them
when the instructors springs an engine failure on you).
The general advice is that following an engine failure increase power on the
remaining engine to the next highest step. For example if an engine fails on approach set
cruise power on the good engine, or if an engine fails in cruise set climb power, or if an
engine fails on takeoff set emergency power (too bad the Travelair doesn’t have such as
thing, but some airplanes do).
Keeping the above advice in mind realize that with a normally aspirated piston
engine airplane the power available at altitude will be limited. In many cases full climb
manifold pressure may not be available if an engine fails in cruise. In that case you
should set maximum available manifold pressure and maximum rpm. Be careful when
doing that not to move the propeller controls so rapidly that you over-speed the propeller
(see comments under CAPDIF in the B-95 below).
Drag
Drag is your enemy after an engine failure. We said earlier that you have very
little extra power, so any unnecessary drag that adds to the required power (Pr) is a bad
thing.
Flaps and gear are the largest sources of drag. Both should be retracted after an
engine failure.
Minor sources of drag such as cowl flaps should theoretically be retracted also but
their effect on the specific model of airplane needs to be taken into account. On the
Travelair cowl flaps have very little effect on drag so taking the time to retract them
rather than getting on with the CAPDIF drill is not warranted.
Identify
It will spoil your whole day if you feather the wrong engine. So it is important to
take a moment to determine which engine has failed before feathering (the next step in
CAPDIF). Don’t sneer at this step, you may think it will be obvious which engine has
failed, but you are wrong. To identify we use the saying “dead foot – dead engine.”
This saying means that you will be applying rudder toward the operating engine.
So the foot (leg) that isn’t doing anything is on the side of the dead engine. In the
excitement of it all make sure you don’t get so tense that you fool yourself. To be certain,
pull the dead foot completely off the rudder pedal. If the airplane remains straight that is
the side of the dead engine.
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Once you believe you have identified the dead engine verify that by pulling the
throttle back to idle on that suspected engine.
Note that in centerline thrust airplanes, which you might have an occasion to fly
in the future, a dead foot does not identify the dead engine. In such cases you identify the
dead engine by cylinder head temperature or other gauge indications as specified in the
POH. You should always verify your identification by pulling the throttle to idle on the
suspected dead engine.
Warning: Do NOT try to identify the dead engine by loss of manifold pressure,
rpm, or fuel flow. The propeller will windmill, often at the same rpm as the operating
engine, and the pressure inside the cylinders will go to ambient air pressure, as modified
by the rotating action of the engine. After you feather the dead engine it will have a
manifold pressure equal to ambient air pressure (29.92 at sea level). So you cannot go by
manifold pressure or rpm to identify the dead engine. Fuel flow may also fool you if the
engine failed due to a broken fuel line (i.e. fuel flow could actually be higher on the
failed engine).
Feather
The last step is feather. If you have lots of altitude you should do a cause check to
see if you can get the engine running again before feathering it. But if you are at low
altitude or IFR MEA, or on an IFR approach, you should feather right away. We discuss
cause checks below.
Some airplanes have specific limitations for feathering. For example you may not
be able to feather if the airspeed drops below a certain speed; so make sure you know
your airplane. Most turboprops have auto-feather systems that will feather the engine for
you but these are normally turned off in cruise (thus allowing for a cause check before
feathering).
Modern airplanes with FADEC (fully automatic digital engine controller) will
have specific procedures in the POH to feather an engine. There may be a switch you
must activate for example.
To feather a piston engine with conventional controls you simply pull the rpm
lever all the way back past a detent into the feather position. That is the procedure used in
the Travelair. Note: after feathering there is normally a checklist that you should follow
to turn off unneeded items such as fuel, alternators, etc on the failed engine.
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CAPDIF in the B-95

The generic CAPDIF drill described above applies to the Travelair. In this section
we expand on the drill to specify exactly what you will do in the B-95. When you learn to
perform CAPDIF we are going to insist that you call the “drill” out loud. By verbalizing
the procedure you get more parts of your brain involved and will learn the procedure
more deeply than by doing it silently. It is vital that you call the same drill every time, i.e.
don’t change wording from one practice session to the next. Therefore we will
standardize on the following “verbal CAPDIF drill” for the Travelair (this is specified in
the Standard Calls section of the SOPs):
Control
Attitude
Mixture
Pitch
Power
Flaps
Gear
Flaps
Dead foot, dead engine
Verify
Check for fire

Pumps
Indicators
Selectors
Alternate airs
Magnetos
Test
No joy
Feather
Control – Maintain heading; bank up to five degrees toward the good engine. The
best advice is to keep wings level for a few seconds just in case you bank so much that
you fool yourself about which engine has failed. Once you have established directional
control with rudder then turn the ailerons until the airplane is banked four or five degrees
toward the foot that is doing all the work. Note that the ball will NOT be centered. Also
Note: you will have to handle some engine failures in turns, in that case you should
maintain a moderate bank, such as 15-degrees in the direction of the turn, while you keep
the “ball centered” on the turn coordinator. In this case, if the failed engine is on the
inside of the turn you are actually banked toward the dead engine, but nothing can be
done about that, just make sure you don’t bank too much, hence the 15-degree limit.
Attitude – Maintain altitude as long as the airspeed is more than Vyse (blue line).
This should apply to most situations. If airspeed is at or below Vyse lower the nose to
FTM/IPM FTM - 122

maintain whatever speed you have, or 81 knots (Vmc + 10), whichever is greater. Do
NOT take time to trim, move on with the CAPDIF drill.
Power – call out loud, mixture, pitch, power. While you call this, move both
mixtures to full rich, normally increase rpms from 2,300 or less to 2,500 from 2,500 to
full rpm (see below special cases) and then move both throttles to the desired manifold
pressure. Use the step system of power settings as described above. If you are higher than
about 4500’ full throttle will not provide 25 inches MP. In that case you should set full
throttle and full rpm but in order to avoid over-speeding the propeller set 2500 rpm for a
second, then smoothly push the rpm to full.
Drag – call out flap, gear, flap, as you retract the flaps and gear. If flaps are
extended bring them up for three seconds, then retract the gear, then bring up the rest of
the flaps. Note that speed must be 80 knots or above when you bring the flaps to zero.
Identify – call out dead foot dead engine, verify. Pull the dead foot completely off
the rudder pedal and tap the knee of the dead leg with your right hand. To verify that you
have the correct engine smoothly pull the throttle of the dead engine back until you hear
the gear warning horn or until it is all the way back.
Cause check – at this point you may do a cause check if you are in cruise. If the
engine fails on takeoff or on approach do NOT do a cause check simply proceed to
feather.
Feather – pull the propeller leaver of the dead engine right back into the feather
position. After the propeller feathers you should move the dead engine mixture control to
idle cutoff, but don’t do this so quickly that you accidentally pull the wrong mixture
control.
The Cause Check

The cause check is performed after verify (part of identify, see above). While
performing the cause check you say out loud: “pumps, indicators, selectors, alternate air,
magnetos, test, no joy, feather.”
While calling the drill out you observe the fuel flow gauge just before turning the
pumps on. You then observe the fuel indicator gauges as you change the indicator switch.
You then change the fuel selector ONLY ON THE DEAD ENGINE (put on the other
tank or crossfeed if the other tank is low). You then pull BOTH alternate airs out. You
then check all magnetos. You then smoothly advance the throttle on the dead engine to
see if it is working. If not, you retard the throttle again, and then feather the engine.
As mentioned above, do NOT attempt to perform the cause check if you are close
to the ground or already established on an IFR approach.
Note: if you note that fuel quantity is low and that is why the engine failed you
should change both fuel selectors despite the admonition above. But if fuel quantity is
good and the remaining engine is operating normally you don’t want to risk flaming it out
FTM/IPM FTM - 123

also, that is why the caution above NOT to change the fuel selector on the operating
engine.
Engine Failure on Takeoff B-95

We have spoken generically about engine failure on takeoff in a twin. Now we
will discuss the specific details for the Travelair. Before every takeoff you are required to
do certain performance calculations:
Normal takeoff distance

Normal landing distance
Accelerate Stop distance
Accelerate Go distance
Single engine rate of climb and gradient of climb for takeoff altitude.
Single engine Ceilings
Plan A
Based on the above calculations you will plan your takeoff and prepare a plan of
action that you will brief your instructor on just before takeoff. We call this “Plan A.”
Read all that follows, but be warned now that just when you think it all makes sense we
are going to spring “Plan B” on you.
Reviewing what we said earlier the normal takeoff procedure in the B-95 is to
rotate at 74, retract the gear at 89 and climb out at Vy (95 knots at sea level). If an engine
fails prior toVgo, gear retraction (89), you will land straight ahead. If an engine fails at 89
or above you will continue the takeoff. The exceptions are dealt with below.
PLEASE remember that you will only be ~35 feet agl at 89 knots, so when you
brief your instructor DON’T talk about landing in a field ahead within 30 degrees of arc,
or even more ridiculous, “turning to land on a crossing runway.” The world of
multiengine flying is much different than the C-172; from 35 agl you won’t be making
any turns. You must land straight ahead on the runway that will be right in front of you.
While the above is the “usual” Plan-A your preflight calculations MUST reveal to
you when this plan won’t work. Anytime you are loaded heavily, or your density altitude
rises, your ability to continue the takeoff should an engine fail at Vgo decreases. At some
combination of weight and density altitude you won’t be able to continue the takeoff.
You use the AGD chart to identify that situation. If your weight and density altitude put
you into the “grayed out” area on the AGD chart that means you do NOT have enough
performance to safely complete the CAPDIF drill if an engine fails at Vgo. In effect you
no longer have a Vgo speed. What should Plan A be in this case?
First, realize that while Selair has a policy that you must have a runway equal to
at least ASD we do NOT have a policy requiring AGD. So it is permitted for you to
takeoff, but what should Plan A be and what will you say in your pre-takeoff briefing?
FTM/IPM FTM - 124

B-95 Takeoff When AGD Not Available

We are lucky that most of our flying at the College is done well below gross
weight. We are also lucky that the density altitude is usually quite low. So in most cases
we will have AGD capability, and Plan A will be as described above.
After you graduate you may well be operating light twins when AGD is not
available, you will need a plan. Even at Selkirk College, on some days you won’t have
AGD.
Start by looking up your single engine emergency rate of climb at takeoff altitude
plus 500 feet. We recommend 500’ agl because that is the lowest altitude we feel you can
safely make a circuit and return to land on the active runway. There is a chart in appendix
14 to look up single engine climb rate and gradient.
You must also look up your single engine service ceiling. There is a chart for that
in appendix 14 also.
Once you have done the above calculations your situation will fall into one of
three progressively worse situations:
1. If your single engine rate of climb is 100 fpm or better you will be able to
continue the takeoff once you have enough altitude to complete the CAPDIF drill.
In this case retract the gear as normal at 89 knots but don’t call for continuation
until you have some specified altitude. The altitude would usually be 100’ agl. In
other words, in this case you don’t have a Vgo speed, you have a “Vgo altitude.”
2. If your single engine rate of climb is less than 100 fpm you cannot realistically
expect to be able to climb. Therefore you must not attempt to continue the takeoff
if you are below the minimum safe circuit altitude. Above we recommended 500
feet, but in some locations you may judge it safe to fly a circuit at a lower altitude
such as 400 agl. Once again you have a “Vgo altitude”. (See situation 3 for
alternate options in this scenario.)
It should be clear to you that we are saying that if an engine fails below the
chosen altitude you must do exactly what you would do in the C-172, i.e. land
straight ahead.
3. In 2 above we assumed that your single engine rate of climb was less than 100
fpm, but positive. What if your single engine rate of climb is negative? In that
case you would need more than 500 feet to be able to make a circuit and return for
landing.
You could consider the possibility of a 180-degree turn to land back on the
runway in the opposite direction to takeoff. Obviously you should consider winds,
obstacles and other factors before takeoff and decide what would be best to do.
FTM/IPM FTM - 125

After considering all the above you should see that anytime you takeoff at your
single engine service ceiling or above (scenario 3 above) you are in effect not really
flying a legitimate multiengine airplane anymore. You have one big disadvantage over
single engine airplanes and you have one big advantage. Your disadvantage is that your
stall speed is much higher so a forced approach into a field is MUCH more dangerous.
Your advantage is that your single engine descent gradient is very good compared to
glide gradient for a single engine airplane, so you should be able to “glide” back to the
runway once you are 500’ or above IF YOU PLAN your departure with that in mind. One
thing to be wary about is that if an engine failed at 500’ agl in a single engine airplane
you would instinctively start the turn back “lickety split” but if the engine failed at 500’
agl in a twin you might instinctively perform the CAPDIF and by the time you are done
might be out of glide range back to the airport. Keep that in mind if you are in scenario 3
above.
Based on which of the three scenarios apply to you come up with a Plan A that
you will follow in the event of an engine failure.
In summary: When AGD is not available you don’t have a legitimate Vgo speed.
You need a decision altitude instead. The situation is parallel to your C-172 flying,
although the decision altitude does not necessarily have to be 500’ agl.
Plan B
You were warned above that just when it all made sense we would reveal Plan B.
Hopefully the above discussion makes sense to you, if not read it over, and over, and talk
with your instructors because the above information is vital to your flight safety.
As you look at the single engine performance charts for the Travelair, or any light
twin, you notice that single engine climb rates are very poor. If someone tried to sell you
an airplane that only climbed 200 fpm you wouldn’t likely buy it, yet that is what you
will be flying if an engine fails. If that engine failure is at Vgo, or shortly thereafter, it is
going to take all your skill and all the airplanes remaining performance to safely climb
out and come back for landing. Think about it, at 200 fpm it would take five minutes to
get to circuit altitude, and in five minutes at 94 knots you will fly about eight miles. So it
is going to be a very wide circuit. Give some thought to how you would do that in a
valley such as Castlegar.
While you are thinking about that here is an even more scary thought. How many
times when you were flying the C-172 did you encounter a downdraft of 200 fpm or
more? Even though you have only flown about 100 hours you likely have experienced
this at least once or twice, maybe more.
Now think about what will happen if you have an engine failure at Vgo and your
Plan A is to continue the takeoff (by far the most common situation.) Assume you
perform the CAPDIF flawlessly and begin to climb. You have just passed the departure
end of the runway and are 100 feet agl, climbing at 200+ fpm. Then “out of the blue” you
encounter a 300 fpm downdraft. What do you do?
FTM/IPM FTM - 126

There is really only one thing you can do – well actually there is only one thing
you should do. Unfortunately there are two things you could do, and one of them is die.
If you try to fly through this downdraft by pulling back on the controls you will drop
below Vyse, and eventually may encounter Vmc and flip yourself out of control into the
ground wingtip first. You will roll the airplane up into a ball and we will all have to say
nice things about you at your funeral. Don’t do that! What should you do?
You should execute Plan B, which is to close both throttles and land straight
ahead.
Plan B is easy in theory and hard in practice. It requires you to purposely have an
accident. That is psychologically almost a super-human expectation and as such is the
reason why multiengine airplanes have a WORSE safety record than single engine
airplanes. Still you must try to convince yourself that Plan B is necessary.
You really are never safe in a light twin until you are above 500 feet. At that
altitude if you encounter a downdraft you are more than one minute from the ground and
likely will come out the far side of the downdraft before reaching the ground. At lower
altitudes Plan B must always be in your mind and you must be committed to do it rather
than let speed drop below Vmc + 10.
Single Engine Approach and Landing

You must become expert at making single engine approaches both VFR and IFR.
This procedure is the multiengine equivalent of the forced approach for single engine
airplanes – sort of.
Start by referring to the chart “Single Engine Ceiling” in appendix 14. Look at the
third column, which represents the maximum altitude at which the airplane is able to
climb 200 ft/Nm or about 315 ft/min3. If your entire approach and landing will be
conducted below that altitude then you really have nothing to worry about. You can just
follow your normal approach procedure. You would perform all pre-landing checks at the
usual time; you would extend the gear at the usual time, etc.
In a powerful airplane such as the jets and turboprops you will fly in the future the
single engine ceiling will be so high that you will not need a great deal of skill to make a
single engine approach. It would be like doing a forced approach in the C-172, only with
power (an oxymoron). But let’s take a look at the values in the third column of the single-
engine ceiling chart for the Travelair.
At maximum weight (4,200 lbs) the ceiling is below sea level. That means that
any gross weight single-engine landing at any airport is going to require special
consideration on our part. At 3,600 lb, which is a weight you will often be landing at
following your training flights, the ceiling is 2,000 feet. That means that landings in
Abbotsford, as long as the temperature is at or below standard will be more or less
normal. But in Castlegar you should take extra care unless the temperature is quite low.
3
The performance charts are discussed in detail in the next section of this manual.
FTM/IPM FTM - 127

If the single engine performance is marginal (or worse) what precautions should
we take for a single engine arrival?
Let’s discuss VFR arrivals first, although the same principles apply to all arrivals.
We know that aerodynamically climb performance depends on excess thrust (Tx). And
we know that excess thrust is simply available thrust (Ta) minus drag (D). Tx = Ta – D.
So, when thrust is marginal we should reduce drag as much as possible. Why are we
worried about this given that we are landing so we will be descending anyway?
Pilots normally plan arrivals such that they fly level at some times during the
procedure. For example in Calgary you would fly level at 4,600 feet on downwind
(remember that this is an indicated altitude--the density altitude will often be higher). If
the altitude you must maintain is above the maximum altitude to achieve 200 ft/Nm climb
then you will be at very close to full power. If the altitude is above the altitude for 200
ft/min climb in the chart you may not even be able to fly level given turbulence and other
factors; you certainly will not be able to fly the required altitude if you extend gear and
flaps.
Fortunately Selair SOPs do NOT call for the gear and flaps to be extended until
just before turning base. In the future your company SOP might call for flaps and gear
before joining the circuit, you would therefore need to modify your procedure in the
conditions described above.
Simply delaying gear and flap extension is all you need to do if the arrival
altitudes are close to the altitude in column three of the chart, but if the airport is even
higher you will need to do more. The only thing you can do is plan your arrival so that
you descend the whole time. That makes the arrival much more like a forced approach in
a single engine airplane. But, it is easier in that you can set the power at some moderate
value, such as 17 inches of MP (this is only an example) and then try to plan an arrival so
that you make it to the runway with that power. If you misjudge you can reduce or
increase the power to correct your misjudgment. NOTE that you should coordinate your
non-standard arrival procedure (descending on downwind for example) with the tower if
there is one or other traffic in the circuit at an uncontrolled airport. Be SURE to tell them
you have an emergency and everyone will be happy to cooperate with you.
In the Travelair, if you fly your single engine VFR arrival properly you will never
need more than 17 inches MP from the time you begin the descent to the airport.
Maintain normal or five knots faster than normal speeds throughout. I.E. 120 to 125 knots
prior to gear extension, then never slow below Vyse + 5 on final. You should plan the
approach so that you are a bit high (just like a single engine forced approach) so that you
can extend the gear at approximately 1,000’ agl. The drag from the gear should bring you
closer to the glidepath but you would still be just slightly high, your speed should be less
than 113 at that point but well above Vyse. Once established on final you would then
extend 10-degrees of flaps so that you are on the glidepath but keep the speed to at least
Vyse+5. If the runway is long enough just land with 10-degrees of flaps, but if the
runway is short then use full flaps below 500’ agl and allow the speed to drop back to the
normal threshold crossing speed of 80 knots. NOTE that once you are below 100 feet and
FTM/IPM FTM - 128

the speed drops below Vyse there is NO CHANCE of an overshoot. There is also no
chance of a safe overshoot even earlier when the airport is above the single engine
service ceiling – so don’t misjudge your approach.
Now we will discuss single engine IFR approaches. The same concerns expressed
above apply. Since the procedure turn altitude for all the other approaches you will fly are
higher than 2500 asl you should be concerned on all single engine approaches, although
obviously operation in the lower mainland will be fairly straightforward except on days
when the temperature is significantly above standard. In CYCG the procedure turn
altitude is 9000 feet and all intermediate altitudes, including MDA, are above your single
engine service ceiling so you will definitely need a plan for a safe single engine arrival.
IFR approaches can be broken into two categories, precision and non-precision.
For a precision approach you really only need to be concerned about staying above MEA
until you intercept the glidepath. Once you are on the glidepath the airplane can descend
along the glidepath with gear and flaps extended, although it sometimes takes
uncomfortably close to full power. To minimize the power needed our SOP is to only use
10-degrees of flaps. That is the only change in procedure for a single engine ILS
approach. You MUST follow the glidepath and it is unwise to keep the gear up in case
you forget to extend it later.
For a non-precision approach the situation is much more difficult. Often when
flying non-precision approaches pilots make a series of step descents leveling off at the
procedure turn altitude, then the beacon crossing altitude, and then finally the MDA. For
two engine approaches our SOP is to have gear and 20-degrees of flaps extended while
leveling at these altitudes. It should only take a moment to realize that won’t work for a
single engine approach. What shall we do instead?
On single engine non-precision approaches one thing we will do is plan the

approach so that we do not need to level off during the approach. To accomplish that we
plan how far to go outbound during the procedure turn so that when we complete the
procedure turn we are above the nominal glidepath (going too far out it is the IFR
equivalent of making a very wide base in a VFR circuit, and makes no sense when on
single engine.) We also should plan to descend throughout the procedure turn. We
therefore plan backwards and often find the optimum altitude to be at when we go by the
beacon outbound. If we plan properly we won’t need to level off until we reach MDA,
and if we get the airport in sight we may not need to level off at MDA.
If we must level off at anytime during an IFR approach we must bring the gear
up. Our “emergency SOP” is to confirm the gear up, and retract it if not up, at the “100
above” call on single-engine IFR approaches, unless the runway is in sight. If we must
circle the gear should remain up until we are ready to make final descent to the runway
(normally from mid-base).
FTM/IPM FTM - 129

The Beech 95 Type Conversion

You will be doing your multi-engine endorsement on the B95. This will also be
your introduction to complex airplanes with constant speed propellers and retractable
landing gear.
In the remaining part of the multiengine section of the course manual will expand
on the information in the POH and discuss multiengine exercises and the flight test.
Specifically we will:
List differences between the two Travelairs

Explain the Charts in Appendix 14
Provide Weight and Balance data that is not in your POH
Describe the Travelairs’ systems
List of Flight Manual Supplements
Describe the Multiengine Flight Test
Differences Between the two Travelairs

The two Travelairs are almost identical but not quite. GSAK is a 1966 “D” model.
FXFG in a 1968 “E” model. Both airplanes have the same engines and both have the
same operating weights and center of gravity limitations. Both cruise at the same speed
and use the same fuel flows. So, all flight planning for the two is the same.
Maximum flaps on GSAK is 28 while FXFG is 30 . You will not be able to

notice the difference. FXFG has a flap position indicator on the panel while GSAK has
lines painted on the wings that you must look over your shoulder and read to tell what the
flap setting is.
Both airplanes have two 50-amp alternators. GSAK has an over-voltage warning
light on the panel – FXFG does not. FXFG has two alternator-out lights on the panel,
while GSAK does not.
There are minor differences in the location of some switches between the two
airplanes. For example the standby voltage regulator switch is not in same location. You
are assigned to familiarize yourself with the cockpit including locating all the switches.
There is an assignment that takes you through that process below.
Each airplane has its own checklist. The normal checklists are the same for both
airplanes but the emergency checklists are different. Copies of the checklists are provided
in appendix 1 and appendix 2.
The above are the only significant differences between the airplanes.
Cockpit Familiarization
You have been “flying” the B95 through first year in the simulator. The speed and
procedures you use in the Frasca are the same as the ones you will use in the Travelair.
FTM/IPM FTM - 130

However many switches and knobs are in different locations in the simulator. In this
section we will explore the cockpit a bit however there is no substitute for sitting in the
airplane. You are required to sit in the airplane and go through the assignment in lesson
302 before your first flight.
The first thing we will look at is

the rudder pedals. Unlike most
airplanes the Travelair has folding
pedals. You can fold them down out of
the way.
The adjustment is ONLY to

move the pedals out of the way for
passenger comfort – it is NOT to adjust
for different pilot leg lengths.
The picture to the left shows the

switch being depressed so that the
pedal can be folded down against the
floor.
DANGER
If the pilot’s pedal is folded
down the situation is very dangerous,
as you have almost no rudder control.
FTM/IPM FTM - 131

The throttle quadrant is laid out differently in the Travelair compared to the
Frasca. The throttles are in the middle, and the propeller controls are on the right. The
corresponding gauges (manifold pressure and tachometer) are directly above the relevant
lever, so just reach for the desired gauge and you will get the correct lever.
Note that gear and flap levers are also opposite to the Frasca.
FTM/IPM FTM - 132

The center pedestal

contains the rudder and
elevator trim wheels. There
is no electric trim.
Each trim setting is

displayed in a window,
marked with the rectangles
at the upper left of the
picture.
The pedestal also has

three rheostat switches that
control lighting. Your
assignment is to go to the
airplane and see exactly
which lights are controlled
by each switch – remember
it is going to be impossible
to read the switches in the
dark, so you need to
memorize the information.
Aileron trim control is via a knob between the

two control wheels. Unlike the rudder and elevator
trims there is no actual tab. Aileron trim is just a
spring mechanism. Unfortunately it doesn’t work too
well. If you need aileron trim expect to have to
“crank in” quite a bit to have any effect.
FTM/IPM FTM - 133

On the left sidewall you will find the

magneto, battery and alternator switches. The
picture to the left shows the magneto switches.
They work just like in the C-172 except there is
no key.
This photograph is from FXFG, which

has the outside air temperature gauge built into
the side panel. On GSAK the OAT gauge is in
the windshield.
The GPS annunciator (left picture, top)

looks different than the one in the simulator,
but it works exactly the same.
The DME (left picture, lower) is

significantly different than the one in the
Frasca 142. The DME works just like the one
explained on the Selair website.
FTM/IPM FTM - 134

Fuel Flow in a Climb

Mixture must be richer in a
climb than in cruise in order to keep
the engine temperatures under
control.
You will find that below

5,000’ asl mixture will be full rich
in a climb.
The Travelair Fuel-flow

gauge is shown to the left. The
gauge is marked to show the
optimum fuel flow for climbs at
different altitudes. The arrow shows
optimum fuel flow in a CLIMB at
3,000’ (3,000 has been circled in the
picture). By the time you are
climbing through 5,000’ fuel flow
should be 15gph and at 7,000’ it
should be 14 gph. (Note that the
gauge shows a range but we always
use the top end of the range for
better cooling and more
performance.)
Always monitor CHT and oil temperature in a climb. If the CHT is more than
350° open the cowl flaps. If the temperature remains high set the mixture to full rich
despite the markings on the fuel flow gauge. This is seldom actually required with
modern synthetic oils, as they cool much better than the old oils, but you should still
watch for it.
Note that fuel flow will automatically decline with altitude as manifold pressure
drops resulting in the mixture almost “setting itself. But when you climb high you will
need to make some adjustments, so make sure you understand how the gauge indicates
the required fuel flow.
Single Engine Ceiling Chart

Look at the “Single Engine Ceiling” chart in your POH. The chart shows three
different ceilings, each in order represents single engine performance from most marginal
to “good.”
The single engine service ceiling is the altitude at which the airplane can only
climb 50 ft/min on one engine. It is important to note that even this marginal performance
will only be there if the pilot flies exactly at Vyse and holds the zero slip angle of bank.
In addition the air must be smooth. Given that most pilots will deviate a least a little from
FTM/IPM FTM - 135

the required speed and bank you should expect no climb performance at the single engine
service ceiling.
The second column in the chart shows the altitude at which the airplane can climb
200 ft/min. The same conditions as above apply, but at this altitude if the pilot is slightly
off the speed and bank at least a marginal climb can be expected.
As you know, all IFR departure procedures are based on a climb gradient of 200
ft/Nm; some departures actually require more. Because Vyse is approximately 94 knots
the airplane travels just over 1½ Nm every minute. Therefore the required rate of climb is
just over 1½ x 200 ft/min, or in other words ~315 ft/min. The third column in the table
shows the altitude at which the airplane is just able to climb 315 ft/min, or in other words
200 ft/Nm.
If you are planning an IFR departure and the MEA is lower than the altitude in the
third column then you can depart with total safety. If an engine fails you will be able to
maintain climb at 200 ft/Nm all the way to MEA. But if the MEA is above the altitude in
the third column then you cannot be certain of terrain clearance while climbing to MEA.
If an engine fails during an IFR departure then you might be safe if your starting point is
above the minimum gradient (because your two engine climb gradient is much more than
200 ft/Nm) you can therefore afford a shallower gradient following the engine failure for
a period of time. But, if the engine failure occurs below 400’ agl and the MEA is higher
than the altitude in the third column you should not simply fly the normal IFR departure
procedure and assume you are safe. You most likely are NOT SAFE, so you should
prepare a contingency plan.
B-95 Weight and Balance Charts

The POH you have for the B-95 does not have much information about weight
and balance. The necessary sheets for calculating weight and balance and checking that
the airplane is loaded within limits are in the individual airplane POHs. The information
is recreated here so that you will have ready access to it for flight planning purposes.
The following table gives you the arms for pilots, passengers, and baggage, you
can use this to calculate your weight and balance just as you did in the C-172. Note that
the passengers’ seats are on rails and can be adjusted forward or aft.
Item Arm
Pilot and Copilot 85
Passengers – seat in forward position 121
Passengers – seat in aft position 136
Fuel – main tanks 75
Fuel – Aux tanks 93
Aft baggage area 150
Nose baggage compartment 31
If passenger seats are removed for baggage use:
Baggage ahead of spar 108
Baggage aft of spar 145
FTM/IPM FTM - 136

The acceptable center of gravity limits are:
Aft limit 86.0

With weight less than 3,600 lbs, forward limit is 75.0
With weight between 3,600 lbs and 4,200 lbs forward limit varies linearly
between 75.0 and 80.5 (see graph below).
Use the graph below to check that you are loaded within acceptable c of g limits
for the Travelair.
The Travelair does not have a maximum landing weight. The Travelair also does
not have a published maximum zero fuel weight. As a result the Travelair weight and
balance is quite easy to calculate.
Note that the Main tanks are at 75 inches, which is the forward limit. Therefore
when you burn fuel from the main tanks c of g always moves aft. Note also that the
auxiliary tanks are at 93 inches, which is behind the aft limit. Therefore when you burn
fuel from the aux tanks c of g always moves forward. Be sure to check both takeoff and
landing c of g to ensure you are within limits for both.
FTM/IPM FTM - 137

Beech 95 Systems
In the following sections we will discuss the operation of the various systems in
the B-95. You should also read the section on page 114 that discusses use of the constant
speed propeller.
Cabin Heat System

The cabin heat system in
the Travelair is totally different
from the C-172 system. The C-
172 system simply takes heat
from the engine exhaust and
delivers it to the cabin. That sort
of system is simple and almost
foolproof in its design. The
Travelair on the other hand has
a furnace in the nose of the
airplane that you can turn on
and off. It requires fuel and
ignition to operate as well as a
fan to move air through it for
ground operation. Such a
system is obviously much more
complex and as such is more
likely to fail and potentially
more likely to cause problems
in flight. Therefore you need to
learn how to operate the system
in both normal and emergency
situations.
First we will discuss how to turn the system on and set the temperature when
everything is working normally. It is easier to understand if you have a basic grasp of
how the system works. You should start by reading pages 1-12 to 1-14 in your POH.
These pages give a complete description of how to operate the heater, but they are a bit
hard to follow if you can’t visualize the components of the heater and how they work, so
we will now go through it step by step. As you read the following have your POH and
read the “Heating and Ventilating System” section concurrently with this explanation.
FTM/IPM FTM - 138

The POH says that the heater is a “50,000 BTU4 combustion heater” (page 1-12.)
The important point here is that the heater has a flame inside it (necessary for
combustion). It works the same way as an oil or natural gas furnace in a house. As we
proceed with our discussion you will find that the heater requires all the same controls as
the furnace in a house.
The POH says that the heater has “an igniter unit, two fuel pumps, a fuel filter,
shut-off valve, and temperature limiting thermostats.” Our airplanes also have the
optional electric “ventilation air blower” (page 1-12) that makes the furnace useable on
the ground. Let’s examine what each of these items is.
An igniter unit is much like a

spark plug and coil in a car. Its purpose
is to set the fuel entering the furnace on
fire. You may already know that to
make a spark plug spark you need a
pulse of electricity passing through a
coil. Therefore a vibrator is needed to
create the pulses of electricity. A
modern system would use electronics to
achieve the pulses, but this old system
has an arm that literally vibrates. It is
quite common for our heaters to refuse
to work when they have not been used
for several months and the most
common reason is that the vibrator is
stuck. Without the vibrator there is no
spark and without the spark there is no
fire in the furnace5.
The system has two fuel pumps. One is enough to feed the heater so two provides
redundancy. On page 1-13 it says, “When the aircraft is equipped with the ventilation air
blower, only one pump operates during ground operation. This is accomplished by a
switch operated by the landing gear linkage.” The reason for this is to reduce electric load
4
British Thermal Unit: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1
degree Fahrenheit. Compare this to the calorie, which is the amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of
water 1 degree Celsius.
5
Read the bottom paragraph on page 1-13 for more details.
FTM/IPM FTM - 139

on the ground when alternator output may be limited. Imagine a scenario where the
heater works in flight but you can’t get it to work on the ground – what might cause that?
One answer is that the pump that normally operates on the ground in unserviceable. This
is just one example of how knowing the system can help you troubleshoot it.
The heater takes fuel from the left main fuel tank. It passes the fuel through a
filter before spraying it into the heater. If the filter is plugged the heater won’t work. The
pilot cannot inspect the filter so we count on our AMEs to check it regularly. There is a
sump to catch water just ahead of the filter that the pilot can drain however. You drain
this sump exactly like you check for water from the C-172 fuel tanks, except you have to
lay on your back and look up into the nose wheel well. If the heater is to be used,
especially after a long period of not being used, you should drain this sump.
The shutoff valve for the heater is a “spring-loaded, electrically operated, solenoid
valve” (page 1-13). The spring holds the valve closed – i.e. prevents fuel from going into
the heater. When you turn the switch on to activate the heater the electric solenoid must
pull this valve open. Failure of this solenoid is another reason why the heater might not
work. There is no backup for this solenoid; if it fails you will be cold until the AME
replaces it.
There are two temperature-limiting thermostats, one is under your control, and the
other is a safety feature that you cannot adjust. A thermostat is like the thing on the wall
in your house. When it is too hot you set the thermostat lower, and when it is too cold
you set it higher. In the cockpit the control looks different but works the same way. The
POH calls this a “cycling thermostat” (page 1-13 para 2). Cycling simply means that it
turns the furnace on when needed then off when not needed. That is just like a house
furnace. I am sure you have noticed that from time to time the furnace comes on in your
house. Once the room heats up the furnace goes off – i.e. it cycles. The word “ductstat”
informs us that the sensor for the thermostat is in the duct, NOT in the cabin. That only
matters to you a little. We should realize that when we set the thermostat with the intent
of getting a certain cabin temperature we are actually setting the furnace to turn off when
the temperature of the air in the duct reaches a certain value. If you change the air vent
settings you will probably have to reset the thermostat, which you wouldn’t need to do
with a home furnace.
How do you set the thermostat? In your house you slide a little lever left or right
to decrease or increase the thermostat setting. In the Travelair you pull the “cabin heat”
knob out to set a higher temperature and push it in for a lower temperature. We
recommend pulling it out about ½ inch initially then adjust it from there to suit your
personal taste in cabin temperature. NOTE that if the heater doesn’t seem to be working
you should pull the thermostat out further. Remember that it will take time for the cabin
to heat up so don’t expect instant gratification from setting the thermostat (it takes time
for the classroom to heat up when you adjust the thermostat also).
As a safety feature there is a second thermostat in the “heater discharge plenum.”

A plenum is simply a fancy word for container. As the hot air comes out of the heater it
enters a container known as the plenum, from there ducts deliver the heat to the area
FTM/IPM FTM - 140

under the instrument panel and up to the window defrosters. Inside the plenum is a
thermostat set to 300 degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature reaches that level the
thermostat closes cutting electric power off to the heater. As a result the vibrator stops
vibrating and the fuel shutoff solenoid looses power so the spring closes the valve and the
heater stops working. Once this happens nothing you do will make the heater work again.
The safety thermostat has a fuse in it that has blown and only an AME can replace it. You
are going to be cold until you get it repaired.
The furnace must have air blowing through it when it operates. If not it will
explode within a minute or two. The same is true of your home furnace by the way. There
is an electric fan in a home furnace that moves the air through the ducts to the rooms in
your house. If that motor fails your furnace will shut itself down. If not it would overheat
and explode. In flight there is lots of air flowing through the inlets on the nose of the
airplane, but on the ground we need an electrically operated fan. When you turn the
heater on you also automatically turn the “blower” on – in fact the switch is labeled
“heater and blower on.” The blower is turned off automatically when the gear is retracted.
It comes on again automatically when the gear is extended. Of course you should be
worried about what will happen if the switch that turns the blower is fails. As a result we
try to minimize use of the heater after landing. The heater switch can also be set to
“blower” only position. This allows you to blow cold air through the system for cabin
ventilation. Our SOP is to switch to blower only position after landing (if the heater was
used) to cool the heater down before turning it off. Many airplanes you will fly in the
future will specifically require a certain number of minutes on blower only before turning
the heater off – our airplane has no specified limitations in that regard.
In the above we have explicated the elements of the heating system but you still
don’t know how to operate it. Before getting into that there are a few more aspects of the
heater itself that you need to understand.
When fuel is burned in the heater the results are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
and other poisonous gasses. So obviously the air within which combustion takes place
cannot be allowed to enter the cabin. Therefore you will find an exhaust pipe on the nose
of the airplane. The air that actually enters the cabin flows in a separate chamber that
surrounds the combustion chamber and then enters the plenum previously discussed. The
hot combustion chamber warms the air flowing around it, and of course the air cools the
combustion chamber. Without that cooling air flowing around it the combustion chamber
would explode within minutes, as mentioned above.
There is an “iris valve” (page 1-13 para 1) in the nose of the airplane that controls
the amount of air flowing around the heater and into the plenum. You have a T-handle
knob below the instrument panel that allows you to open and close this valve. An iris
valve works like the iris of your eye (or a camera.) Obviously if you close this valve too
much the heater will overheat and explode, consequently there is a safety switch that
turns the heater off if you pull the T-handle out more than half way. You should always
keep the T-handle all the way in. You only pull the heater out if it is extremely cold
outside and you already have the thermostat set to maximum and are still cold. In that
case you can slightly reduce the amount of air flowing through the plenum by pulling the
FTM/IPM FTM - 141

T-handle out a bit. It never gets cold enough in Castlegar to require that – so keep the T-
handle all the way in.
You can use the heater plenum as a source of cold air when it is hot in the cabin.
Just leave the heater turned off and push the T-handle in (fully open). Cold air will flow
around the heater, through the plenum and enter the cabin through the inlets. Conversely,
if it is just a bit drafty in the cabin leave the heater off and pull the T-handle all the way
out (closed) thus cutting off the air flowing through the plenum. Since the heater is not on
there is no danger. You must of course remember to push the T-handle back in the next
time you want to use the heater.
In the classroom there are several heat outlets in the floor. If you examine them
you will see that they have louvers that you can open and close. This allows you to make
one side of the room warmer than the other. The same is true in the airplane. The
Travelair has three cabin inlets, each has its own control knob that you can open and
close. One outlet is by the pilots’ feet, its control knob is labeled “pilot air” and you open
it by pulling the knob out. A second inlet is by the instructor’s feet. There is a knob for
this inlet on the instructor’s side of the panel and it to is opened by pulling the knob out.
The third outlet is the defroster, up on the dashboard. The knob for it is beside the pilot
air knob but confusingly it is pull closed, or push open (don’t you love Beechcraft?)
We are now ready to go through the sequence of steps to turn the heater on. You
should understand the reason for each of these steps based on the above. If not reread as
required until you do understand. To activate the heater do the following, in order:
1. Push the T-handle all the way in

2. Pull the thermostat knob out ½ inch or more (past experience is a good guide)
3. Pull the pilot air knob out
4. Set the defroster knob as desired
5. Invite the instructor or passenger to pull out there inlet control knob as desired
6. Turn the heater on
Note the various knobs and controls you adjust BEFORE turning the switch to the
on position. Also note that the steps above can be performed as a flow-check, starting at
the lower left of the panel and moving left to right.
If the heater does not start to produce heat after one or two minutes check a few
things before giving up. First confirm the T-handle is all the way in, then confirm your
pilot air knob is pulled out, and then pull the thermostat substantially further out. Wait to
see if this works. If not then you are going to be cold so I hope you took the advice to
have your toque and gloves reachable in flight, and I hope you are wearing suitable foot
wear.
Read page 1-14 para 1 and 2 for the final word on cabin ventilation.
Electric System
Start by reading the first paragraph describing the electric system on page 1-10.
FTM/IPM FTM - 142

Our airplanes have the optional “two 25-ampere-hour 12-volt batteries” we also
have the “two 50-ampere alternator rectifiers”.
Both alternators are controlled by a common voltage regulator. There are actually
two regulators but “only one regulator is operable in the system at a time” (page 1-10A
para 1) this is a somewhat unusual arrangement; most airplanes have a separate regulator
for each alternator. The consequence of using one regulator for two alternators is
something we will have to discuss in detail as we continue.
The electric system is a direct-current (DC) system. The alternators put out 28
volts but the two batteries, wired in series, provide only 24 volts. (In your car the
alternator puts out 14 volts and the battery is 12 volts.) A higher voltage from the
alternators means that electricity automatically flows into the batteries whenever the
alternators are working, thereby recharging the batteries.
To understand electric systems you need to understand that voltage expresses the
energy level of the electricity but amperage measures the quantity of electricity used. The
total power output (in Watts) is voltage x amperage.
We need the alternators to always provide 28 volts but the quantity (amps) of
electricity they provide must vary in order that the total power varies as you turn electric
devices on and off. You would think that the “thing” that controls this would be called a
power controller, but it is actually called a voltage-regulator. The voltage-regulator
keeps the voltage constant while allowing amps and watts to vary to match the needs of
the equipment you are operating. In summary: as you turn devices on and off you will see
the ammeters go up and down, and it is the voltage-regulator that is responsible for that.
The alternators on our airplanes can each provide 50 amps of electricity, i.e. 100
amps combined. The POH states that when idling at 1,100 rpm each alternator can
provide only 20 amps (page 1-10A). A good place for us to start is by examining the
electric load analysis for the airplane so you can put these limits into perspective. The
following document can be found in the POH for each airplane, this one is for GSAK.
FTM/IPM FTM - 143

Note that the above page is not in your personal POH; it is only in the specific
POH in the airplane. The figures in the center rectangle don’t actually appear in the real
load analysis, they have been estimated and inserted into this diagram for discussion
purposes. Let us look at this electrical load analysis to see what it tells us.
The list of items on the left represents most of the things in the airplane that use
electricity. Obviously the gear and flap motors are missing, so this is a flawed analysis.
The reason these items are left off is that they only use electricity when operated. Still
they should be listed in the “intermittent” column. The columns in the middle of the sheet
list the amperage used continuously and intermittently by the equipment. Unfortunately
the technician chose not to fill them out, so we have estimated the values for you. The
rectangle shows the estimated amperage for each individual piece of equipment. Notice
that your communications radios (KX155) use only 0.40 amps most of the time. They do
however use 4.50 amps when you transmit.
While the values in the rectangle are estimates the total amperage of 23.27 amps
is correct. That means that if you have all the equipment on you are using 23.27 amps.
Given that your two alternators could produce up to 100 amps you can see that you are
nowhere near using all your capacity. In fact 23.17 is less than half the capacity of just
one alternator.
FTM/IPM FTM - 144

At the bottom of the page is the statement “The continuous load of 23.27 amps is
within 80% of generator capacity.” The term generator is being used here in its generic
sense actually refers to the alternators. This statement contains an implication, namely
that you should not use more than 80% or your alternators capacity on a continuous basis.
This is in part to leave enough capacity for intermittent loads such as flaps and gear. It is
also because the alternators get hot the more amps they generate. On page 1-10A of your
POH there is a CAUTION not to use more than 90% (45 amps) if the outside air
temperature is more than 38 C or you are above 14,000 feet. So the 80% limitation
referred to on the electric load analysis is conservative. In our case it is moot anyway,
because even if we turn everything on and shutdown one alternator we will not reach
even 80% let alone 90% of the alternators capacity. You should however take this point
to heart because in the future when you fly airplanes with more electric equipment such
as weather radar, electric window and propeller heaters, and air conditioners, you may
well exceed the capacity of your alternator if you turn everything on at once; especially if
one alternator has failed.
The electric load analysis tells us one other important piece of information,
namely how long the battery will last if both alternators fail. The second to last paragraph
of the electric load analysis says, “Battery: 18 amp hour or 36 amps / 20 min.” This is in
contrast to the POH, which says the battery is “25 amp hour” (page 1-10). Despite the
POH claim, based on the electric load analysis you should assume the capacity of the
batter is 18 amp hours. What does this terminology mean? It means that the battery can
provide 18 amps of electricity for one hour, or 9 amps for two hours, etc. Note that it
should be able to provide 36 amps for half an hour, but the analysis says that it only
provides 36 amps for 20 minutes. How does this translate into useable time for us? In our
case the normal electric load is 23.27 amps –how long will that last? It should last about
18/23.27 = 0.77 hours. Rounding down to be conservative the battery should power all
normal equipment for 45 minutes.
The third column in the electric load analysis shows those items the technician
assumes you would turn off if both alternators failed. Note that the strobes use a lot of
electricity. The analysis shows your load is reduced to 17.07 amps, so the battery should
last just over one hour. If possible you would turn other things off such as the pitot heat
to save even more. Make sure you don’t have items such as the landing light on (not
included in the list).
Description of the Electric System

The electric system consists of the following components that we will discuss one
by one:
One 24-volt battery (actually consists of two 12-volt batteries in series)

One Battery switch (the key)
One main bus and one avionics bus
Two 50 amp alternators
Two alternator switches
Two voltage regulators (with a voltage regulator switch)
FTM/IPM FTM - 145

Two ammeters
Various switches for turning equipment on and off
Circuit breakers
o Two 50 amp alternator circuit breakers
o One 5 amp field circuit breaker
o Various other circuit breakers
o Several “fused” switches
Two starter relays
One external power receptacle
In addition to the above items that are common to both FXFG and GSAK there
are the following items that are unique to each airplane:
FXFG:
Two alternator-out lights
GSAK:
One over-voltage light
We will now go the through the above list one item at a time discussing what each
item is and how it works.
24-volt battery
The standard battery installation (page 1-10) is a single 24-volt battery, just like in
the C-172. But with two engines to start many people prefer a larger battery, so it won’t
go dead before you get both engines started. Rather than put a larger battery in Beech
chose to wire two 12-volt batteries together to make a single 24-volt battery. This double
the amount of time you can run electric equipment on battery alone before it goes dead.
The battery is located under the floor of the nose baggage compartment. There is
a drain out the bottom of the nose to let any acid or vapors that escape from the battery to
drain away.
Battery switch
In the C-172 the master switch has a left and right side. The left side turns the
alternator on and the right side turns the battery on. All airplanes require these two
functions. In the Travelair the battery switch is the key (in the C-172 the key is the
magneto switch). Theoretically no one can steal your airplane without turning the battery
on so the key provides some theft protection.
When you turn the battery switch on a relay, called a “battery contactor”, or
battery relay, is activated. The relay sends electricity to the main bus just above your
knees when you are in the pilot’s seat. The main bus is just behind all the electric
switches and circuit breakers.
The so-called battery switch should really be called the main bus switch, because
that is what it actually turns on.
FTM/IPM FTM - 146

One Main Bus and one Avionics Bus

A bus is just a hunk of steel – I guess “main hunk of steel” doesn’t sound good, so
it is called a main bus. Actually it is called a bus because a bus is something that moves
things from one place to another. A transit bus moves people and an electric bus moves
electricity. It moves electricity from either the battery or alternators and distributes it to
all the other electric equipment.
The main bus is just a piece of steel with a large wire feeding it from the
alternators. There are then circuit breakers and fused switches screwed into it (see picture
below.) Since the bus is electrified it passes electricity to the circuit breakers and
switches. These circuit breakers and switches send electricity to the various devices that
need it. ALL electricity running to all devices, except the Hobbs meter, comes from the
main bus.
The main bus did not have enough room for a separate circuit breaker for each
radio when we had our avionics replaced a few years ago. To get around that the
technician employed a very common technique, he installed a separate avionics bus.
Unlike large airplanes in which the many busses are each fed directly by one or more
alternators, our avionics bus is fed by a wire from the main bus. In effect the avionics bus
is nothing more than an extension to the main bus. The avionics power switch sends
power from the main bus to the avionics bus, which then sends power to individual
radios.
Two 50-amp alternators

Most twins have one alternator for each engine. Some four engine airplanes have
only three alternators, and there are a few twins that have only one alternator.
Alternators are always rated in terms of the maximum Amps they can produce.
Take note that at idle rpm the alternator cannot produce its full rated amperage. See page
1-10A in your POH for alternator output limits.
Each alternator is connected to the main bus by a heavy wire. At the point where
the wire connects to the main bus it passes through a 50 amp circuit breaker. That way if
an alternator went crazy and started producing too much amperage the circuit breaker
would “blow” and the bus would not be fed too much power. The alternator CBs are on
the left side of the bus.
FTM/IPM FTM - 147

Two Alternator Switches

There are two switches labeled left and right alternator on the left side of the
cabin. Alternator switches take power off the main bus from the field circuit breaker and
send power to the voltage regulator. The voltage regulator then sends power to the
alternators, which makes them work. So in reality the switches turn on the voltage
regulator not the alternator. Once the voltage regulator is activated the alternators work
automatically.
Two voltage regulators

Most airplanes have one voltage regulator for each alternator. Our airplane is a bit
unusual in that it uses only one voltage regulator to control both alternators. Remember
that we learned earlier that the voltage regulator actually regulated the amps produced by
the alternators. When you turn equipment on or off the voltage regulator senses that and
sends more current to the field windings of the alternators. Since both alternators get the
same amount of current they should both produce the same amount of amperage, which
you will see on the ammeters. However, the two alternators are not identical so it is
normal for one alternator to put out slightly more amperage than the other.
If the ONE voltage regulator fails then both alternators will stop working. This is
unacceptable; therefore the airplane has a spare voltage regulator that you can activate if
the one in use fails. You should think about how you will know that the voltage regulator
has failed. We will discuss that question later.
Two ammeters
Ammeters measure the amperage
output from each alternator. This type of
ammeter is commonly referred to as a load
meter.
The ammeters have a scale from 0 to

50 amps, because we have 50 amp alternators.
As noted above our full electric load is about 23.27 amps, so we would expect the
ammeters to read just under 25% most of the time.
If one alternator failed we would know that in part because its ammeter would
drop to zero, indicator NO OUTPUT. The remaining ammeter would jump up to 23.27,
or just under 50%.
When you retract the gear or extend flaps etc you can see the load change on the
ammeters.
Various switches for turning equipment on and off

Most of the toggle switches in the airplane are along the sub-panel just above the
pilot’s knees. Many of these switches are fused, which is explained below.
FTM/IPM FTM - 148

In addition there are three rheostat switches on the center pedestal for adjusting
the brightness of panel lights.
There are two avionics master switches beside the avionics circuit breakers. One
is labeled for emergency use only. Either of these switches sends power to the avionics
bus thereby turning on the radios.
Circuit breakers
Avionics circuit breakers are grouped on the right side of the panel just above the
instructor’s knees. All other circuit breakers are on the right side of the panel above the
pilot’s knees. GSAK also has two circuit breakers under the sub-panel where you cannot
see them, but you can feel them
Two types of circuit breakers are used. Pilots commonly refer to them as
“pullable” and “non-pullable”. A pullable circuit breaker can be grasped with your finger
tips and pulled out, thereby cutting off electricity to that circuit. A non-pullable CB is
flush when in so there is nothing to grasp and you cannot pull it.
A circuit breaker is rated at a certain amperage. If the current in the circuit

exceeds that amperage the CB “blows”. That just means that it gets too hot and pops out,
which cuts electricity off to that circuit.
It is CRITICAL to know that CBs pop because they get too hot. Normal practice
is to reset a popped circuit breaker ONCE, and only once. If it pops a second time you
must assume the circuit is faulty. If you keep resetting, or hold the CB in, you WILL
CAUSE A FIRE.
The purpose of a circuit breaker is to prevent fires due to too much current
flowing in a circuit. Each circuit can carry a different amount of current without starting a
fire, so there are different size circuit breakers. Thick wires can carry a lot of current, thin
wires can only carry a small amount. Therefore the size of CB used is proportional to the
thickness of the wires in a given circuit.
The two circuit breakers labeled left and right alternator are the only circuit
breakers controlling the amount of current entering the bus. All the other CBs control the
amount of current leaving the main bus. Each alternator circuit breaker is rated at 50
amps. Don’t confuse them with the 5-amp field circuit breaker.
The 5-amp field circuit breaker (on the main bus) supplies current to the alternator
switches, which in turn supply current to the voltage regulators, which in turn send
current to the alternators, which in turn send current to the main bus (through the 50 amp
CBs mentioned above). NOTE that this is a circular pattern; if the circle is broken the
electric system will stop working.
Fused Switches
Every electric circuit MUST be protected with a circuit breaker or fuse. To do
otherwise would risk a fire in the event that a particular circuit started to draw too much
power. ANY circuit will draw too much power if a short circuit occurs. A short circuit
FTM/IPM FTM - 149

typically happens when a wires insulating cover is damages and the wire core touches a
metal object. The results are sparks flying and a rapid increase in the current flow through
that circuit. Within seconds a fire will start unless the electricity is cut off. But when this
scenario happens the circuit breaker feeding that circuit will heat up and pop saving the
day and preventing a fire.
A fuse does the same thing as a circuit breaker except that once it “pops” it cannot
be reset. The Travelair does not use any pilot accessible fuses, but it does use many fused
switches.
A fused switch is just what it sounds like, a

switch with a built in fuse. When the current on the
circuit gets too high the switch turns itself off. Fused
switches protect many circuits in the Travelair; if
one pops you may hear it make a clicking sound.
You then would glance at the switch and might find
yourself saying, “I could swear we had the pitot heat
turned on” as you notice the switch in the off
position. If you try to turn the switch back on you
will find that you cannot; this in a very unfortunate
disadvantage of fused switches, once one pops you
CANNOT reset it, you must leave it off and a
mechanic must put a new switch in on the ground.
You can tell which switches are fused by looking closely at each switch. The
fused switches have small numbers embossed into the tip of the toggle (see picture
above). This number represents the amperage rating of the switch.
Two starter Relays

So far we have learned that too much current in a circuit will start a fire. We also
learned that large wires can carry more current safely than thin wires. We also know that
the main bus can only support 100 amps.
The starter requires 300 amps. Given all that we have learned it seems impossible
to use the starter without setting the main bus on fire. If we run 300 amps through it and
send that to the starter surely the bus will ignite.
The solution is to bypass the main bus when operating the starters. A heavy wire,
suitable for carrying 300 amps is run directly from the battery to each starter, bypassing
the main bus. If that was all there was to it the starter would run all the time. Obviously
there must be a switch in that wire that turns the starter on or off. Such a switch would
have to be a very heavy-duty switch in order to carry 300 amps without catching fire.
That is exactly the case--the switch is a heavy duty relay capable of carrying the high
amperage. You activate the starter with the starter switch in the cabin, which takes a
FTM/IPM FTM - 150

small amount of current from the main bus and sends it to the starter relay. This small
amount of current causes the relay to close thereby sending 300 amps to the starter.
The above-described system is used on almost all small airplanes.
One external power receptacle

An external power receptacle is used when the battery is weak, or anytime you
want to prevent draining the battery such as when an AME is working on the airplane or
its avionics.
When your car battery is dead you might use “jumper cables” to “boost the
battery”. Taking the nose apart and putting jumper cables on the battery of the airplane is
dangerous and illegal. Instead you connect a specially designed jumper cable to the
external power plug. The plug is on the outboard side of the left engine cowling. This
location was chosen so that you can unplug the cable safely even with the engines
running.
NOTE that when connecting external power use MUST use a 24-volt power
supply.
It is possible to use a 24-volt battery as the external power source.
If you cross the wires when jumping your car you will see lots of sparks flying
and may do severe damage to you cars electric system. To prevent that on the Travelair
there is a reverse polarity relay that won’t close if you connect the external power
backwards. So if you plug into external power and nothing happens check that you have
your positive and negative terminals straight.
Two Alternator-out Lights

Only FXFG has alternator out lights. These lights illuminate when the
corresponding alternator stops producing power. When a light is on the corresponding
ammeter should read zero.
One Over-voltage Light

Only GSAK has an over-voltage light. The name of the light is a misnomer, when
the light is on you do not HAVE an over-voltage – you HAD an over-voltage. The light
comes on to tell you that the over-voltage relay sensed a voltage of more than 28-volts
and has shut down your alternators. By the time the light illuminates the voltage won’t be
high any more, because the alternators have been shutdown.
NOTE that both our airplanes have an over-voltage relay. This relay (electric
switch) is between the alternator switches and the voltage regulator. It senses when
voltage goes above 28-volts and cuts off power to the voltage regulator. Once the
regulator has no power it cannot activate the alternators so they simply stop working.
It is vital for you to realize that both our airplanes have over-voltage relays that
shutdown the alternators if the voltage gets too high. The only difference is that GSAK
has a red light that comes on when the relay activates and FXFG has no light to warn you
FTM/IPM FTM - 151

that the relay has opened. So, how would you know in FXFG? Because both alternator
out lights would come on at the same time.
You can reset the relay by turning the alternator and battery switches off for three
seconds. Alternatively you can switch to the second voltage regulator. Each regulator has
its own over-voltage relay.
If the relay opens a second time then something serious is wrong and you should
not reset the relay a second time for fear of starting a fire. Instead operate on battery only
and land the airplane ASAP. See earlier discussion for advice on how long the battery
will last.
Cowl Flap System

Cowl flaps are small doors on the bottom of the engine cowling. When you close
them they block air off from exiting the cowling. The less air that exits the less that enters
through the front, so the warmer the engine gets. Cowl flaps therefore are used to control
engine temperature.
On the Travelair the cowl flaps are opened and closed by a small electric motor.
The cowl flaps can be fully open or fully closed but not set to intermediate positions. This
is somewhat unusual, most airplanes have cowl flaps that can be set to intermediate
positions.
Your main reference is setting the cowl flaps is cylinder head temperature (CHT).
In The Travelair we like to keep the engine temperature around 350° F if possible, so if
the temperature is below 350° the cowl flaps should be closed and if above 350° they
should be opened.
Years ago, before multi-grade oils we used to need to adjust the cowl flaps on the
Travelair open in climbs and closed in cruise. In the last 15 years we have been using
synthetic multi-viscosity oil, which is much better at dissipating heat. As a result it now
seems to be the case that cowl flaps are kept closed almost all the time from just after
takeoff to just after landing. Don’t make the mistake of thinking this will be the case with
airplanes you may fly in the future. Get into the habit of checking CHT and adjusting
cowl flaps as needed.
Gear System and Malfunctions

The retractable gear system in the Travelair is fully electric. This is a bit unusual
since most gear systems are either hydraulic or partially electric and partially hydraulic.
The advantage of our system is that no heavy hydraulic components are needed.
The gear system has only ONE motor. The motor turns a gearbox that is directly
under the pilots’ seat. The gearbox pushes three tubes, one out into each wing and one
forward to the nose wheel. These tubes push the gear down. When the motor reverses the
three tubes are pulled in toward the gearbox retracting the gear.
FTM/IPM FTM - 152

The gear is held up by a mechanical up-lock. On your preflight inspection you

should check the up-lock roller for freedom and ensure that the up-lock release cable is
secure. If the up-lock release cable did not work your gear would be stuck up.
The gear is held down by an over center mechanism on the three gear legs. There
isn’t anything to check on this other than to note that the gear down arm is slightly over
center (in reality it should look almost straight, if it looks at all bent toward the unlocked
side on the preflight DO NOT move the airplane, have an AME inspect it).
In the cabin gear down is indicated by ONE green light. This is somewhat
unusual; most airplanes have three green lights, one for each gear. Some airplanes have
only one green light but there are three switches, one on each gear leg; all these switches
must be closed in order for the gear down light to illuminate. Unfortunately the Travelair
has ONLY ONE switch, on the left main gear: as a result when the green light is on you
only no for sure that the left main gear is down.
Is it possible for the left main to be down and locked but one of the other two gear
legs is not down and locked?
Because the gear system consists of three solid tubes mechanically connected to a
gearbox it is NOT possible for one gear to go down without the other two going down
UNLESS one of the steel tubes bends or breaks. This justifies Beech’s decision to put a
switch on only one gear leg, but it leaves us pilots with cold comfort knowing that if a
gear extension tube has broken we won’t know until the gear collapses under us on
landing.
To minimize our concerns about the

gear Beech provides us with a mechanical
viewing window to check the nose gear
position (see picture to left). You should
always check that the nose gear is down by
glancing at this indicator prior to landing.
Don’t expect it to be precisely accurate, but it
really doesn’t need to be as all we normally
need from it is confirmation that the tube to the
nose gear is not broken. In the event of loss of
electric power we would however have to
count on the mechanical indicator to tell us that
the gear is down. For that purpose it is not
ideal, but it would have to do in an emergency.
Normal operation of retractable landing gear is trivial; you move the switch up
and the gear goes up, you move it down and the gear goes down. The only thing to
remember is the maximum operating speed. The real challenge of retractable gear is
when it doesn’t work properly. Be advised that you WILL have gear malfunctions in your
flying career; they are very common. A complex mechanical device like a retractable
FTM/IPM FTM - 153

gear will fail every few thousand hours so expect that in your 20,000 hour flying career
you will have at least four or five occasions when you don’t get that green light after
selecting gear down.
Knowing that a gear malfunction is definitely in your future you should spend
some time planning how you will handle it. Your training will include the procedure to
extend the gear manually, but that is only one of many possible scenarios you will face in
your career. Nevertheless, let’s start with that.
Someday you will extend the gear and the green light won’t come on, what do
you do? The first thing you should do is check that the green light isn’t rotated to the dim
position so that you just can’t see that it is on. Next you should press-to-test the light and
replace it if it is burned out (use the red gear up light as the replacement). If the gear
really isn’t down then you proceed to the manual gear extension procedure.
There is only one gear motor; normal procedure is to replace it when it fails, i.e.
after someone has to hand-crank the gear down a new motor is installed. So, someone is
going to have to do this for real every thousand hours or so and everyone else will do it
two or three times for practice. Manually cranking the gear down is no big deal, just a
slight workout for your right arm. Read the procedure on page 5-12 and 5-13 of your
POH, also read the emergency gear extension checklist in appendix 1. Pay particular
attention to the sentence in the middle of page 5-13 that says, “If electrical system is
operative also check your position light and warning horn”. It should be clear that if there
is electric power you should get a gear down light after a manual extension. You should
also throttle back to idle, with BOTH engines and confirm that the gear warning horn
does not sound.
Now that we have covered the straightforward situation of manually extending the
gear, presumably due to either failure of the gear motor or loss of electric power we must
discuss other scenarios. One is gear stuck up; this might happen if you didn’t notice a
broken up-lock cable on our preflight.
The procedure for gear-up landing is on page 5-12, read it. Notice that it is much
better to land on a paved runway than a grass runway. This may seem wrong to you but it
is VERY TRUE. If you “belly land” on a paved runway you won’t do much damage
except to the propellers (and therefore engines). Some people advocating feathering one
engine and making a single engine approach to cut the engine damage in half. This would
be very risky however and should only be considered if the single engine performance is
excellent (i.e. the airplane if well below maximum weight and the density altitude is near
sea level).
A much more serious situation arises when some of the gear legs go down and
some do not. As mentioned above the single gear light in the Travelair means that you
may not recognize this situation until it is too late to do anything about it, but it is still a
scenario we should discuss and have a plan for. You may be assured that someday you
will be flying an airplane with three green lights and one of them will remain off after
FTM/IPM FTM - 154

you extend the gear. It behooves you to think about what you will do now so that under
the stress of the actual situation you don’t do something foolish.
Start by looking for a checklist for the situation. Some airplanes however do not
have such a checklist. In that case you must reason your way through the situation alone.
This is one situation where you knowledge of how the gear system works is important.
You probably start by asking yourself whether there really is one gear not down or do
you have an indicator problem. Test all the lights, if one is burned out replace it. Once
you know that one gear really isn’t down some pilots just mindlessly retract the gear and
re-extend it, this is called recycling the gear. In some airplanes this is exactly the right
thing to do and in some it is completely the wrong thing to do. You need to know which
type of airplane you are in. Discuss this question with more experienced pilots as part of
your initial checkout when you start with the company. For the Travelair recycling in the
situation where the green light is on but either the right main or nose wheel is not down is
the WRONG thing to do. As we saw earlier, the only way this could happen is if a push
tube is broken or bent so recycling cannot fix that and may cause the gear to hang-up
making the situation worse.
In a partial gear situation start by contacting ground personnel; call your company
dispatcher and have them bring in an AME to talk with you. Make a low and over and
have the AME look at the gear as you fly by. S/he may be able to see what is wrong and
advise you whether there is anything you can do. For example the gear may look down
and the AME may suggest a recycle, even in the Travelair.
Let’s assume that you have thoroughly discussed the situation with your company
personnel and have concluded that you cannot get the offending gear leg down. Now
what? First, the company may want you to go to a particular location for the gear-up
landing where the airplane can be repaired afterward. Confirm you have enough fuel, and
then go there. When thinking about that discuss whether the gear should be retracted
enroute or should you fly there with the two gear legs left down.
The big question in most pilots’ minds is whether to retract the gear and land on
the belly or land on two gear legs. This used to be a major source of argument among
pilots but it has been done both ways so many times over the years that statistics now
settle the argument. You will do less damage landing on two gear legs than on the belly.
If you must land with no nose-gear the procedure is quite straightforward. Try to
use up as much fuel as possible before landing. Have your passengers ready for an
emergency evacuation and emergency personnel standing by. Make a normal landing and
try to keep the nose up as long as possible, but before the tail stalls set the nose down
gently. Steer with the brakes, the airplane will stop with minimal damage. The only major
(expensive) damage will be to the propellers and engines. As mentioned earlier, landing
with one engine feathered is not recommended unless the circumstances are very ideal.
If you must land with one main-gear leg up the procedure is also straightforward.
Make sure you will be landing on a paved runway. Try to use up all the fuel on the side
of the failed gear, use crossfeed to consume the fuel from that side. The lighter the wing
FTM/IPM FTM - 155

is the longer you will be able to keep it up after landing. Make a normal full-flap landing.
Hold the wing up as long as possible. When the wing goes down the tip will drag along
the ground. Keep straight with opposite brake. You might think the airplane will
cartwheel but it won’t; if you use the brake you can keep the airplane straight and stop on
the centerline with minimal damage. The propeller and engine on the failed side will
strike the ground and be damaged. As always, a single engine landing is not advisable in
a low power airplane.
Vacuum System and Malfunctions

GSAK has two vacuum pumps, one on each engine. FXFG has two pressure
pumps, one on each engine. The vacuum pumps are used to drive your attitude indicator,
they also power the backup heading indicator on the instructors side of the panel (the HSI
is electric).
Either a vacuum or a pressure source can operate gyro instruments such as the
attitude indicator. For some reason Beech chose to use vacuum in 1966 (GSAK) and a
pressure system in 1968 (FXFG). There is no operational difference to use as the pilot.
When both pumps are working the two indicator tabs on the suction/pressure
gauge disappear. If one tab appears in flight the corresponding pump has failed. One
pump is sufficient to operate the instruments normally, so you have redundancy.
If both pumps fail your Attitude Indicator will not work but your HSI and turn
coordinator will still work. You will practice this situation many times during your IFR
training.
Gyro Slaving System

The PN-101 HSI has a remote gyro and a separate slaving mechanism (flux gate).
The gyro is in the nose of the airplane and the flux gate is in the tail of the airplane,
behind the baggage compartment, just below the ELT.
In the simple heading indicator such as in the C-172 there is a small gyro about 2-
inches across within the heading indicator. In the Travelair the gyro is in the nose of the
airplane and wires connect it to the heading indicator. They gyro is driven by an electric
motor (in the C-172 the gyro is turned by airflow from the vacuum pump).
You can turn the slaving system (flux

gate) on or off using the switch below the
PN-101 (see picture to left). Once the system
is off you can manually set the HI using the
clockwise (CW) and counter-clockwise
(CCW) switch. This switch is spring loaded
to the middle.
FTM/IPM FTM - 156

Fuel System and Fuel Flow Gauge

Be sure to read the Owner’s Manual Supplement that is inside the front cover of
you POH. The useable fuel of the main tanks is only 22 gallons despite what it says on
page 1-6.
Examine the diagram on page 1-7 of your POH. Our aircraft have the optional 25
gallon main tanks (22 useable) with the 31 gallon auxiliary tanks. GSAK also has two
nacelle tanks that are not shown in the diagram. These gravity feed fuel into the main
tanks however we do not use them.
The diagram shows the main components of the fuel system all of which you must
understand. Besides the four fuel tanks (six on GSAK) there are:
Four Fuel Tanks

Two engine driven fuel pumps
Two electric “Boost” pumps
Two fuel strainers
Two fuel selector valves
Two crossfeed lines
In addition to the items shown on the diagram there are also:
One fuel flow gauge with two needles

Two fuel gauges
One fuel gauge switch
Two fuel selector switches
To fuel pump switches
One EGT gauge with two needles
We will now discuss each of the above.
Our airplanes have the optional fuel system consisting of two 25 gallon main
tanks and two 31 gallon auxiliary tanks. GSAK also has two nacelle tanks, which we do
not use. It is important for you to no that the fuel tanks have rubber bladders. This is very
different than the C-172 where the fuel tank is made of aluminum. A rubber bladder can
be easily damages so it is imperative that you NOT use any dipsticks when estimating
how much fuel remains during a preflight inspection. It is also possible for a bladder to
rupture, so look for signs of fuel leaks on every preflight (every bladder in our airplanes
has ruptured and been replaced at some point during the life of the airplane, and will
likely rupture again in the future).
The engine driven fuel pumps suck fuel out of the fuel tanks. This contrasts to the
C-172 where gravity feed fuel to the engine. Because the Travelair needs pumps to draw
fuel from the tanks the engine will obviously not run if the pump fails.
FTM/IPM FTM - 157

There are two electric fuel pumps, one in each wheel well. These pumps “backup”
the engine driven pumps. If an engine pump fails the electric pump can keep the engine
running. We always turn the electric pumps on for takeoff or landing, which provides
redundancy in the event any one of the pumps should fail. You MUST get in the habit of
checking fuel flow when the electric fuel pumps are turned off just in case an engine
driven pump failed. If it had you would not know until you turned the electric pump off.
The two fuel strainers are in the wheel wells. They provide a low spot for water to
collect (water is heavier than fuel). In the C-172 you drain the strainer by pulling the
knob by the oil filler cap. In the Travelair you must get down under the wing and drain
the strainer with a cup, the same way you check the fuel tanks for water. Always drain
the strainer BEFORE moving the airplane around. If you do move it first then let it sit for
10 minutes before checking for water.
The fuel selector valves shown on page 1-7 are between the pilot and copilot
seats. They are operated with the fuel selector switches. Each valve can be set to main,
auxiliary, crossfeed, or off. The picture above shows both selectors on main. Think of
each selector as representing the corresponding engine, with the switch you choose where
the engine gets fuel from. Main and auxiliary are obvious. When you chose crossfeed the
engine gets fuel from the other fuel selector valve – therefore it gets fuel from wherever
the other fuel selector valve is set. If one selector is off and the other is on crossfeed then
both are in effect off. If one selector is on main and the other is on crossfeed then both are
in effect on the main tank on the side of the selector set to main. The picture below shows
both engines operating on the right main tank – i.e. the left selector is on crossfeed and
the right selector is on main.
FTM/IPM FTM - 158

The fuel selector MUST be on main for

takeoff and landing. There is a warning light
connected to the gear that comes on if you
select gear down with the fuel on auxiliary –
this is to warn you NOT TO LAND on auxiliary
tanks.
The crossfeed lines connect the two selectors on the Travelair. You should know
that not every airplane crossfeed system works the same as this one. Some airplanes have
crossfeed lines that go from the selector to a tank on the other side of the airplane rather
than the other selector valve. Both systems are easy to use and understand but it is
important that you know how the system on your airplane works.
The airplane has a two-needle fuel flow gauge.

The gauge works based on fuel pressure therefore there
is no need to have a separate fuel pressure gauge.
Normally you set fuel flow to the value determined in
your preflight calculations. The gauge also has percent
power markings that you can use to set fuel flow if you
know what percent power you have set. Each percent
fuel flow has a range of fuel flows corresponding to
maximum economy at the bottom to maximum power
at the top. The cruise performance chart in appendix 14
is based on best economy. Generally it is better to set
fuel flow by the chart than by the percent power
markings. The gauge also shows what the fuel flow
should be in a climb at various altitudes. Remember
that mixtures should be full rich below 5,000 feet when
climbing, but above 5,000 feet reduce fuel flow to the
corresponding climb fuel flow marked on the gauge.
The airplane has four fuel tanks but only two fuel gauges.
FTM/IPM FTM - 159

There is a fuel gauge switch at the

lower right of the pilot side sub-panel.
Using this switch you set the fuel gauges to
show either quantity in the main tanks or
the auxiliary tanks. CAUTION; always
keep the gauge switch on the same tanks
being used. Never takeoff with less than 13
gallons in each main tank; there is a yellow
arc on the fuel gauge to warn you when
fuel is below 13 gallons6.
The two fuel pump switches are just above the fuel gauge switch. When turning
the pumps on just flip them both on together. When turning the fuel pumps off turn one
switch off, check the fuel flow for a few seconds, then turn the second pump off and
check the fuel flow again for a few seconds.
There is an EGT gauge on the right side of the panel. As you lean the mixture
EGT increases up to a maximum temperature, then begins to drop. Maximum economy
occurs when the EGT is at maximum. Setting mixture by EGT is the surest way to get
optimum fuel economy. Unfortunately it takes several minutes to perform and on the
short trips we fly is not practical. Therefore, we normally set mixture by the fuel flow
gauge rather than the EGT.
Use of Crossfeed
Under normal circumstances the left engine operates on the left main or aux tank
and the right engine operates on the right tanks. Since both engines consume the same
amount of fuel there is not normally a need to crossfeed to balance the fuel load, but that
could be done if the fuel load becomes uneven.
In the event of an engine failure you should crossfeed to lighten the weight on the
side of the failed engine. The light the failed engine side is the easier it is to fly on one
engine. Additionally, cross-feeding when on single engine may be necessary to increase
range if you must fly a long way to reach an airport.
Never takeoff or land with the fuel selector on crossfeed.
Flight Manual Supplements

Your POH does not contain most of the flight manual supplements that Beech has
issued for the Travelairs over the years. All the supplements are in the POHs in the
airplanes, but for convenience a summary is provided here. In appendix 15 you will find
the complete text of supplements that are particularly critical for you to read.
Supplement Description
96-5900011-7 Do not takeoff with less than 13 gallons in main tank
6
This restriction is not in your POH but it can be found in airplane flight supplement 96-590011-7, which
is in the airplanes’ POH.
FTM/IPM FTM - 160

96-5900011-7 If engine stops due to fuel depletion when on auxiliary tanks:

1. Trim aircraft for straight and level flight
2. Switch fuel selectors to main tanks
3. Boost pumps On (failed engine side)
4. Boost pumps OFF when power regained
5. Retrim aircraft
130776 Do not make turning type take-off or take off immediately following
fast taxi turn.
To prevent fuel flow interruption, avoid prolonged operation (20

seconds or longer) in a slip of skid attitude with main tanks less than
one-half full.
95-5900014-69 Do not exceed 23 in. Hg manifold pressure below 2300 rpm.
95-590002-9 Position a placard on the fuel selectors saying:
“Warning – Position selectors in detents only. No fuel flow to engines
between detents.”
98431F GPS installation approval
Pilot Guide must be available to pilot in flight. The entire text of this
supplement is reproduced in appendix 15
95-590000-1 A Red auxiliary fuel tank annunciator light will illuminate if either one
of the auxiliary fuel tanks is selected when the landing gear is extended.
Auxiliary fuel tanks are to be used during level flight only and not
during takeoff or landing.
5013 (GSAK ) Approval for installation of nacelle tanks (which we don’t use).
Short and Soft Field Takeoffs and Landings

Most of the exercises you will do as part of your multiengine training are covered
on the multiengine flight test (MFT). However short and soft field takeoffs and landings
are not on the flight test, but we do them in training.
Short Field Takeoff and Landing Technique

The charts on page 6-4 to 5-5 of your POH specify that Vr is 60.8 KIAS and that
you use 20 degrees of flaps for a short field takeoff. Page 3.2 specifies the climb speed to
50 feet as 78 KIAS.
At Selkirk College we have rejected Beech’s suggestion to rotate at 61 knots

because it is below Vmc. We therefore modify the procedure so that we rotate at 71 and
climb at 78 until clear of any obstacles. We then accelerate to Vy and retract the flaps
above 80 KIAS. Just as in the C-172 you should taxi to the very end of the runway and
hold the brakes until full power is developed. Be careful not to run full power against the
brakes for more than one or two seconds as you will be sucking small sand grains into the
engine and propeller causing needless wear and tear.
FTM/IPM FTM - 161

Page 6-23 of your POH specifies that short field approaches are made with full
flaps at a speed of 74 KIAS.
While you could theoretically wait until short final to slow to 74 KIAS, you will
find that when you do a short field landing that you must establish 74 knots a reasonable
distance on final or risk either too high a speed, or a very hard landing when you
misjudge the transition. Therefore, plan to slow to 74 soon after turning final. To
accommodate that plan to be at 85 knots on mid base. NOTE that these speeds are well
below the speeds we normally fly, so your energy reserve in the even of an engine failure
is poor. You will also find that the controls are rather sloppy due to the low speed.
DO NOT reduce power to zero in the flare. DO NOT allow the speed to drop
below 74 Kts on the approach. If you do either of these you will have a hard landing and
could damage the airplane. Proper technique is to bring the power smoothly to idle while
flaring so that the power reaches zero as the main-wheels touchdown.
After landing on a short field you must retract the flaps and hold the wheel back
while applying maximum braking. Even though it is important to retract the flaps
promptly it is CRITICAL to avoid retracting the gear, so take an extra second to confirm
you have the flap lever (not the gear lever) before retracting the flaps.
Soft Field Takeoff and Landing Technique

The POH does not give any specific procedures for soft field takeoffs or landings.
The general procedures as outlined in the Transport Canada Flight Training Manual
would apply. We do not actually operate the B95 on soft runways be we will practice a
few soft field landings on the paved runway.
A soft field takeoff would involve raising the nose wheel off the ground and
allowing the airplane to lift off into ground effect. Inevitable the airplane will lift off well
below Vmc, which makes the procedure dangerous in the event of an engine failure.
Therefore we will not do it as part of your training.
A soft field landing is much easier to conduct safely, because the power is very
low at touchdown, so Vmc is not a concern. Plan the approach at minimum speed (74
KIAS) with full flaps. Hold the airplane off to touchdown at the minimum speed.
Normally just a slight amount of throttle will remain on until the main wheels
touchdown.
After landing keep the nose up for a few seconds but DO NOT try to keep the
nose up too long. As the airplane slows down the tail (elevators) will eventually stall and
the nose wheel will drop on hard, so it is better to gently set the nose wheel down before
the tail stalls. Apply brakes as needed for the length of the runway. As in any airplane try
to keep moving – i.e. don’t stop while taxiing.
Description of the Multiengine Flight Test (MFT)

A copy of the multiengine flight test guide is in appendix 13, you MUST read it.
FTM/IPM FTM - 162

You must get an application form AND recommendation letter from your
instructor before coming for the flight test.
Your multiengine flight test will start with a ground briefing. You must come with
your normal preflight preparations including weight and balance, takeoff and landing
distance, ASD, AGD, etc. If you prepare as per a normal Selkirk College flight you will
have all the required items.
The ground briefing will take about one hour. You will be questioned on the
airplane and its systems as well as the theory of multi engine flying. Memorize the speeds
specified in the flight test guide, they WILL be asked. There are some sample questions
below for you to use when preparing. You can also expect to be asked to demonstrate the
use of the cruise performance chart.
The flight will start with a walk-around, the examiner will observe your
inspection and ask a few questions about the airplane.
You MUST give a passenger briefing, so be prepared.
You will fly one circuit to demonstrate a normal takeoff, circuit and normal
landing. You may do a touch and go or stop and backtrack at your discretion.
You will then go to a practice area where you will setup for cruise. You will then
experience an engine failure and perform the engine failure in cruise drill.
You will then work through the other flight test exercise, which are all described
in the guide.
The last exercise is the single engine approach and landing. See the advice below.
Multiengine Flight Test Exercises

The most unique exercises on the multiengine flight test are the engine failures.
Those have been extensively discussed above.
In this section we will discuss the remaining multiengine flight test exercises:
1. Circuit
2. Stall
3. Slow flight
4. Single engine approach
5. Emergencies
Multiengine Circuit
When flying a circuit in the twin do NOT do the post-takeoff checklist. When
leveling on downwind keep the power back to remain at 120 KIAS. Extend the gear
abeam the touchdown point – IF normal traffic conditions exist. If there is traffic adjust
the gear and power settings to suit the circumstances.
FTM/IPM FTM - 163

The Vref speed for the Travelair is 80 KIAS. This speed is to be reached at “the
numbers.” All other approach speeds are referenced to this speed.
Normally downwind power is about 17 to 18 inches of MP. Speed is Vref + 40

(120 KIAS).
Once the gear is extended stay level until the speed drops well below 113, then
extend 10 flaps. During the turn to base keep the speed at Vref + 25 (105 KIAS).
On base power usually is reduced to 15 to 16 inches of MP. When ready extend

20 flaps and slow to Vref + 20 (100 KIAS).
On final extend full flaps and slow to Vref + 15 (95 KIAS). Once established on
final complete the “final check,” which is props full fine, gear down and locked.
Multiengine Stalls
Do NOT use the C-172 procedure of applying full power immediately on a stall
recovery. You will be below Vmc and if one engine is slow to respond will flip yourself
into a spin. Instead apply no more than 20 inches MP then pause for a second. Once both
engines are confirmed to be working smoothly apply the rest of the power.
Multiengine – Slow Flight Exercise

The flight test guide calls for you to slow down to Vmc + 10 WITHOUT using
the gear or flaps. You must then add the gear and flaps without losing speed or altitude.
Obviously as you add drag power must be increased. You need to practice this until you
can do it precisely. Consider practicing it in the simulator as well as with your instructor
in the airplane.
Multiengine – Single Engine Approach

Read the generic discussion of single engine approaches on page 127.
The single engine approach is often the most poorly done exercise on the
multiengine flight test. It is the similar to the forced approach on the commercial flight
test; it requires a great deal of judgment. On forced approaches things go easier if you use
the high-key / low-key system, mostly because it gives you two intermediate
“checkpoints” to judge your progress. In the same way you should plan altitudes for
certain points in a single engine arrival. For example you want to be at circuit altitude just
as you turn base, so plan back from there and chose a location to be 1,000’ above circuit
altitude and probably a location to be at some higher altitude, dependant on your starting
altitude for the exercise. Normally you would keep speed at 120+ until base turn then
extend the gear and keep speed at about Vyse + 10 (Vref + 25) until sure things look
good. You would then add partial flap (10-degrees) and slow to Vyse + 5 (Vref + 20) and
maintain that until committed to landing (less than 500’ agl.) Once committed to landing
flaps can be used as required based on runway length. If the runway is short cross the
threshold at Vref, but if the runway is long consider crossing the threshold at Vref + 5.
FTM/IPM FTM - 164

The secret to a single engine approach is energy management. Your speed and
altitude are both sources of energy. You must completely dissipate both by the time you
land, but if you give them up to soon you could come up short of the runway. Obviously
that is more likely if the airport is at or above the singe engine service ceiling of the
airplane. At Selkirk College we would like to see you fly every single engine arrival as
though the airport is above the single engine service ceiling. As such you will be
descending the whole way through.
To judge the quality of your single engine approach planning here is a rule of
thumb. I you need more than 20 inches of MP you planned too shallow an approach. But
if you need to extend the gear at more than 1,500’ agl, or reduce power below 15 inches
MP at more than one mile from the runway you planned too steep of an arrival.
In short, your objective is to start descent to the airport from a location where you
can set about 17.5 inches MP and make only small adjustments from there to arrive on
final – on the glidepath. Your speed should not drop below 120 until 1,000’ to 1,500’ agl.
At that point the gear would be extended and speed would drop to below 113. After that
you would use flaps as needed, considering the runway length, winds, etc. to arrive on
final at or above Vyse. On a perfect approach the power of the operating engine will
slowly be reduced from 17.5 below 1,000’ agl so that less than 15 inches remain by short
final.
If you find that you are being forced to add power on final, and especially if the
power must be raised above 20 inches MP on final you have misjudged the approach.
You should realize that if the density altitude had been higher you might not have landed
safely – you should strive to improve your judgment on the next lesson (you should
expect less than an ideal mark on your MFT).
Multiengine – Emergencies
On the flight test the examiner will give you several simulated emergency
scenarios. Some may be presented as questions on the ground, such as “what would you
do if the green gear down light doesn’t illuminate when you select gear down?” Others
may be tested in the airplane, on the apron. For example the examiner might set all the
controls in normal flight position then ask you to perform the engine fire drill, or engine
fire on start drill, etc. Emergencies can also be tested in the air. For example the examiner
might ask you to demonstrate what you would do if smoke filled the cabin, or an oil
pressure gauge dropped to zero, etc.
The main point to note is that you must PRACTICE your emergencies in all three
venues so that you are not thrown off. It is not uncommon for a student who has only
practiced engine fire drills in flight to set “simulated” feather when asked to perform the
drill on the ground. Sometimes a candidate can explain a procedure in a briefing, but does
something completely different when asked to perform the procedure inflight.
Go over the list of emergencies in the Flight Test Guide (appendix 13) and
practice them all, in all three venues.
FTM/IPM FTM - 165

Multiengine Test Questions

Here is a list of questions that you might encounter in real life of flight test
situations:
1. What make of engine does the Travelair have?

2. What is the displacement of the engine?
3. What is the brake horsepower (BHP) of the engine?
4. What engine driven accessories does the Travelair have?
5. How do engine driven accessories affect BHP?
6. What things should be systematically checked if engine roughness occurs?
7. How long do you wait for an oil pressure indication on startup before shutting
down the engine?
8. What is the procedure if CHT reaches the upper red line?
9. What is the normal maximum magneto drop during runup?
10. What type of oil does the Travelair use?
11. What is the minimum safe amount of oil in each engine?
12. Can the airplane’s oil dipsticks be interchanged?
13. Why are the propeller controls normally pushed forward before landing?
14. Explain how the propellers are driven into feather.
15. How long does it take for a propeller to feather?
16. What would happen if the speeder spring in the governor broke?
17. What is a synchrophaser?
18. Under what circumstances if any could two gear legs be down and one not down
in the Travelair?
19. When the gear a cycle completes why does the gear motor stop?
20. What is a squat switch and how does it work?
21. How many squat switches are there on the Travelair, where are they, and what do
they control?
22. What causes the green gear down light to illuminate?
23. Where is the brake fluid reservoir in the Travelair?
24. Can the landing gear position lights be dimmed? How?
25. When does the landing gear horn sound?
26. What is the procedure for using external power?
27. Where is the battery located?
28. Does a battery require ventilation? Why?
29. What is the difference between an alternator and a generator?
30. What does a voltage regulator do?
31. What is the procedure if the over voltage warning light illuminates?
32. How much fuel does the airplane hold?
33. What is the procedure to crossfeed fuel?
34. When are electric fuel pumps needed?
35. Where are the electric fuel pumps?
36. How are the engines primed for startup?
37. Where does cabin heat come from?
38. Where are the static ports?
39. Where are the alternate static ports?
FTM/IPM FTM - 166

40. How is vacuum pump failure indicated to the pilot?

41. How is the static system drained?
42. What is the limit on cranking the starter?
43. What do cowl flaps do?
44. How are the flaps operated? (what is the power source?)
45. Where is the external power plug located?
46. What is the airplane’s maximum landing weight?
47. Can the airplane be flown with four average persons onboard with full fuel?
48. What happens if the c of g is too far forward?
49. What happens if the c of g is too far aft?
50. Where is the weight and balance datum for this airplane?
51. What does the basic empty weight include?
52. What happens to the c of g as fuel is burned?
53. What happens to the c of g when the landing gear is retracted?
54. What is Va, and when is it used?
55. What does the blue radial on the ASI represent?
56. How is Vmc marked on an ASI?
57. What is the maximum crosswind limit for this airplane?
58. What manifold pressure and rpm indications would you expect in flight if an
engine has been shutdown and feathered?
59. What is the maximum allowable rpm drop during the runup feather check?
60. What is the single largest drag producer on this airplane?
61. Which creates more drag, full flaps or gear?
62. Define accelerate stop distance.
63. What is the airplanes single engine service ceiling at 3900 lb?
64. What factors determine the single engine absolute ceiling?
Consider going over the above list of questions with your instructor just prior to the MFT.
FTM/IPM FTM - 167

29-Emergency Procedures
General and detailed advice for any emergency procedure students have shown
trouble with should go here. For example loss of oil pressure, com failures, engine fires,
runaway prop.
FTM/IPM FTM - 168

30-Radio Communications
AIM COM Section
You should start your study of communications procedures by reading the Com
section of your AIM. Pay particular attention to sections 5.1 to 5.11 early in your
training.
The following material is intended to amplify the examples and explanations in

the AIM. It is NOT intended to contradict any procedures in the AIM. If there is a
conflict the AIM procedure should be used.
Radio Procedures
One of the most important skills for you to develop is good radio procedure (RT
procedure). Clear communications with controllers, as well as with your crew is vital for
safe operations. In addition your professionalism is often judged by your radio
procedures, as these are all the controller has to judge you by. Indeed your first captain
may permit you to do little else than work the radios, so w/he too will judge your
“smarts” by the quality of your RT work.
Keep in mind that as a Canadian pilot flying in British Columbia, talking

exclusively to fellow Canadians you can get away with some sloppiness and still be
understood most of the time. Try telling a German controller you are “back of JONKR
and out twenty one point five” and see how well he understands you. The point here is
that you should not use local regional airline pilots as examples or standards of radio
procedure to emulate. A few of them are good; many of them are very bad. But, YOU
will strive for precise and correct radio procedures.
Numbers
The largest number in aviation is nine. Therefore, an altimeter setting of 29.34 is
said “two niner, three four.” If the time is 21:42 we say “two one four two” etc.
You must practice using individual digits for things. Try to do it even for
communications with your instructor and FO until it becomes so natural to you that you
never say things like “forty two hundred.” The proper way to say your altitude is “four
thousand, two hundred”.
Riddle: When is a number not a number?
Answer: when it is a name.
(Read AIM 5.7) It is accepted practice that when an airplane type is a number
then we treat it as though it was not a number but a word. So a C-172 is a “Cessna one
seventy two” not a “Charlie one seven two”. Similarly an L-1011 is an “el ten eleven”
and can be referred to as such on the radio. The same goes for a “pee aye twenty eight”
etc.
FTM/IPM FTM - 169

Here are a few more number examples:
“GSAK is level at one seven thousand”
“FXFG is climbing through one thousand five hundred for three thousand”
“GSPA was over the Princeton VOR at two three four seven. Level at eight
thousand five hundred. Estimating Hope at zero zero two niner.”
Initial Contact – AAS

When you call up for Aerodrome Advisory Service (AAS) for example at
Castlegar, it is important to remember two things:
1. The Flight Service Specialist monitors more than one frequency

2. The FSS may not be at his/her microphone when you call
With the above in mind you can see that you need to tell the FSS what frequency
you are on. Any, you need to wait for him/her to tell you to go ahead. Otherwise, you
might be talking to empty air. Here is what a typical call will sound like.
“Castlegar Radio. Cessna one seventy two, Golf Oscar Sierra Kaybec, on one two
two decimal one.”
W3 system
There is a TV show called W5 which stands for who, what, where, when, why. In
aviation we only need three Ws.
When you talk to a controller or FSS keep in mind that you need to tell them
WHO you are, WHERE you are, and WHAT you want. A typical call, after the initial
contact described above would be:
“Sierra Poppa Kaybec is seven miles south descending through five thousand five
four hundred, inbound for landing.”
Notice how the above transmission succinctly covers who you are (SPA) where
you are (seven miles south descending through five thousand five four hundred) and what
you want (inbound for landing).
The same form is used with a control tower. A typical call would be:
“Sierra Poppa Kaybec is over Kilgard at one thousand two hundred inbound for
landing. With ATIS information Hotel.”
Note that in these examples the pilot has left the “What s/he wants” as implicit.
To say,“request airport advisory” or “request circuit joining instructions” is redundant
and almost insulting to the FSS/controller. So don’t do that. Note also that the pilot
indicates that s/he has an ATIS when that is the case.
FTM/IPM FTM - 170

Always specify the ATIS you have. For example say “with ATIS information
Hotel.” Do NOT say “with the ATIS” as this will be misleading if the ATIS has changed
since you listened to it.
Initial Contact - Ground Control

When you are ready to contact ground you should make an initial contact. The
call will sound like this:
“Abbotsford ground. Cessna 172 Golf Sierra Poppa Alpha.”
The controller will then tell you to go ahead. You will then say something like:
“Sierra Poppa Alpha is at the base of the tower with ATIS information November.
Request taxi clearance on a VFR flight plan to Castlegar.”
Initial Contact with IFR Controller

This is one of the easiest things going, yet beginning IFR pilots have a lot of
trouble with it.
There is a basic pattern to initial IFR contacts. There are a couple of exceptions
i.e. special situations to keep in mind. We will cover all of these. The critical thing is to
recognize the basic pattern in this procedure and then the exceptions will be almost
obvious.
The pattern is:
Agency being called

Aircraft Type
Four letter ident
Altitude
For example:
“Victoria Terminal, Beech ninety five, Golf Sierra Alpha Kilo, level four
thousand.”
The exceptions involve:
ATIS
On Vectors
First contact after takeoff
When you have an ATIS you add than information to the call. For example:
“Victoria Terminal, Beech 95, Golf Sierra Alpha Kilo, level four
thousand, with ATIS Charlie.”
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If you are on vectors when you are handed over to a new controller you advise the
controller of your heading. For example:
“Vancouver Arrival, Beech 95, Foxtrot, X-ray, Foxtrot, Golf, level 3,000,
with ATIS November, heading 080.”
If the call is your first one after takeoff you must decide which of two situations
apply. Ask yourself, am I taking off from an airport with a departure controller?
Examples of this would be CYVR, CYYC, and CYYZ. Most of the airports you will fly
at during your training will not have a departure control. Examples are CYXX, CYYJ,
and CYCG.
If you are taking off from an airport with a departure control then the controller
you are talking to only handles traffic at that airport, so there is no need to state the name
of the airport. If the airport does not have a departure control then the controller will be
handling multiple airports, so you should include the name of your airport.
If you have not yet turned you should state the runway you took off on. But, if
you have already turned the runway number is optional.
Here are some examples:
“Victoria Terminal, Beech 95 Golf Sierra, Alpha, Kilo. Off Abbotsford

runway 19. Through one thousand five hundred, for three thousand.”
“Vancouver departure, Beech 95 Foxtrot X-ray, Foxtrot, Golf. Off two six
left, through one thousand for two thousand.”
“Vancouver departure, Beech 95 Golf Sierra, Alpha, Kilo. Off Boundary

Bay. Through one thousand five hundred, for two thousand.”
“Vancouver Center, Beech 95 Foxtrot, X-ray, Foxtrot, Golf. Off

Castlegar, through niner thousand for one one thousand.”
FTM/IPM FTM - 172

Mountain Flying
By virtue of learning to fly at Selkirk College you will be much more familiar
with mountain flying and its joys and hazards than pilots trained at almost any other
school in the world. All your cross-countries will be mountain flights and of course your
local flights will be in the mountains too.
Without doubt mountain flying is challenging, the main factor being the weather,
combined with the fact that safe operation requires considerably more altitude than in the
flatlands. There are some advantages to the mountains – they make it much easier to
identify checkpoints for navigation for example. All in all mountain flying, like any type
of flying, is as safe as you make it. The task of this section of the Program Manual is to
help you make it as safe as possible.
Minimum Safe VFR Altitude (in the mountains)

Depending on where you learned to fly you may be in the habit of flying at
altitudes little more than circuit altitude at considerable distances from the airport. Many
students in the lower mainland for instance think nothing of descending to circuit altitude
in the practice area and then flying 10 or even 20 miles at that altitude back to the airport.
You have quite likely also done practice diversion exercises at 500 agl. In the mountains
you MUST not do either of these things.
In flatter parts of the world it is pretty easy to specify a ground level. The defining
characteristic of mountains, as opposed to hills, from an aviation perspective is whether
or not you can fly in the valleys. In the mountains you CAN fly in the valleys, but
sometimes you don’t. Therefore there are two distinct circumstances to mountain flying
and you must know which one applies at a given moment. You may fly “in a valley”, or
you may be “crossing a ridge.” All mountain flying can be divided into these two
categories. A given flight may switch back and forth between these circumstances many
times, but you are always doing one or the other of these.
When flying in a valley experienced mountain pilots establish minimum safe

altitudes for each particular VFR valley route. In what follows we will discuss several
common VFR routes and the minimum altitudes for each.
When crossing ridges experienced mountain pilots agree that when wind
conditions are ideal the minimum safe altitude is 1,000’ agl above the ridge tops. When
the wind speed rises to more than 20 knots the minimum rises to 2,000’ agl. There is a
specific technique for crossing a ridge safely. If you employ the technique and develop
some experience in judging where the downdrafts are going to be you may sometimes be
able to fly lower safely. We will discuss ridge crossing below.
Most mountain airports are in the bottom of valleys, like Castlegar (or Kelowna,
Penticton, Kamloops, Cranbrook, etc.) The only way to approach these airports is along
the “corridor” created by the valley. If you are arriving from other directions you must
either maintain ridge-crossing altitude (see above) until over the airport or plan your
arrival so that you intercept the valley, then descend to the airport. When you do start
FTM/IPM FTM - 173

your descent you should avoid flying for extended periods of time at low altitude. There
are fewer good off airport landing sites in the rugged mountainous terrain, so it is prudent
to plan your descent so that you reach circuit altitude just prior to reaching the circuit. If
you find yourself leveling off at circuit altitude several miles before the airport you are
flying too low.
Mountain Cross-countries
While you are at Selkirk College you will be sent on a number of VFR cross-
country flights. You can find the details in the AVIA 100 and AVIA 200 sections of this
manual.
The instructors tend to describe these trips as either “valley trips”, or “DR trips.”
A valley trip is one in which you fly along a valley with very few if any ridge crossings.
It is a type of VFR cross-country unique to the mountains. We discuss it extensively
below. A “DR trip” is a dead reckoning trip, i.e. one in which you fly directly from one
location to another. This is the only type of navigation that students at most flight schools
will experience. In the mountains any DR trip will necessarily involve crossing ridges.
For example when you fly to Swift Current you will cross the Rocky Mountains, the
biggest ridge in North America.
A DR cross-country over the mountains is no big deal when the winds are light
and the ceilings high. When you are more than 2,000’ above all the ridges then flying
around B.C. is no different than flying across Saskatchewan. The challenge is in the fact
that at any time the ceiling could drop and you might have to descend to within 2,000’ of
the ridges, or even drop right down into a valley and convert to VFR valley-flying
techniques. When this happens your piloting skills will be challenged.
While you are a student at Selkirk College we will take great care not to send you
on DR cross-countries when there is a significant probability that they will turn into VFR
valley flights. Besides the obvious safety consideration the VFR route usually takes
longer, and that means it costs more. Even though we try to avoid it, it is probable that
you will have to switch between DR ridge crossing and VFR valley techniques a few
times during your flying at Selkirk. Depending on the type of job you get after graduation
this sort of thing could become a regular, almost daily, occurrence for you.
As you fly around B.C. you should be keeping track in your mind of whether you
are in “valley mode” or “ridge-crossing mode”. These are as distinct as VFR and IFR.
We will now discuss each.
FTM/IPM FTM - 174

Ridge Crossing Technique

A ridge is a line of
mountains that connect to each
other like links in a chain.
Mountain chains are also known as
mountain ranges. And some
individual mountains have names.
The tops of the mountains are called peaks. The lower points, where two
mountains touch, are called a passes. Usually highways cross ridges at passes, and when
the ceiling is too low to fly over the peaks aviators cross there too (we will discuss that
more as we go along).
Most ridges have names; for example just north of Castlegar is the Valhalla range,
just to the west are the Rossland and Christina ranges, and just east of us are the
Bonnington and Selkirk ranges (for which the college is named).
In B.C. almost all the ranges run

north and south; consequently there are
extended north south valleys between the
ranges. You can fly some of these valleys
for many miles. The Columbia river
(Arrow Lakes) is one such valley. The
famous “Rocky Mountain Trench” is
another.
Erosion has created some east west valleys also, although most of those valleys
are quite short (the Kootenay River from Crawford Bay to Castlegar for example).
Sometimes fairly low passes join these valleys. Remember that when you fly over a pass
you are actually crossing a ridge, not flying a valley. For example the Blueberry Paulson
pass connects the Kootenay River valley to the Grand Forks valley, crossing the Rossland
mountain range (see your Calgary and Vancouver VNCs).
The main hazard in crossing a ridge is either encountering a downdraft of such

force that the airplane is pushed down into the ground, or encountering terrain that rises
so steeply that the airplane cannot out climb it. The rising terrain hazard is most common
when attempting to fly through a pass. Downdrafts are the main hazard when crossing
ridges above peak elevation. We will now discuss these two situations in detail.
The easiest situation to make general statements about is when the weather is
good enough to fly above the top of the peaks. In this case the pilot does not need to “slip
through a pass” to cross a ridge. Instead s/he simply flies directly enroute, just like a
flatlander.
FTM/IPM FTM - 175

The picture to the left shows the

situation where the pilot is approaching a
ridge, intending to fly across it.
If there is no wind there will be

little danger. 1,000’ is recommended as
the minimum altitude because there is
almost always some wind at altitude.
But if the wind is stronger than 20 knots then a substantial downdraft will form on the lee
(downwind) side of the ridge. The downdraft could be well over 1,000 feet per minute.
Of course such strong downdrafts don’t always form, but you don’t want to turn your life
into a game of Russian roulette, so the first rule when crossing a ridge on a windy day is
to stay 2,000’ above the altitude of the peaks. If you can do that you are pretty safe except
when mountain waves form. We will get back to mountain waves in a minute; first let’s
deal with the situation where you are unable, due to ceiling or airplane performance, to
fly 2,000’ above the ridge.
If you must cross a ridge at less

than 2,000’ the safest way is to fly a path
like the one shown to the left.
As you approach the ridge turn so

that you fly across at a 45 angle. That
way, if you encounter a downdraft you can
quickly turn away from the ridge, back to
the valley where you have lots of terrain
clearance (see picture for “escape route”).
Once you reach the center of the ridge turn 90 to the ridge to get away from it as quickly
as possible. Make sure you understand and follow this procedure anytime you are
crossing a ridge at less than 2,000’ above the peaks.
Crossing a ridge via a pass presents a whole different set of problems. Downdrafts
may still be a problem, but even on calm days you may find that the valley leading to the
pass slopes so steeply that you can’t safely out climb it. The results can be disastrous.
In the picture to the left an airplane

is climbing up a sloping valley that leads to
a pass. You can see that the clouds are well
below the height of the peaks, one of which
is shown in the background. For clarity the
clouds obscuring the peak have been left
out of the picture.
FTM/IPM FTM - 176

If the valley leading to the pass slopes at less than 200 feet per nautical mile most
airplanes will be able to out climb it.
But many valleys slope more
steeply; in that case the pilot should
establish a minimum altitude at which it is
safe to begin the flight up the valley
toward the pass (see picture to left). Some
advice on minimum altitudes when
approaching specific passes is provided
below, additional advice can be found in
the publication Aviation Weather Hazards
of British Columbia and the Yukon, copies
of which are in the College library.
An important rule for safe mountain flying is to respect the minimum altitude for
entrance to a sloping valley and turn around if the ceiling is below that. Doing so will
avoid the need to turn around later, close to the ground.
Sometimes the clouds follow the slope of a valley, as in the diagram above, but
not always. Anytime you are approaching a pass you have to be prepared for the
possibility of it being shrouded in cloud necessitating a turn around. We discuss the
technique for turning around later.
When flying up a sloping valley it is easy to lose track of airspeed and get too
slow. This is particularly so when visibility is poor, as it often is. The pilot must monitor
the airspeed regularly. If the airspeed is allowed to decay while the ground rises up
below, there comes a point when it is no longer possible to turn around safely. A good
mountain pilot will never let things get that far (the procedure for turning around in a
mountain valley is discussed below).
A very insidious situation is

depicted in the picture to the left. An
airplane has crossed a pass and is
descending along a sloping valley in which
the ceiling is getting lower and lower
(closer to the ground).
We can see that a few miles ahead

this pilot is going to have to turn around –
but s/he doesn’t know that yet.
When the airplane finally turns around will it be able to climb back up the valley to the
pass? If not then this pilot is making a big mistake – and it may be his/her last. The rule
in mountain flying is to never descend down a valley that you can’t turn around and
climb back up. If you are descending down a steeply sloping valley then you must have
FTM/IPM FTM - 177

sufficient climb performance so that if you turn around you can climb back to the pass. In
a steep valley with a low performance airplane (like a C-172) that means cutting off the
descent at a minimum altitude, just as described above regarding minimum altitude to
enter a valley approaching a pass. It is very easy to be drawn into a mistake in such
situations as you may feel you have enough ceiling to continue safely. If you actually
make it through (i.e. don’t wind up turning around) you may never realize you risked
your life, but if you do have to turn around and then realize you are too low to get back
up the slope you will get that sinking feeling in your stomach that tells you that you have
made a big mistake. Note: Two examples of such valleys are descending from Nancy
Green Lake to CYCG along highway 3, and descending from Manning Park toward Hope
Slide along highway 3 (remember that these two “valleys” are really passes that cross
ridges).
Valley Flying
By valley flying we mean specifically valleys that have minimal or no slope to
them such as river valleys. In B.C. most of these valleys run north and south – the
east/west valleys being mostly short or consisting of sloping valleys traversing passes, as
already discussed above.
Flying in a valley with a moderate ceiling and good visibility is no big deal. In
such cases your primary concern is navigation. If you don’t know the route well it is easy
to branch off into the wrong valley and get lost. To prevent mistakes (getting lost) you
should keep your pencil or finger on the map recording where you are in the valley, and
use your watch to keep track of distance covered and remaining. Don’t forget that you
won’t be able to see the mountain peaks, so you must identify your position based on
features visible in the bottom of the valley. If there are towns, highways, railways or
other prominent features you will have little trouble. If the valley is featureless it will take
a lot more effort. Your fancy GPS will be of minimal assistance; you need good old-
fashioned map reading skills.
When the ceiling or visibility starts to deteriorate valley flying becomes trickier.
We need rules and limits to guide our decision-making and keep us safe. We turn to the
task of developing those rules next.
Normal procedure in valley flying is to stay well to the right hand side of the
valley. By regulation (CAR 602.34(2) if you are within 3,000’ agl you are not obligated
to maintain the cruising altitude according to the usual cruising altitude orders. On a
valley flight you should fly as high as the weather permits, which in most cases means
500’ below the ceiling (or just clear of cloud if below 1,000’ agl (read CAR 602.34(2)).
By flying on the right-hand side of the valley you will avoid any airplanes flying in the
opposite direction, just like cars passing on the highway. There are some exceptions to
the right-hand rule and those will be explained as we continue our discussion of mountain
flying.
Turning Around in a Mountain Valley

You may recall from your aerodynamics course that in theory the minimum radius
of turn for any airplane is achieved by flying at the maneuvering speed while banked so
FTM/IPM FTM - 178

steeply that you experience the maximum amount of “g” the airplane is certified for.
Most pilots will blackout at four g’s, and it is almost impossible to maintain orientation in
poor visibility in such an aggressive turn – so whatever you do, don’t turn around in a
valley using this technique. We need a much safer plan.
No pilot should ever plan to use more than a 45 bank turn in a mountain valley.
At 45 of bank you will experience only 1.41 g and the stall speed will be only 1.2Vso.
Therefore the recommended thing to do is:
1. Slow to normal (or short field) final approach speed

2. Configure the airplane with full flap (or less if the airplane is low powered)
3. Make a 45 bank turn
For the C-172 the procedure means slowing to 65/70 KIAS with 20 flaps
(because the C-172 is a low powered airplane) then make a 45 bank turn.
If you wait to the last second and try to slow from cruise speed to approach speed
when you desperately realize the need to turn around you are at great risk of making a
greasy spot on the side of a mountain. Instead you should be flying slowly any time you
are in a situation where a turn around is possible. Normally you would slow down to a
speed similar to what you would fly on downwind or base in the circuit. For example, in
the C-172 we recommend 80 KIAS with 10 of flaps, in the B95 you would slow to
100KIAS with 20 flaps. At these reduced speeds you would continue along the valley,
hoping to get through, but ready to slow down the last few knots and turn around if your
hopes are dashed. (NOTE: slowing down as recommended here corresponds to the
“marginal” weather category explained next – turning around is done as soon as the
“unacceptable” category is reached. These categories are explained in the next section.)
When the time comes to actually turn around in a valley the secret is to be calm.
An airplane can be turned around in a very small area so by far the greatest danger is that
you will lose control of the airplane. If you follow the recommendations in the next
section about when to turn around and follow the right hand rule described above you
should have lots of room to make the turn.
To make a valley turn-around slow the airplane to normal approach speed (65/70
in the C-172) with approach flaps (usually full flaps, but use 20 in the C-172). While
you are slowing down check your heading indicator to see what heading you are going to
turn to (usually you turn 180 , or just slightly more). Next, look over your shoulder to
check for traffic and obstructions (if you are on the right side of the valley you are going
to turn left). Once you are ready to turn fly instruments, i.e. the turn is an instrument
maneuver, because in the poor visibility you won’t be able to see the horizon. Add a
small amount of power (100 to 200 rpm) to maintain speed and concentrate on
maintaining altitude and 45 bank. Roll out on the planned heading and resume visual
flight back to safety. Return to a speed and configuration appropriate to the weather
category (see below).
FTM/IPM FTM - 179

Minimum Recommended Weather for VFR Mountain Flying

While it is impossible to make absolutely definitive rules regarding the lowest
possible ceiling and visibility to fly VFR in the mountains there are some solid guidelines
that we can provide.
The first rule is that you MUST work your way up to (that really should be down
to) flying in minimum weather; the primary factor being familiarity with the route. If
some old-timer tells you that you can get through such-and-such pass with a ceiling at
5,000’ asl claiming, “I have done it hundreds of times” then he is probably right, but it
doesn’t mean you should go through with such a low ceiling if you have never been there
before.
Another thing to keep in mind is that aviation safety is measured in units of

accident rate per 100,000 hours. So just because someone, including yourself, has done
some activity 100 times without killing themselves does not make it safe. If you have 1
chance in 1,000 of killing yourself those are NOT good odds they are terrible. If every
pilot flew with such odds daily airplanes would be raining from the sky. The bottom line
is that you must not delude yourself into thinking that just because you got away with
“slipping through” once or twice that you will continue to get away with it in the future.
The weather guidelines suggested below are intended for use after graduation.
While you are a student higher weather standards apply. As mentioned above you must
work your way up/down to these limits, and may even be able to go beyond them on
particular routes if you develop enough familiarity with those routes. The speed and
climb performance of your airplane are major factors in establishing minimum weather as
well. A very fast airplane requires much more weather to operate safely. On routes that
involve steeply sloping valleys a very powerful airplane that can out climb the slope may
safely operate with a lower ceiling than a low powered airplane (see the advice above
about approaching passes). Keep these things in mind – just because an experienced pilot
feels the weather is good enough for him to slip through in a C-180 doesn’t mean you can
get through safely in a King Air.
You should categorize weather as follows:
1. Excellent – no problems, no limitations

2. Good – no problems, but start getting weather updates and reviewing the map.
3. Marginal – continue, but if it gets worse divert and land
4. Unacceptable – divert now BEFORE the situation becomes dangerous
5. Dangerous – you should already be on the ground
6. Too late (you are now a statistic)
Keep in mind that we are talking about flight in valleys with minimal slope. In
that situation, if the ceiling is high enough for you to maintain 1,000’ agl and the
visibility is 15+ the conditions can be classified as excellent. As long as you meet your
minimum altitude criteria for any valleys that slope up to passes you will have a pleasant
flight.
FTM/IPM FTM - 180

As soon as the visibility drops to between 10 and 15 miles, but still with 1,000’
agl cruise, you should downgrade your weather assessment to good. There is no reason to
change your route and most likely all will go as planned, but if the weather gets any
worse you may need to divert so you should be PLANNING now. I.E. just make sure you
know what alternate routes are available, what alternate airports are available, and be sure
to call FSS and get a weather update for the rest of your route.
Once the visibility drops to between 5 and 10 miles, OR if the ceiling drops so
that you are flying between 500 and 1,000’ agl the weather is marginal. Marginal weather
does not necessarily cause an experienced mountain pilot to divert (i.e. a pilot who knows
the route well) but you should SLOW DOWN - in the case of the C-172 slow to 80 KIAS
and drop 10 of flaps. In lots of cases you won’t have to divert, you might have to work
around some fractus clouds, as described later – but you definitely must begin taking
each remaining mile of the trip one at a time, i.e. you fly from each bend in the valley to
the next then make a conscious decision whether to continue or divert. A specific
diversion plan must always be in your mind, and you must establish a visibility and
ceiling that you will not go below. (Don’t forget to keep track of what is going on behind
you. Don’t let weather close in behind you so that a 180 turn-around is no longer an
option.)
If the visibility drops below 5 miles or the ceiling below 500’ agl the weather is
classed as unacceptable, and it is time to divert. Such weather is really not good weather
at all – it will be quite uncomfortable in fact – but it isn’t fatal if you stay calm. BUT, if it
gets any worse it will be fatal so divert and land somewhere safe now, before you regret
it. Of course you would divert even sooner (marginal weather) if the weather was
deteriorating rapidly, it was reported as below 5 miles (unacceptable) ahead, or you were
not highly familiar with the route (remember that the advice being dispensed here is for a
licensed commercial pilot who is IFR rated and quite familiar with mountain flying. It is
also assumed that the pilot knows the route and airplane being flown well).
If the visibility drops to less than 2 miles in the mountains you are going to need
some luck to survive. You should already be on the ground, if you’re not then go down
now. If no airport is close by do an off-airport precautionary. There may be some specific
situations where this advice doesn’t apply – for you to recognize such a case you would
need to be a highly experienced mountain pilot and you wouldn’t be paying attention to
this advice anyway.
A debate you may find yourself facing someday in mountain flying is whether or
not to climb out of the valley and request an emergency IFR clearance. The practicality of
this option depends on several factors – but it usually isn’t a good idea. Obviously if you
are flying a high performance twin, such as a KingAir, and the valley is wide, and you
can ensure yourself of a suitable heading to avoid the valley sides during the climb, then
it is a possibility. But if you are deep in a valley in a C-172 or similar airplane then a
climb to IFR altitude is definitely a last desperation move to be executed only by a pilot
who did not follow all the other advice provided above.
FTM/IPM FTM - 181

In summary, you should consciously get into the habit of categorizing the
weather, as described above, as you fly on valley trips. Know your command
responsibilities for each category and fulfill them. If you do this you won’t get into
trouble and you won’t scare yourself either.
Dealing With Fractus Clouds, etc.

Sometimes when you fly a mountain valley the ceiling is smooth and the visibility
is constant below it. That makes it pretty easy to categorize as suggested above. But often
there are bits of clouds that tear off from the main cloud deck and float around in the
valley – these are called fractus clouds. There can also be isolated showers in which the
prevailing visibility drops for several miles. There can also be isolated shallow fog banks
that hug one side of the valley, or completely fill some section of the valley. When you
encounter these weather phenomena you need a plan.
Often the fractus clouds block your vision down the valley. If they drop it below
10 miles then you should immediately adjust your category to marginal and start planning
a diversion. However, while you are doing that you should try changing your cruising
altitude. Move up a few hundred feet, or if that isn’t possible descend a few hundred feet.
Often a small change in altitude will give you a completely different perspective on the
clouds and you might be able to upgrade your weather category back to good (if not then
you haven’t lost anything by trying.) If an altitude change doesn’t help then try moving a
bit side to side in the valley - normally you should be on the right-hand side but you can
try moving to the center, or even to the left side for a while. If you do move you need to
take extra care looking for other airplanes, but it is a reasonable experiment to see if
things look better. If they do look better then scan the valley ahead and judge as to
whether or not to continue. Seldom will you need to fly the non-standard side of the
valley for more than a few minutes – if it looks like you will have to then perhaps it
would be wise to cancel the trip, especially if it is a frequently flown route where there is
likely to be opposite direction traffic.
It is not uncommon to change altitude several times on a valley trip, in order to

maintain the highest possible visibility. It is much better to change altitude than allow
flight visibility to deteriorate due to dogged insistence on maintaining a specific altitude.
Keep in mind that all the power changes increase your fuel consumption, so you need to
keep conservative track of your remaining fuel. Also keep in mind that if you are doing
this sort of thing then by definition the weather is marginal, so you should have a specific
diversion plan and cut-off weather in mind. Don’t forget to keep track of whether you
have enough fuel for your diversion plan. We will talk about fuel reserves next.
Fuel Reserves on Mountain Valley Trips

When planning flights in the mountains, especially east-west flights where you
will be climbing and descending over passes, remember that fuel consumption tables in
the aircraft POH are based on properly leaned mixture. Since you will be setting the
mixture rich during climbs and may leave it rich during descents your fuel consumption
will be higher than on “normal” cross-countries. Plan accordingly; we recommend
increasing your planned fuel consumption by 10% (i.e. use 110% or POH fuel flow
values. You should record actual fuel consumption figures over several valley flights to
FTM/IPM FTM - 182

determine your actual fuel flow rate before using anything lower than this recommended
value for flight planning purposes).
CAR 602.88 states that VFR flights must carry enough fuel to reach destination
plus 30 minutes reserve. This is completely inadequate fuel reserve for most mountain
flights, particularly valley mountain flights.
One reason to carry more reserves is that mountainous areas are usually sparsely
populated, so airports are further apart. The same applies to some non-mountainous areas
also, and you should carry more reserves there too. The reason should be obvious – if you
reach your destination only to find the airport closed (perhaps due to an accident on the
airfield) 30 minutes reserve is not of much value if the next nearest airport is two hours
flying time away. So, always carry extra reserves in sparsely settled areas, especially
when the destination airport has only one runway. Some day I guarantee you will arrive
at destination only to discover the runway closed – and as we have mentioned many
times you will not be remembered for the 1,000 successful flights but for the one accident
you had.
There is another reason why extra fuel reserves are needed in the mountains and
that is that diversions are common and can often extend the length of a trip by a large
amount. The author has many times flown from CYCG to CYVR VFR in a C-172 or
similar aircraft. The record shortest trip was 1.4 hours (good tailwinds and direct flight at
8500 asl) the record long flight was 5.0 hours. The long flight started off with a plan to
fly the VFR route along highway 3. This crosses two passes, the Rossland (known as the
Blueberry Paulson) and the coast range (known as the Allison pass, or Manning park
pass). Both passes were crossed with no problem and the airplane was within 30 minutes
of destination at the Hope slide right on schedule as per the flight plan, which called for
2.0 flight time to CYVR. Unfortunately low cloud at Hope required a 180 turn-around.
From Princeton we then tried following the Coquihalla to Hope. Unfortunately it was
necessary to turn around at the tollbooth. The third try was the charm – from Princeton I
flew to Lytton then south along the Fraser Canyon to Hope, then on to CYVR. Note that
fuel is not available in Princeton, so if 6.0 hours of fuel had not been onboard this flight
could not have been completed. Of course the airplane could have been landed in
Princeton, but it would have been stuck there until fuel was brought in by land vehicle.
The air regulations do not prohibit that, but it would be quite undesirable.
The minimum practical requirement for fuel on a mountain flight is to have

enough that if diverting at any point along the route you can always find your way to a
safe place to land. Usually the greatest consideration must be given to the later part of the
route, as that is where your fuel reserves will be lowest. Don’t make the mistake of
thinking that if you make it 75% of the way along a route you will make it all the way. It
is very common in the mountains to have to retreat within only a few miles of
destination. My personal record is making the 180 turn-around on base leg for
destination. So – it is really true that you may have to divert at any point on a trip, and
should have adequate reserves to make that diversion.
FTM/IPM FTM - 183

Ideally you should carry enough fuel that you can both divert to a safe place to
land and also refuel to continue with the trip.
The only conditions in which you should even consider reducing reserves to less
than advocated above is when the weather is excellent, as defined previously. In that case
a diversion is very unlikely and you might prudently fly with a 30-minute reserve, IF you
have taken the question of sparsely settled (few airports) into consideration.
High Density Altitude Operation

It was mentioned earlier that most airports are in the bottom of valleys. That is
quite fortunate because it means that the airports are not at too high density-altitude. In
Canada we have far fewer really high altitude airports than in the USA; Calgary being the
highest major airport at 3,557’. The Denver airport is famous for being “one mile” above
sea level (5,280’). But the Grand Canyon airport is 6,800’, as is the West Yellowstone
airport, and there are other small airports that are even higher.
A few years ago two Selkirk College graduates were on a night charter from
Winnipeg to California in a Cessna Citation jet. They had to make a night landing in Utah
for fuel. The airport was at 5,200’ asl and the temperature was slightly above standard, so
the density altitude was 5,500’. Neither pilot had ever taken off at such a high density-
altitude before. They looked in the POH and discovered that above 5,000’ the POH
recommends taking off with no flaps – neither pilot had ever done that before. Never the
less they taxied out for takeoff and set the flaps to zero as per the POH. At Vr they
rotated but the airplane did not leap into the air the way a jet usually does. It was
sluggish and “didn’t feel right.” They rejected the takeoff – they ran off the end of the
runway – they wrote off a multi-million dollar airplane – and luckily they survived to
know better next time.
There was actually nothing wrong with the airplane. Any airplane, from C-172
top B-777 will feel sluggish and climb poorly at a high density-altitude.
You may have experienced a similar sensation to the one described above if you
have flown the C-172 many times with only one or two people on board and mostly at
moderate temperatures, then one day you get a chance to fly at maximum weight, and the
temperature is a bit warmer than you are used to. When you rotated the airplane may not
have lifted off, instead the stall horn beeped and the airplane seemed to stay “stuck to the
ground” for what seemed like forever. In fact it was only a few seconds before the
airplane finally staggered into the air, but it seemed longer. You would then have noticed
that the airspeed was lower than it usually is, so you lowered the nose and finally
everything settled down the way is should be, except you were climbing at several
hundred feet per minute LESS than you are used to.
If you are taking off from a high density-altitude airport you MUST anticipate
that the airplane will be sluggish and the climb after liftoff shallower than you are used
to. Be sure that you have used the POH charts to determine that you have sufficient
runway before taking off. When you rotate do so a bit slower than you would a sea level
and establish a slightly lower pitch attitude (think about the attitude you would use in
FTM/IPM FTM - 184

climb at the altitude in question, that is the attitude you will need to rotate to on takeoff).
Remember that if you over rotate airspeed will remain too low and climb performance
will be worse than it should be.
While high density-altitude is most noticeable during takeoffs it is also a factor

during enroute flying in the mountains, especially with lower powered airplanes. Recall
the discussions above about how critical climb performance is when approaching a pass,
or when flying through a downdraft while crossing a ridge, and you can easily see why
reduced performance due to high density-altitude is a problem. Many mountain flying
accidents have been caused by reduced climb performance when a pilot attempted to out
climb rising terrain only to discover that the airplane was not able to climb as steeply as
s/he anticipated. The problem is of course exaggerated if the airplane is loaded heavily.
Consequently your flying at Selkirk College, where the airplane is normally well below
gross weight, might give you a false sense of security for post-graduate flying at higher
weights. Keep that in mind for future mountain flights. Also remember that density
altitude is substantially affected by air temperature. Your flying at Selkirk College is
mostly done in the cooler months, but if you were flying a fire patrol over the same
terrain on a hot August day reduced climb performance due to high density altitude could
represent a trap waiting for you to fall into it – so be alert to this danger when mountain
flying.
One-Way Strips
As mentioned under the topic Precautionary Approach, many strips in British
Columbia are one-way due to high terrain on one end of the field. A photo of Crawford
Bay airport can be found on page 48, showing the rising terrain north of the field. The
CFS advises pilots to land on runway 32 and takeoff on runway 14. You will have an
opportunity to land at this airport when you do your CPL preparatory flights in second
year.
Prior to landing at any one-way strip you must always determine your airplanes
required landing and takeoff distances WITH A TAILWIND. Decide in advance the
maximum wind you are willing, or permitted by your company SOPs, to operate with –
then calculate the required runway length with that wind applied as a tailwind. Any time
you land at a one-way strip you will either have a tailwind on landing or takeoff, so you
need to know before you get there whether or not the runway will be long enough. Be
sure to remember to allow for grass or gravel runway if applicable. (Most one-way strips
are also unpaved.)
When landing on a one-way strip there is a point on final approach where an

overshoot is not safe. Consequently you must determine early on the approach that all is
well – and if it is not overshoot early while you still have enough altitude to clear the
obstruction. To equip yourself with the best possible odds avoid “crowding” the circuit.
Make the base leg reasonably wide so you have a long final approach to get setup on the
desired glidepath. DO NOT wait until short final to slow down. On such a difficult
approach it is important to establish final approach speed early.
FTM/IPM FTM - 185

This photo shows an extremely difficult to judge runway. It is easy to misjudge

the approach to a runway like this. Use your VSI and scan ASI frequently. If you airplane
has the ability to generate an artificial glide-slope be sure to use it.
FTM/IPM FTM - 186

Syllabus Mountain Airports
The photographs below are of airports you will visit during your training at
Selkirk College:
Crawford Bay airport – looking north. The trees and power line obstruct the final
approach to runway 14. The airplane is backtracking and will do a 180 to takeoff on
runway 14.
FTM/IPM FTM - 187

On left base for runway 14 at Golden; the airplane will make a low pass to inspect the
runway prior to landing, as per SOPs.
Fairmont airport as the airplane flies past enroute from Cranbrook to Golden. The
Fairmont airport is the alternate landing site if Invermere is not suitable or available for
landing.
FTM/IPM FTM - 188

The above view is from above the circuit and west of Invermere. From here the pilot will
proceed to the other side of the airport (east); descend to circuit altitude; then cross
midfield to join the circuit. The pilot notes the high terrain east of the airport and that the
CFS specifies right hand circuits for runway 15.
FTM/IPM FTM - 189

Winter Flying
Winter flying in the mountains can be a very beautiful experience providing the
weather is suitable. The white countryside against a blue sky, snow blowing off the high
mountain peaks, and much improved aircraft performance combine to make it a very
satisfying experience. There are, however, many problems associated with winter flying
that require special preparation and vigilance on the part of the pilot. This section of the
course manual has been compiled to help you operate safely and efficiently during the
winter months.
Winter Clothing
You must always have appropriate warm winter clothing with you for winter
flying. This includes boots, hats, gloves, as well as a winter coat. Cabin heaters can and
will fail. So you should be dressed as warmly as possible while you are flying. It is NOT
acceptable to fly in light shoes during the winter. You MUST wear boots that would
protect your feet if the heater failed, and give you some functionality after a forced
landing if the airplane burned and you couldn’t get your survival clothes out in time. You
should have a hat and gloves where you can reach them in flight because if the heater
fails you will be freezing cold in short order.
Remember that static temperature is not a true indicator of the conditions that you
will have to withstand when working outside, whether it be routine preparation for flight
or following an emergency landing in the woods, Wind chill is the real culprit. A
bearable temperature of O C (freezing) can be lowered to a bone chilling -20 C with a
26 Kt wind. 10 minutes exposure under these conditions can quickly cause frostbite to
any exposed flesh with resultant discomfort and, in severe cases, loss of fingers, toes,
ears, etc. Warmth is the only cure - rubbing effected areas vigorously can definitely be
harmful. Gentle rubbing may help restore circulation somewhat.
The following winter clothing advice comes directly from your survival course
instructor with whom you will do a winter survival in first year.
The layer principal is applied for any outdoors activity, survival camping is no
different. It is in your best interest to dress appropriately for the conditions you are
traveling in or have access to it. In the outdoors, the key to being comfortable is staying
warm and dry. One effective and easy way to attain these two basic goals is by using the
layering system. The components of the layering system are the ventilation layer, the
insulation layer and the protection layer.
The ventilation layer is the layer closest to the skin. This layer’s main function is
to allow perspiration to be wicked away from the body. Clothing in this layer should be
constructed from the following materials to be the most efficient: polypropylene, silk or
wool. Cotton absorbs moisture readily and is not recommended for outdoor activities
where warmth and dryness are vital. Clothing components of this layer include:
underwear, socks, toque and gloves.
FTM/IPM FTM - 190

The insulation layer is the next layer or layers. This layer’s role is to add the
appropriate amount of insulation for the body. This layer’s thickness is determined by the
temperature and the individual’s comfort level. The thicker this layer is, the warmer you
will be. It is important to regulate the layers in this area as you do not want to perspire
too much as you then become wet and become prone to cooling off too much. If you
notice that you are becoming too hot, remove your headwear or a layer of insulation to
allow your body to cool. Some various types of insulation are: wool (retains up to 60% of
it’s insulation qualities while wet), down (as long as it stay’s dry, it will retain it’s
insulation capacity), Hollowfill, and fleece. Some clothing components of this layer
include: shirt, sweater, parka, pants, socks, mittens, and wool caps.
The final layer is the protection layer. This layer serves the purpose of keeping
out the elements so the other two layers can do their jobs. When selecting a protective
layer, you must consider what element(s) you are trying to keep away from the other
layers as well as the ventilation ability of the outermost layer to allow a certain amount of
perspiration out or you will overheat and become wet, defeating the purpose of the shell.
Types of protective materials are: Gore-Tex, nylon, leather and rubber. Articles of
clothing in this layer include; jacket, gaiters, boots
Clothes Layering System
Inside Layer: Ventilation

Socks (thin wool, wool blend, polypropylene)
Underwear
Long underwear (polypropylene, wool, wool blend, silk) top and bottoms
Middle Layer: Insulation

Wool socks
Heavy pants - wool, corduroy, fleece - anything less than 35% cotton, NOT jeans
Wool shirt/sweater
Wool mitts or gloves
Scarf
Outside Layer: Protection

Toque
Hat
Wind resistant breathable shell - gore-tex, nylon or a something you can regulate
the temperature with
Leather mitts or gloves (mitts are warmer)
Felt-pack pair of boots with rubber or leather outer
Jacket - fleece/pile, wool, etc
Parka/coat - wool, down, synthetic
FTM/IPM FTM - 191

Suggested Survival Trip Clothes
4 pr wool socks
2 pr long johns
2 pr pants (wool is preferable) - not jeans
2 long sleeve shirts
2 heavy sweaters
1 good jacket
1 pr boots with removable liners (Sorel, Baffin, Kodiac…)
1 toque
2 pr mitts
1 heavy belt
1 sleeping bag
1 knife
1 journal
OPTIONALS
Sunglasses
Toothbrush
Deodorant
Flashlight
“City” clothes for trip home
Gaiters
Lipsyl or chap stick
Sunscreen
Contact lens equipment (Glasses are recommended eye wear)
Watch
Camera
AS THIS IS AN ACTIVE COURSE, ARTICLES MAY GET SPARK HOLES OR

CUTS. NEITHER THE INSTRUCTOR NOR EMPLOYER WILL REIMBURSE FOR
ANY DAMAGES.
Deicing the Airplanes Before Flight
602.11 (1) In this section, "critical surfaces" means the wings, control surfaces, rotors,
propellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizers or any other stabilizing surface of an
aircraft and, in the case of an aircraft that has rear-mounted engines, includes the upper
surface of its fuselage.
(2) No person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost,
ice or snow adhering to any of its critical surfaces.
FTM/IPM FTM - 192

The above CAR makes it quite clear that there can be NO ice or snow on the
wings, tail, or propeller of your airplane when you takeoff. The most effective means of
meeting this requirement is to park the airplane in a hangar where it never gets ice or
snow on it. At Selair we try to park the airplanes inside as much as possible.
Despite our desire to use the hangar it may at times not be possible to do so. In
addition, every year some students get stuck over night on cross-countries when the
weather deteriorates. In such cases it may become necessary to remove frost or snow
from the wings and tail before flight. It may also be necessary to remove snow or frost
from the windows.
Cleaning a Frosted Window

Airplanes parked outside in the winter should have windshield covers. If a cover
is in place the window should be clean and ready for flight as soon as you remove it.
However, if the cover was wet when installed, or if it rained before the temperature
dropped to zero there may be ice or frost under the cover.
If there is loose snow on the window wipe it off with a soft cloth. If you use your
gloved hand make CERTAIN there are no metal buckles etc. on your glove that will
scratch the window.
It is VERY difficult to remove frost or ice from an aircraft window without

damaging it. The windows are made of Plexiglas, which is very SOFT compared to glass.
Your car window is glass and you can scrape it clean with a scraper but you must
NEVER use a scraper on an airplane window. The best way to clean an airplane
window that is frosted over is to get it warm enough that you can wipe the frost off with a
soft cloth.
If the outside temperature has risen to 0 C you can speed the process up by
pouring a bucket of warm water on the window then wiping if off with a towel. DO NOT
go flying with the window wet, as it will freeze up as you climb.
If the temperature is only a few degrees below zero you can rub the frost off with
a soft cloth. Don’t use anything abrasive – be sure not to scratch the window.
If the temperature is colder than -5 C the best option is to move the airplane into a
warm hangar and let the frost melt. If a hangar is not available you can use another source
of heat to melt the ice – for example an engine heater (discussed below.) If you have the
equipment available and have been trained to use it you can also use deicing fluid –
discussed below.
Cleaning the Wings, Tail and Fuselage of Ice and Snow

The same procedures recommended for cleaning the window apply to the painted
parts of the airplanes. Sometimes a bucket of warm water can be used to help remove a
tough patch of ice, but ONLY if the outside temperature is above freezing. In this case
the water is simply speeding up the process of melting that would have eventually deiced
the airplane for you.
FTM/IPM FTM - 193

Unlike the window, the painted surfaces can be scraped a bit, however you should
be careful not to damage the paint or someone will be upset with you. Remove the snow
with a broom then remove frost with a soft cloth, scraper or piece of rope.
Deicing Fluids
At large airports deicing booths are setup where hot fluid is spayed on airplanes to
remove ice. This fluid is heated and melts the ice both chemically and physically. We
have no such booth in CYCG however, so this is not an option.
It is possible to manually apply deicing fluid to a small airplane. To do this you

MUST first brush off ALL snow so that all that remains is frost. You then don your
overalls and goggles and stand upwind as you spray deicing fluid on the airplane with a
manual sprayer. This fluid will melt the frost and cause it to run off. The procedure works
best when the fluid is warm however it works reasonably well even with fluid at room
temperature. Consequently deicing fluid should always be stored in a warm location.
Never spay deicing fluid on snow, as this will just create a giant frozen slurpy out
of your airplane. The deicing fluid is only effective at removing frost. If there are large
junks of ice you will need heated deicing fluid.
Selair has a manual sprayer and keeps a small amount of deicing fluid on hand.
However, you must not use this equipment until you have been trained to use it.
Parking to Catch the Sun

Where you park can make a difference to deicing your airplane. Turning the tail
of the airplane into the sun on a clear day will start ice melting even if the air temperature
is slightly below zero. This will make it easier to scrape the frost and ice patches off.
Deicing in the Hangar

If the temperature is below -5 C it will be very hard to scrape off the ice. If
deicing fluid is not available then your only option will be to move the airplane into the
heated hangar for deicing. Once it is deiced it should remain in the hangar until it is dry
to prevent freezing of control hinges etc. once the airplane is brought back outside. It will
take all day for the airplane to dry so this technique generally means all flying on that
airplane is lost for the day.
Using an Engine Heater

Selair has a propane heater but we do not normally use it. However, in the future
you may need to use a heater to warm the airplane’s engine in order to be able to start it.
You will almost certainly need to heat the engine if the outside temperature is below
–15 C. This section includes some advice and things to think about when using such
heaters.
In marginally cold temperature using a simple electric car heater plugged in and
left in the cowling over night works quite well. Wrapping the engine in a cowling cover
will retain the heat.
FTM/IPM FTM - 194

In colder temperature you must use a heater that has a flame (usually propane or
kerosene). Never leave the aeroplane unattended when using such heaters. Be aware that
excessive heat can do damage to the aeroplane by:
Damaging painted surfaces, e.g. engine cowls.

Warping or melting Plexiglas.
Damaging ducting, hoses, etc.
Melting upholstery
Heaters with an open flame (e.g. propane or kerosene) can start fires if not used
with a sufficiently long piece of ducting.
Ensure the engine is heated evenly - don't just heat the tops of the cylinders -
provide heat to the lower areas too.
Providing heat to the cabin or flight deck area will improve lubrication of moving
parts in the instruments, which will help avoid premature failure. BEWARE OF THE
POTENTIAL FOR CARBON MONOXIDE IN THE CABIN IF USING A GAS
HEATER.
Engine Start
Pilots operating airplanes in cold environments such as the arctic or even the
prairies have developed a variety of procedures to help get the engines started. Here are a
few common ones that you may run into.
BEFORE STARTING MAKE SURE THE AIRPLANE IS NOT SITTING ON ICE

If the airplane is parked on ice move it or restrain it before starting.
USE A LIGHTER WEIGHT OR MULTI-VISCOSITY OIL

Follow the manufacturer's recommendations. In some situations it may be
necessary to remove the oil from the aircraft after the last flight while it is still warm,
storing it in a warm place until just prior to the next flight.
KEEP THE BATTERY FULLY CHARGED

This provides more cranking power. A rundown battery can freeze and crack the
case.
KEEP THE BATTERY WARM

Remove it from the aircraft and store it in a warm area until needed for the next
flight.
FORCED PRIMING
Turn the propeller through one revolution for each primer stroke while priming.
Turn it in the normal direction of rotation. Treat the prop as live! This allows fuel
vapors to enter the cylinders by cycling the intake valves open, and helps loosen
congealed oil on the cylinder walls. Start immediately after priming so the fuel vapor
does not congeal.
FTM/IPM FTM - 195

DILUTE THE OIL

Some manufacturers recommend diluting the oil with gasoline, which will
evaporate from the oil as the engine comes up to operating temperature.
MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROCEDURES MUST BE
STRICTLY ADHERED TO.
NEVER LEAVE THE AIRCRAFT UNATTENDED WHILE WARMING IT

UP!
Select an appropriate power setting for initial warm-up (800 – 1,000 RPM). Oil
pressure may be high right after start due to cold thick oil. High rpm could blow a seal.
As the engine warms up gradually increase to normal idle rpm.
Use carburetor heat as required to aid in combustion. I.E. pull the carb heat on
immediately after starting the engine so that warm air is flowing to the carburetor rather
than cold air.
Avoid short periods of ground running - warm engine thoroughly before takeoff.
Priming for Start

Starting the C-172s in the cold is usually not difficult due to the Lasar mag
system. However, you will need to prime more than during the summer. For starts with
outside temperature at 0 C or above you usually only need three strokes of primer. As the
temperature drops to -15 C you will need up to six strokes of prime – prorate for values
in between.
Once you prime more than 3 strokes there is an increased risk of a fire on start.
That is why our SOPs call for a fire guard on startup.
If the engine is warm from just having been run you do not need extra prime for
starting.
Starting the B-95s in the winter is generally not a problem. The only thing to
remember is to prime sufficiently. A rule of thumb that works well is to prime for one
second for every stroke of prime you would have used in the C-172. In other words prime
up to three seconds with temperatures at or above freezing and prime for up to six
seconds as the temperature drops to -15 C.
Fire Guards
When starting the engine with an outside air temperature below 0 C someone
should standby outside to observe for fire and activate the fire extinguisher if needed.
Normally at Selair the dispatcher performs that duty.
Here is how we do it at Selair: The fire guard will bring the large fire extinguisher
from the backroom to the apron while the airplanes are starting. The pilot and fireguard
must establish eye contact prior to start. The pilot will call clear; the fireguard will give
the all-clear sign (thumb up), before the engine is cranked. The fire guard will stand
FTM/IPM FTM - 196

approximately 20 feet from the airplane and off to the pilots’ side during the start (i.e.
don’t stand directly in front of the airplane).
The fireguard MUST be aware of the visual signal for fire and give that signal
should a fire be visible after start. After start, if there is no fire the fire guard should
signal all clear, the pilot should respond with thumbs up. The fireguard may then leave
the scene. If there is a fire: The fireguard should wait until the pilot has completed the
engine fire on start procedure before approaching the engine compartment. The fireguard
MUST not approach the engine if the engine is running. Once the engine has stopped the
fireguard should call out for the pilot to confirm MAGS OFF before moving to the engine
compartment. The fireguard will then extinguish the fire if it is safe to do so. The pilot
can then secure the aircraft and report the incident to maintenance and the CFI.
An airplane MUST NOT be flown until maintenance, or an instructor has

inspected it following a fire.
Carbon Monoxide Detector

You will be using the heater more in the winter; therefore there is a greater risk of
carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning.
Each of our aircraft is equipped with a carbon monoxide detector, which will turn
black if dangerous amounts of CO are in the cabin. It will return to its normal orange
color if the CO disappears. You MUST monitor this indicator, especially during times
when the heater is in use.
In the C-172, the best thing to do is put the heater on maximum immediately after
start. That will help defog the windows, and gives you a chance to confirm there is no CO
before you takeoff.
In the B-95 turn the heater on after start and keep windows and doors closed to
confirm there is no CO.
If temperatures on the ground are moderate, resulting in you turning the heater on
for the first time in flight be extra vigilant in watching the CO detector.
Symptoms of CO Poisoning
One of the great dangers of CO poisoning is its insidious nature. Often people do
not realize it is happening. That is why you need a detector.
The symptoms of CO poisoning are very similar to those for hypoxia in general.
Your Human Factors For Aviation book mentions that CO poisoning causes Anemic
Hypoxia (page 45).
In second year you will go on a field trip in which you will experience hypoxia in
an altitude chamber. Every person’s symptoms are unique, so you will need to learn your
own symptoms. But usually they will include some but not all of the following:
FTM/IPM FTM - 197

Symptom Frequency
Fatigue 92
Headache 87
Dizziness 69
Cardiac Symptoms 62
Apathy 54
Nausea, vomiting 42
Memory Disturbances 40
Using the Heater and Defroster – C-172

Pull the heater knob out to maximum immediately after engine start (this can be
done as part of the flow pattern of the instrument panel check). Normally, leave the cabin
air knob off at this point until you are satisfied there is no CO.
Once you get airborne the best way to setup the heater is with the cabin air knob
out at least part way and the cabin heat knob out as desired for a comfortable
temperature. It is usually best to have the cabin air knob out so that some fresh air is
mixed with the heated air. This improves circulation in the cabin and provides greater
comfort. You will find the heater more than adequate to warm the cabin down to about -
25 C. Below that temperature you will need to close the cabin air vent and use heated air
only. Since our SOPs do not permit flight in such cold temperatures you should never
have a problem warming the cabin.
There are two defroster outlets on the dashboard. These can be opened or closed.
Normally they should both be fully open all the time. Usually the only time you need to
close these is if there are back seat passengers complaining about being cold. Closing the
defroster will divert more heat to the cabin.
If the window becomes frosted during flight, which will happen if you fly through
a cloud (which is illegal – so don’t do it) you will need maximum defrost to clear the
window. In this case it may be necessary to close the FO’s defroster so the Captains side
of the window clears faster. Pull the cabin heat knob to maximum of course.
Using the Heater and Defroster –B-95

Always have the T-handle all the way in when operating the heater. The POH
mentions that the heater is not deactivated until the T-handle is pulled half way out, but
the only conditions in which you would want to pull the T-handle out are when it is so
cold (below -40 C) that the heater cannot warm the cabin sufficiently. By keeping the T-
FTM/IPM FTM - 198

handle all the way in you get maximum volume of airflow through the cabin keeping the
air as fresh as possible.
If the particular day is cool, but not cool enough to require the use of the heater
then you SHOULD pull the T-handle out to cut off the flow of cold air.
Remember that the knob under the dash labeled “Cabin Heat” is equivalent to the
thermostat on the wall in your house. Once it has been set to a comfortable level it is best
to leave it alone. Turn the heater on and off with the on/off switch – leave the thermostat
alone.
Read the knob labels carefully. The pilot air knob is pull on, but the defroster
knob is push on. These knobs open and close outlets below the panel and on the dash
respectively that allows warm air into the cabin. One or both of these should ALWAYS
be open when you are using the heater.
If the cabin becomes too warm push the cabin heat (thermostat) knob in slightly.
It is very sensitive, so moving a millimeter or two at a time is all that is generally needed.
If the cabin is cold check to make sure the heater is turned on. Check that the T-
handle is all the way in. Check that the pilot air or defroster outlets are open. Only
AFTER doing the preceding things should you pull the thermostat knob out further.
Taxiing
Avoid dragging brakes when taxiing in winter as this will make the brakes hot
which will then melt any snow that gets on them, which will then freeze in flight
resulting in a locked wheel when you land. Therefore, always set the correct power to
taxi and don’t drag the brakes.
When the taxiways have been ploughed clean taxiing in the winter is very little
different than in the summer. The one thing to watch for is your wingtip getting too close
to piles of snow left by the snowplow. This is more likely to be a problem with the low
wing airplanes such as the B-95.
On occasion you may have to taxi out with up to two inches of snow on the apron.
You will only do this if the runway and main taxiway are clear. To taxi under these
conditions keep the control column all the way back and taxi at a VERY slow speed.
Your speed should be that of a person walking slowly beside you. If you imagine
someone walking beside the airplane, if they would have to jog, or even walk fast you are
taxiing too fast – SLOW DOWN. In such cases be ready to pull the mixture and stop
immediately.
Never taxi through a snowdrift, or pile left by the snowplow that is more than two
inches deep. If you are taxiing out with a thin layer of snow on the ground be extra
vigilant looking for drifts and avoid them. Try to examine the route you will take before
you get into the airplane.
FTM/IPM FTM - 199

Ice patches are the most dangerous part of winter taxiing. If puddles have frozen,
or even worse freezing rain has fallen, the pavement will be very slippery. This is even
more dangerous for an airplane than it would be for a car on ice (and you know how bad
that can be). Airplanes have more trouble on ice in part because they can always get
going, as that requires no traction, but you need traction to stop. The other problem is that
the airplane will tend to swing around into the wind making it impossible to taxi straight
no matter how careful you are, if the wind is more than 10 knots. Keep this in mind. In
the future you may land on a runway that has been deiced and then have extreme
difficulty taxiing to the terminal building if the apron is covered with ice. During your
time at Selair we will avoid taxiing if the apron is ice covered. If you do encounter an ice
patch don’t lock up the brakes. Use a pumping action on the toe brakes. This also
applies to landing on a slippery runway.
If there are small areas such as frozen puddles on the apron you should avoid
them. Beware of black ice. This is an area where the asphalt has become saturated with
water that has frozen. Such spots are hard to see but can be treacherous. They may or
may not shimmer in the sun, but they can be impossible to see on an overcast day. You
can however anticipate such areas will exist when you know that in the recent few hours
it has been raining and now the temperature has dropped below zero. This condition does
not happen often in our Selair operation, but you will encounter this situation in your
future flying career.
The most important advice about winter taxiing is to taxi slowly if there is any
possibility of ice on the ground. Be advised that the airplane will swing into the wind
quickly if you hit an ice patch. This could cause an accident if you are moving fast – so
taxi slowly.
Takeoff
While you are with Selair you will not be taking off on snow covered runways.
However, there may be occasions when you takeoff with some ice patches on the
runways. In the future you may have to do some takeoffs with small amounts of snow on
the runway. Here are some things to think about.
Move the throttle slowly and smoothly.

Place carburetor heat in the cold position after full power is applied. This ensures
the engine accelerates smoothly.
Use "soft field procedure" if taking of in unpacked snow or slush
Concentrate on directional control. The greatest danger is swinging from side to
side due to uneven drag on each wheel.
Acceleration to lift-off may be difficult or impossible in deep snow.
If taking off in slush or through puddles of water then after takeoff cycle the gear
and flaps a few times. This is to clean off any slush or water on the gear or flaps
so they do not freeze in the up position.
FTM/IPM FTM - 200

In Flight Winter Consideration

Survival Kits
It is even more important to carry survival equipment in the wintertime. In
addition to the kits Selair provides you should have personal equipment as described
above under clothing.
You must secure your personal survival equipment, but as stated under clothing
you should have your hat and gloves where you can reach them in flight if the heater
fails. You should also have some basic survival tools (pocket knife etc.) in your coat
pocket. You should WEAR your coat – don’t take it off or you may lose it in a crash. If
you don’t want to wear your big boots for flying then at least wear light boots, not shoes.
Snow
If you have ever flown in light rain you know that it only reduced visibility a little
bit. It is very important to know that snow will reduce visibility much more. Therefore
even light snow is a good reason to rethink VFR flight. If the light snow increases to a
moderate snow shower expect the visibility to drop below safe VFR flight conditions.
This is especially true in the mountains where more visibility is needed for safe VFR
flight.
White Out
White out is a condition in which the sky and ground merge together making it
impossible for the pilot to see the horizon. White out can happen even if it is not
snowing.
Whiteout is usually not encountered in the mountains. It is more likely to arise in

featureless areas of snow-covered ground such as the arctic, or prairies. If you encounter
a whiteout you must switch to instrument flying, even if you are VFR. Watch your
instruments - control your attitude. Check to see you are at a safe altitude, and if in doubt
climb. You will also need to switch to instrument based navigation.
The most insidious part of whiteout is that sometimes you don’t know it is
happening. Therefore, when flying in areas where all the ground is covered with snow
(which is most of Canada in the winter) always use your instruments to backup your VFR
flying. Watch your altitude closely. Scan the Attitude indicator from time to time. You
will sometimes see false horizons out the window. Only the AI can help you diagnose the
situation. Always backup VFR navigation with instrument navigation (ADF, VOR, or
GPS) while flying in winter.
Small-scale whiteouts can also be encountered when dry snow is swirled up by

the wind. A pilot may encounter this during takeoff or landing (i.e. when flying at low
altitude). This phenomenon can occur anywhere including the mountains. Such events
generally require at least 15 knots of wind and should be anticipated when such winds
exists if the surface temperature is less than -10 C. Usually the snow is not dry enough to
blow around when the temperature is warmer that -10 C. The best way to handle such
FTM/IPM FTM - 201

whiteouts is to avoid them. In areas where there are lots of ground features, such as
around CYCG, you will be able to see that snow is blowing around causing visibility
difficulties below 500’ agl. In remote parts of Canada the situation can catch you by
surprise when the runway suddenly disappears from view on short final. In remote areas
you should anticipate the situation and fly all approaches according to the advice in the
next paragraph. If possible stay at altitude and look for an alternate landing sight, or wait
for the wind to die down.
If you must land in blowing snow, try to get a ground observation of the visibility
first. If it more than three miles you should be able to land easily. If it is between one and
three miles get a special VFR clearance if applicable. If visibility is less than one mile
you cannot land safely so don’t land unless you are about to run out of fuel.
When white out conditions are suspected get lined up on final before descending.
Establish final approach configuration and have the airplane trimmed for approach before
descending into the snow. As you enter the snow there is always a period where the
visibility seems much worse than it really is as your eyes adjust to the situation. For
example you may be able to see the runway clearly from 1,000 feet then it suddenly
disappears at 500 feet. This can be disorienting. That is why you want to be lined up and
in the correct configuration first. If you have doubts overshoot – and fly instruments
when you overshoot to prevent possible loss of control resulting in a low altitude stall.
Remember you should not be doing any of what is being discussed in this paragraph if
there is another safe option available to you. Obviously, if there is an ILS approach
available use that to assist you.
In summary: when landing at remote airports, with featureless terrain around them
avoid tight circuits with configuration changes on short final. Someday you will fly into a
whiteout and scare yourself. The amount of heart thumping will be inversely proportional
to your altitude and proportional to bank angle – plan accordingly.
Landing on Slippery Runways

When landing at major airports you will have access to a runway surface
condition report. Read about this in AIR 1.6.3 of your AIM. At smaller airports you may
have no information at all.
Be aware that landing on ice with a crosswind will result in directional control
problems or complete loss of directional control at some point during the landing roll.
Runway maintenance in CYCG is excellent. The runways are cleaned and swept
promptly and urea is spread to melt any ice on the runway. Not all airports are that well
maintained. Other local airports such as Trail and Nelson may have ice on the runways so
you must be careful.
All landings should be right on the centerline so that if you do start to slide you
aren’t going to slide off the side of the runway. NEVER leave the centerline until you are
down to taxi speed. I.E. don’t start a high-speed turn off.
FTM/IPM FTM - 202

When the runway is slippery you need lots of extra runway length. If you are
lucky enough to be landing a small airplane on a very large runway, such as when
landing the C-172 on the runway in CYCG you have a great deal of margin. Your main
concern will be with directional control. Your maximum crosswind limit on a slippery
surface must be substantially reduced. Some airplanes will have that information in the
POH, for most the PIC will have to judge how much crosswind is acceptable. This is
where experience comes in
If you are flying a larger airplane, or the runway is short, you should realize that
your landing ground roll could easily double or triple with ice on the runway. So, if you
don’t have that much runway – don’t land.
If the runway is slippery do NOT lock up the brakes. Use a pumping action on the
breaks to help steer. In a multiengine airplane you may be able to use a bit of differential
power to help keep straight. Sometimes a runway is mostly bare but has small ice
patches. This won’t be a problem as long as you brake very gradually after landing.
Every time you hit an ice patch the airplane will try to swing into the wind – so be
careful. Definitely don’t leave the centerline of the runway until you are down to a slow
taxi speed. As mentioned above, use a pumping action on the brakes – don’t lock them
up.
In cold weather avoid prolonged power-off glides - use a power-assisted

approach. This prevents the engine from getting too cold, which could result in the engine
quitting if you need to overshoot. If it is necessary to use low power settings, "clear" the
engine occasionally just as you would on a practice forced approach.
Depth perception may be a problem when landing on runways uniformly covered

in snow. Use the same techniques as a night landing. Monitor your altitude closely and if
an IFR approach is available use it.
If landing on a snow covered surface, make sure you know the depth of the snow!
When landing on an icy runway, touch down at the lowest speed possible. Except
that if you suspect your brake(s) may be frozen, touch-down at a slightly higher than
normal speed and make a firm landing, in an attempt to break them free so the wheel will
rotate. (You might suspect a frozen brake if you taxied out in a slushy condition or taxied
in deep snow and used a lot of brake while taxiing.)
FTM/IPM FTM - 203

Winter Survival
You will be participating in a winter survival course designed to help you learn to
survive should the worse ever happened and you find yourself in the wilderness
following a forced landing.
The course consists of one full day of lectures covering various topics including
how to build a shelter, how to start a fire, and proper psychological attitude to survive.
You will be given a copy of the book “BC Hydro Survival Manual”. You must read this
manual and answer the questions in the quiz on the following pages before the survival
course begins.
Following the day of lectures you will go into the wilderness to survive for three
days and nights. You will be placed in groups of three or four. Your group will construct
a lean-to shelter by cutting down trees. You will build a fire to keep warm and cook what
food you are given. You will be on a restricted ration of 1,000 calories per day to
simulate actual survival conditions.
You are required to keep a journal during your survival experience. Each day you
should write down your thoughts about how your body is reacting, your psychological
state, and a summary of what you learned from the experience. You can also write
comments about how you feel about the design of the course. The survival instructor will
collect the journals after the
Frost Bite
Frostbite occurs when soft-tissue of the body is improperly protected and exposed
to freezing temperatures. It is caused by ice-crystals forming within tissues.
Contributing Factors:
Outside static temperature
Wind-chill factor
Lack of blood circulation to the affected area.
Symptoms:
Usually starts with pain and redness

Progresses to the area becoming pale
Pain is replaced with tingling and numbness
Progresses to appearing completely white, or mottled with blue and white patches
Tends to feel lifeless to the person affected
Affected tissues feel like they are frozen solid
Treatment:
If patient exhibits shallow breathing, symptoms of shock, or a decreased level of

consciousness, consider the possibility of severe hypothermia.
FTM/IPM FTM - 204

Remove any wet or restrictive clothing.

Prevent exposing the affected part to further cold
Cover lightly with a gauze dressing if able
Do not break any blisters that develop
Elevate the limb (to heart level) and immobilize
DO NOT RUB THE AFFECTED AREA
Re-warm the affected part.
If at all possible, re-warming should be done at a proper medical facility.
FTM/IPM FTM - 205

Winter Survival Quiz

You must complete the following quiz before your survival course.
NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter One
1. What is a working definition of Survival? (3)
2. Why is it important to take a material and human inventory? (2)
3. There are many things to look for in a winter survival situation, what are three things
you will look for and why? (6)
4. What is one thing that might limit your traveling ability in January, and what are you
going to do to try to minimize it? (3)
5. Do you think it is a good idea for pilots to take a survival course? Why? (2)
FTM/IPM FTM - 206

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Two
1. Why should you try to light a fire first during a survival situation (2 main reasons)?
(2)
2. About what size of pole is used and how many are needed to construct the “Floyd”
lean-to? (2)
3. What are some things that can be done simultaneously upon arrival at a site? (3)
a.
b.
c.
4. What components of the “Floyd” lean-to are from natural materials? (8)
5. How thick should your bough bed be? (1)
6. What does a shelter provide for a survivor? (5)
FTM/IPM FTM - 207

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Three
1. What are the three components that must be present for a fire? (3)
2. What are the three main reasons to build a fire? (3)
3. How does a rock fireplace situated as close to the shelter as possible increase the fire’s
efficiency? (2)
4. What is a fire dog and how does it make your fire more efficient? (2)
5. If you could not initially locate rocks for a fire place what could you use from the
natural environment? (2)
6. Describe the rules of three. (3)
7. Why is it critically important to keep a twenty-four hour watch? (2)
FTM/IPM FTM - 208

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Four
1. What are four possible ways you might be able to signal after an unpredicted landing?
(2)
2. Describe the difference between passive and active signaling. (2)
3. Describe why an inversion might have detrimental affects with a signal fire and two
options you can counter this with. (3)
4. What are two reasons spruce or fir are sought for in a survival situation? (2)
5. What are three rules suggested to increase the efficiency of making a signal fire? (2)
6. If you are in a fairly enclosed area, would it be better to lay the signal tarp down or
stand it up? (1)
FTM/IPM FTM - 209

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Five
1. What are three ways you can lessen the chance of catching hypothermia? (3)
2. Describe the four ways we lose heat from our bodies. (8)
3. What are some of the symptoms of hypothermia? (5)
4. How would you treat a person who could not stop shivering and was having difficulty
speaking and remembering recent events? (5)
FTM/IPM FTM - 210

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Six
1. Why is it important to start melting snow once a fire is started in the winter setting?
(1)
2. How many calories do you expect to expend during the first day? (Taking into
account you will be traveling for 2 hours, hiking to your site, cutting shelter wood, fire
wood, hopefully moving rocks for a fireplace, eating supper and sleeping for eight hours)
(2)
3. Describe “low fuel” sickness? (2)
4. Why is it wise to drink warm fluids instead of hot or cold ones? (2)
FTM/IPM FTM - 211

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Seven
1. Why is it important to stay in good physical shape? (2)
2. What are some of the possible factors challenging survivors? (4)
3. You will be under great physical stress the first day and be quite hungry. How much
food would you allow your group to consume during the first night? Why? (2)
4. What are two psychological stresses or fears you will be facing on this course and how
will you try to minimize them? (4)
FTM/IPM FTM - 212

NAME
Survival Quiz
Chapter Eight
1. What is a bonus about camping in winter? (1)
2. What are good ways to avoid bears and other inquisitive big game carnivores? (4)
3. Concerning firearms, what would you consider a good rule to follow when it comes to
predators? (1)
FTM/IPM FTM - 213

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Selkirk College IATPL Program Manual

Table of Contents – FTM/IPM

Time Restricted (Rushed) Precautionary Approaches .......................................... 56

Rules of thumb .......................................................................................................... 86

Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD) ........................................................................ 117

Minimum Safe VFR Altitude (in the mountains) ............................................... 173

The Flight Safety “System”

Let us examine just one example – a NOTAM for construction equipment

Exercise Commentary – Overview

Pressure and Density Altitudes

The procedure to calculate Pressure altitude and Density altitude is explained in

Flight Training Manual Exercises

To understand the C of A start by reading it:

The key clause is #5, reproduced below:

Your airplane is “legally airworthy” if it conforms to a type certificate. What does

This leads to two obvious conclusions:

The answer is called a “Supplemental Type Certificate.” No airplane may be

Below is a blowup of the upper left corner of the C of R.

Maintenance Control Manual

Below are reproductions of a few key clauses in Selair’s MCM as a

24 DEFERRED MAINTENANCE CONTROL

Landing light not working. Deferred to DML by Ray Preston – R Preston

Take note of this clause in the MCM:

All maintenance must be performed according to an approved schedule. Each

The following requirements are to be observed during the course of scheduled

That concludes the review of the MCM.

MCM Self study Assignment

1. Who is Selair’s PRM (Person Responsible for Maintenance) and what is he

2. Who is Selair’s DOM (Director of Maintenance) and what is he responsible for?

3. Who signs Selair’s MCM on behalf of the operations certificate holder?

4. Must a PRM hold a valid AME’s licence, explain?

6. How do you determine if a particular page of the MPM is current?

7. Who issues amendments to the MPM?

11. Where are defects recorded and when?

12. What defects must be referred to the PRM for resolution?

16. Where must deferred defects be recorded?

17. What constitutes a recurring defect?

21. Are manufactures service bulletins recommending repetitive inspections or times

26. Who may authorize the use of the tolerance?

28. In which logbook(s) must maintenance certifications be made?

30. In Abbotsford, who is primarily responsible for contacting the maintenance

Mixture for Descents

Setting Mixture in B-95

The picture to the left shows typical runup locations.

When running up on the main apron, avoid getting in

complete appropriate safety precautions before entering slow flight;

1. When the airplane first stalls

The C-172 POH specifies overshoots to be done as follows (page 4-10):

1. Throttle - - Full Open

Applying the above to a stall recovery situation you would get:

1. Lower the nose

Short Field Takeoff in C-172

Soft or rough field Takeoff in C-172

Common mistakes are:

Pilot Induced Oscillations (PIO)

Short Field Landing in C-172

The consequence of approaching at 61 knots when at a light weight is that there is

Soft Field Landing in C-172

20 – Illusions Created By Drift

Runway condition reports are provided by towers and Aerodrome Advisory

Emergency Precautionary Landing

We recommend breaking the tasks involved in a precautionary into three stages:

The Three Stages of a Precautionary Approach

Secure the cabin