Machining Science and Technology

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ISSN: 1091-0344 (Print) 1532-2483 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lmst20

Some Observations of the Chip Formation Process

and the White Layer Formation in High Speed
Milling of Hardened Steel

S. Ekinovic, S. Dolinsek & I. S. Jawahir

To cite this article: S. Ekinovic, S. Dolinsek & I. S. Jawahir (2004) Some Observations of the Chip
Formation Process and the White Layer Formation in High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel,
Machining Science and Technology, 8:2, 327-340, DOI: 10.1081/MST-200029250

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1081/MST-200029250

Published online: 07 Feb 2007.

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 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 327–340, 2004

Some Observations of the Chip Formation Process

and the White Layer Formation in High Speed
Milling of Hardened Steel

S. Ekinovic,1,* S. Dolinsek,2 and I. S. Jawahir3

1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zenica, Zenica,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, USA

ABSTRACT

With the advent of recent advances in machine tools design (main spindle, feed
drives, etc.), high-speed milling has become a cost-effective manufacturing
process to produce products with high surface quality, low variations in the
machined surface characteristics, and excellent dimensional accuracy. In taking
into account the most obvious advantages of high-speed machining over
conventional machining, a key issue is to identify the effective range of cutting
speed that corresponds to high-speed machining producing improved machining
performance. The simple reason for this is the fact that machining performance
improves when entering the high-speed region but, large increase in cutting speed
is not cost-effective due to rapidly increasing tool-wear rates and high power
consumption. In order to address this issue requiring a trade-off, an attempt has
been made in this paper by formulating an approximate procedure which is based
on the analysis of chip-formation mechanisms and a chip-shape analysis, together

*Correspondence: Sabahudin Ekinovic, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of

Zenica, Fakultetska 1, Zenica 72000, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Fax: 011 387 32 418 749;
E-mail: sekinovic@mf-ze.unsa.ba.

327

DOI: 10.1081/LMST-200029250 1091-0344 (Print); 1532-2483 (Online)

Copyright & 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com
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328 Ekinovic, Dolinsek, and Jawahir

with the use of metallographic methods. This procedure includes fundamental

understanding of the well-known phenomena of white layer formation during the
high-speed machining of hardened steels. Essentially, the white layer generated
on a machined surface represents a surface defect. Therefore, it is necessary to
determine the factors influencing its generation and its prevalent characteristics.
There is lack of knowledge in this area, which tends to present the influence of
the white layer on the surface integrity and performance of the machined part as a
function of machining conditions. This article provides a basis for the
determination of the optimal range of cutting speeds and feed rates in high-
speed milling of hardened steels ensuring minimized influence of the white layer
on the workpiece quality and machined surface integrity.

INTRODUCTION

High-speed machining operations are known to be a relatively new production

technology that allows a higher productivity, an excellent surface finish and a good
dimensional accuracy in the manufacturing processes. High-speed milling is perhaps
the most commonly and frequently considered machining operation in research and
applications (Becze et al., 2000; Fallbohmer et al., 2000; Ning et al., 2001). Due to
the recent advances in machine tool performance, as a result of improvements in
main spindles, feed drives, etc., high-speed milling has become a cost-effective
manufacturing process that produces products with a high surface quality, low
variations in the machined surface and dimensional accuracy. High-speed milling
was first successfully used in the aircraft and automotive industry for machining
complex components/parts made of aluminum alloys. Recently, with the advances in
cutting-tool materials and technologies, high-speed milling has also been used in the
machining of alloy steels in their hardened state with hardness values in the 30–65
HRC range (Elbestawi et al., 1997; Tonshoff et al., 2000).
There are several criteria used for defining high-speed machining such as the
criteria for determination the boundary between conventional and high-speed
machining. These include: the magnitude of the cutting speed, the revolutions of
spindle or the rotating tool (the spindle speed), the DN number (DN is the spindle
diameter in mm multiplied by the spindle speed in rev/min), the dynamic behavior,
and the workpiece material (Ekinovic and Ekinovic, 2000). The most appropriate
definition of high-speed machining is based on the workpiece material grade (or
type) being machined as shown in Fig. 1 (Ekinovic and Ekinovic, 2000).
For example, the cutting speed values from 500 to 700 m/min is the high-speed
region for machining alloy steels, however, this speed range is considered
conventional or low for machining of aluminum alloys.
More recent high-speed machining studies focus on several specific characteristic
areas: tool-wear mechanisms (Becze et al., 2000; Dolinsek and Kopac, 1999); surface
quality and machined-surface integrity (El-Wardany et al., 2000); chip-formation
mechanisms (Becze et al., 2000; Fallbohmer et al., 2000; Ning et al., 2001); and
machining of materials in their hardened state (known as hard machining)
(Elbestawi et al., 1997; El-Wardany et al., 2000; Poulachon and Moisan, 2000;
Schulz and Kneisel, 1994; Tonshoff et al., 2000). The common aim of all these
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High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel 329

7 Low (conventional) speed region

6 Transition region

5 High speed region

4 1 – Nickel-based alloys
2 – Titanium
3 3 – Steel
4 – Cast iron
2 5 – Bronze & brass
6 – Aluminium
1 7 – Fiber reinforced plastics
10 10 100 10000
Cutting speed, m/min

Figure 1. Regions of cutting speed for milling a different workpiece material.

investigations is to explore all possibilities of high-speed machining applications in

industrial practice.
In taking into account some of the obvious advantages of high-speed machining
over conventional machining, it is very important to find the most effective range of
cutting speed that corresponds to high-speed machining producing improved
machining performance. As the increased cutting speed is expected to increase the
tool-wear rate with high cutting power consumption, it is a general practice to look
for optimum cutting speed as a trade-off. Figure 1 may be used for approximate
determination of the value of cutting speed when entering the high-speed machining
region. However, for any specific (real) case (e.g., given specific workpiece material
properties), it is necessary to precisely find the point at which the effective high-speed
region begins for a given machining operation. This article presents a new method
that is based on the analysis of the chip-formation mechanisms and characterization
of chip-forms/chip-shapes.
In general, the chip-formation mechanism analysis is an effective tool for a
deeper and fundamental understanding of the mechanics of cutting process.
According to Vyas and Shaw (1999), there are two basic types of chips: steady-
state continuous chips, and cyclic chips. Also, there are four types of cyclic chips:
discontinuous chips, wavy chips, chips produced with a built-up edge and saw-tooth
chips. Research in machining of hardened steels, particularly in the high-speed
cutting range, has recently attracted a great deal of attention. This relates to the fact
that high-speed technologies enable machining of workpieces in their hardened state
with a good surface quality and dimensional accuracy. Therefore, these processes
have considerable advantages over traditional machining technologies. The main
indicators of the machined workpiece quality are the geometrical surface integrity
(surface roughness and dimensional accuracy), and physical surface integrity
(microstructure, hardness, and residual stresses). Machine parts that are made of
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330 Ekinovic, Dolinsek, and Jawahir

hardened steels frequently work in high load conditions. The tribological and the
service utilization characteristics of the surface of these machine parts mostly depend
on finishing operations. In machining of hardened steel parts, this is accomplished
by grinding and high-speed machining technologies.
The common characteristic of grinding and high-speed machining of hardened
steel, as well as the other machining processes, is the appearance of the so-called
white layer on the machined surface. The phenomenon of the white layer was first
identified in the 1940s (Brinksmeier and Brockhoff, 1999). The appearance of the
white layer commonly occurs on a chip, the cutting plane, as well as on the machined
surface. In the case of continuous chip formation in hard machining, the white layer
appears on the inner side of the chip, while in a segmented chip the white layer
appears not only on the inner side of the chip, but also between chip segments.
Komanduri (1982) reported the appearance of white layers in a segmented chip,
while Stähli (1984) showed the material transformation as the cause of white layer
formation. The model of rehardening and tempering in grinding was investigated by
Malkin and Fedoseev (1991), while Brinksmeier and Brockhoff (1997) gave a
relation between white layer and specific characteristics due to mechanisms
(processes), which take place during material transformation in grinding and hard
machining. Kruth et al. (1998) showed that white layer appearance was a common
phenomenon, and found some similarities between white layers for different
machining processes, such as grinding, electro-discharge machining, laser beam
machining, hard cutting, and high-speed cutting. Due to enormously high
temperatures and mechanical loads in the cutting zone, the austenizing level is
reached in a very short time, approximately in 0.1 ms (Tonshoff et al., 2000). Since
the workpiece material is self-quenched, changes occur in the white layer
composition, producing residual stresses. Therefore, there are two fundamental
bases for the white layer appearance: the temperature in the contact zone needs to
attain the austenizing level of the material, and cooling must happen within a very
short time.
EDX-examinations can prove that the white layer is not an amorphous material
but crystal-structured. The same can be proven by examinations of conductivity
(Tonshoff et al., 2000). The white layer is composed of fine grained martensitic and
austenitic crystals, and fine carbides as well (Brinksmeier and Brockhoff, 1999).
Poulachon et al. (2001) explained the influence of the thermo-mechanical behavior of
material in chip formation due to the shear localization mechanism during hard
turning. Recent investigations into the influence of cutting conditions on white layer
appearance and its characteristics during high-speed hard machining have also been
focused on cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut), tool-wear, and
mechanical characteristics of the workpiece material (Ekinovic et al., 2002;
El-Wardany et al., 2000; Poulachon et al., 2001; Shaw, 1993; Tonshoff et al., 2000).
The presence of a white layer on a machined surface has a detrimental effect on
the integrity of the machined surface, especially from the tribological and service
utilization point of view. Therefore, it would be very useful to know what machining
parameters in the high-speed machining region would ensure minimal white layer
appearance and, consequently, could decrease its negative influence on the machined
surface integrity. This article is aimed at this main objective.
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High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel 331

Table 1. Chemical composition of work material.

Chemical composition, %, X63CrMoV51—DIN

C Si Mn P S Cu Cr Ni Mo V Al

0.62 1.0 0.59 0.017 0.004 0.26 5.46 0.23 1.21 0.46 0.028

Figure 2. The microstructure of the work material. (View image in color online.)

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Machining tests were conducted on a CNC milling machine, type Mori Seiki-
Frontier. The machining conditions were: cutter diameter D ¼ 80 and D ¼ 50 mm,
depth of cut d ¼ 2 mm, feed ft ¼ 0.05–0.2 mm/tooth, a coated cutting tool insert
SFKN 12T3 AZTN (CVD coating TiN þ Al2O3 þ TiCN), cutting speed vc ¼ 60–
250 m/min, ¼ 27
,  ¼ 7
,  ¼ 45
, dry cutting. The chemical composition of the
work material is shown in Table 1. The microstructure of work material is
martensitic with eutectoide carbides and retained austenite (quenching is not
performed), microhardness HV0.02 ¼ 630—see Fig. 2.
This investigation was divided in the two parts. Method for determination of
transition from conventional to high-speed region based on chip-formation
mechanism and chip-shape is shown in the first part. Frequency of the chip
segmentation and size of deformed and un-deformed parts of the chip segment were
analyzed too. Determination of machining conditions for minimizing the white layer
formation is shown in the second part.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experimental results of the first part of investigation are presented in Fig. 3
(diagram of the chip micro-hardness vs. cutting speed), Fig. 4 (cross-section of the
chip produced and the size of deformed and un-deformed part of the chip) and Fig. 5
(diagram of the chip segmentation frequency versus magnitude of the chip segment
deformed part).
When the cutting speed is vc ¼ 50 m/min (Figs. 3 and 4(a)), the microstructure of
the material belongs to the classical type of deformation with uniformly elongated
grains, but with the appearance of the white layer on the inner side of the chip, which
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332 Ekinovic, Dolinsek, and Jawahir

800 n = 1.20 n = 1.18

Microhardness of the chip, HV

756 HV 742 HV 720 HV

700
660 HV
630
600 f seg = 3.84 kHz f seg = 15.6 kHz
Initial micro hardness

n = 1.14
n = 1.05
500 High-Speed Region

400

Conventional Speed Region

f seg = 100.6 kHz

50 150 300 1500

Cutting Speed, vc, m/min

Figure 3. Chip morphology obtained in conventional and high-speed region (feed, ft ¼

0.05 mm/tooth, depth of cut, d ¼ 2 mm, dry cutting). (View image in color online.)

is a consequence of thermal softening of the material. The average measured

microhardness is 660 HV, which in relation to the initial value (630 HV) gives a low
level of strain-hardening.
In machining at a speed of vc ¼ 150 m/min, the chip is segmented and has a
typical saw-tooth shape (Figs. 3 and 4(b)). Clearly visible is a white layer both on the
inner side of the chip and also between the segments. Therefore, the thermal
softening and deformation mechanism are prevalent. The average measured micro-
hardness value of the white layer is 756 HV. However, on the inner (un-deformed)
part of the chip segments the average micro-hardness is only 632 HV, which shows a
complete un-deformed structure in relation to the initial state of the workpiece
material. Approximately 62% of the chip segment cross-section area is deformed.
The frequency of the chip segmentation is about 3.84 kHz. On the basis of the above
findings, one can conclude that machining at this speed is already in the high speed.
In machining at the speed of vc ¼ 300 m/min, the chip is even more segmented,
with lower thickness and with smaller chip segments, in comparison with the
previous speed (Figs. 3 and 4(c)). At the same time, the thickness of the white layer is
lower and its average measured micro-hardness is 742 HV. At the inner part of the
segment, the average micro-hardness is 640 HV. In this case, approximately 40% of
the chip segment cross-section area is deformed, and the frequency of the chip
segmentation is about 15.6 kHz.
In cutting at the speed of vc ¼ 1500 m/min the chip shape produced is smaller and
heavily segmented, with an even lower thickness (Figs. 3 and 4(d)). Moreover, the
thickness of the white layer is lower compared with what was produced in machining
at lower speeds; its average microhardness is 720 HV. At the inner part of the
segments, the average microhardness is 618 HV. Finally, approximately 33% of the
chip segment cross-section area is deformed, and the frequency of the chip
segmentation is about 100.6 kHz. The resulting diagram, presented in Fig. 5 shows
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High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel 333

660 HV

White layer 100 µm

(a) Cutting speed, vc = 50 m/min

Deformed part, approx. 62% of chip
segment cross-section area, 756 HV

Un-deformed part, approx. 38% of chip

segment cross-section area, 632 HV
100 µm
White layer
Chip segmentation frequency: 3.84 kHz
(b) Cutting speed, vc = 150 m/min
Deformed part, approx. 40% of chip
segment cross-section area, 742 HV

Un-deformed part, approx. 60% of

chip segment cross-section area,
640 HV
White layer 100 µm

Chip segmentation frequency: 15.6 kHz

(c) Cutting speed, vc = 300 m/min

Deformed part, approx. 33% of

chip segment cross-section area,
720 HV

Un-deformed part, approx. 67%

of chip segment cross-section
100 µm area, 618 HV
White layer

(d) Cutting speed, vc = 1500 m/min Chip segmentation frequency: 100.6 kHz

Figure 4. Cross-sections of the chips produced during machining and some results from the
analysis (feed, ft ¼ 0.05 mm/tooth, depth of cut, d ¼ 2mm, dry cutting).

the relationship between the frequency of chip segmentation and the relative
magnitude (amount) of the cross-section area of the chip segment deformed part.
The proportionality between these parameters and the cutting speed is obvious from
the particular diagram.
The methodology used in the second part of the investigation is as follows: the
chip and the machined surface samples were examined and analyzed by optical and
scanning electron microscope. Figure 6 shows characteristic structure of the white
layers in the cutting plane and the machined surface.
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334 Ekinovic, Dolinsek, and Jawahir

Chip segmentation frequency, kHz 120 70

segment deformed part, %

Magnitude of the chip
100 60
80 50
40
60
30
40
20
20 10
0 0
−100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Cutting speed,vc, m/min
Cutting speed,vc, m/min
Chip segmentation frequency, kHz

120
v c = 1500 m/min
100
High-speed Conventional
80 machining machining

60

40
v c = 300 m/min v c = 150 m/min
20

0
30 40 50 60 70

Magnitude of the chip segment deformed part, %

Figure 5. The frequency of chip segmentation and magnitude of cross-section area of the
chip segment deformed part in relation to the cutting speed (feed, ft ¼ 0.05 mm/tooth, depth of
cut, d ¼2 mm, dry cutting).

Figure 7 shows the chip type and the white layer appearance on the chip and
machined surface during the machining at cutting speed of vc ¼ 60 m/min and feed of
ft ¼ 0.1 and ft ¼ 0.15 mm/tooth. A very thin white layer (thickness of 3 to 4 mm) can
be seen on the inner side of the chip. However, on the machined surface there are
particles of the white layer only in the case of machining with feed ft ¼ 0.1 mm/tooth.
The white layer with average thickness of 30 mm is only partly present. The
continuous chip indicates that machining was performed within the region of
conventional cutting speeds.
The chip type and the white layer appearance on the chip and machined surface
during machining at the cutting speed of vc ¼ 150 m/min and feeds of ft ¼ 0.1 and
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High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel 335

40 µm
View
Cutting insert
View
(a) (b)
Workpiece
Machined surface Feed direction
Cutting plane Machined
Cutting plane
surface
25 µm Particle of white layer
White layer

(d) (e)
25 µm 100 µm

(c)

Figure 6. Typical observations: (a), (b)scanning electron microscope photos, (c), (d), (e)
optical microscope photos.

100 µm 100 µm 25 µm

25 µm

White layer HV0.02 = 980 White layer HV0.02 = 900

Particle of white layer 50 µm 100 µm
Cutting speed vc = 60
m/min
HV0.02 = 1040 Work material initial No white layer
microhardness
HV0.02 = 630
Depth of cut d = 2 mm
Dry cutting
Machined surface Machined surface

0.1 0.15
Feed, ft, mm/tooth

Figure 7. White layer appearance and its characteristics in milling of hardened steel
(HV0.02 ¼ 630, cutting speed vc ¼150 m/min, depth of cut d ¼ 2 mm, dry cutting, feed ft ¼ 0.1
and 015 mm/tooth).

ft ¼ 0.15 mm/tooth are presented in Fig. 8. The chip is segmented in this case, and the
white layer between segments and on the inner side of the chip can be seen.
The frequency of chip segmentation is about 3.8 kHz for feed of ft ¼ 0.1 mm/
tooth and about 3.4 kHz for feed of ft ¼ 0.15 mm/tooth. There is a distinct
un-deformed central part in the chip segments, the microhardness of which is
almost the same as the initial, i.e., about HV0.02 ¼ 640. On the cutting plane, there is
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336 Ekinovic, Dolinsek, and Jawahir

Cutting speed vc = 150 m/min

Work material initial
microhardness HV0.02 = 630
Depth of cut d = 2 mm
100 µm Dry cutting 100 µm

HV0.02 = 979 White layer HV0.02 = 950 HV0.02 = 1360 White layer HV0.02 = 1130
200 µm 25 µm 25 µm 50 µm

No white layer

Cutting plane Machined surface Cutting plane Machined surface

HV0.02 = 1360

0.1 0.15
Feed, ft, mm/tooth
Figure 8. White layer appearance and its characteristics in milling of hardened steel
(HV0.02 ¼ 630, cutting speed vc ¼150 m/min, depth of cut d ¼ 2 mm, dry cutting, feed ft ¼ 0.1
and 015 mm/tooth).

a visible white layer with an approximately constant thickness of about 25 to 30 mm

and microhardness HV0.02 ¼ 1360, while on the machined surface a white layer
appeared only in machining with smaller feed. The microhardness of this white layer
is about HV0.02 ¼ 950, and thickness of approx. 10 mm. The hardnesses of the white
layer on the chip after machining are: HV0.02 ¼ 979 when the feed is ft ¼ 0.1 mm/
tooth and HV0.02 ¼ 1130 when ft ¼ 0.15 mm/tooth. The chips produced are of the
characteristic segmented type, which indicates that at cutting speeds above 150 m/
min could belong to the high speed cutting region.
On the basis of the results obtained in this research, defining diagrams of white
layer microhardness-cutting speed, and white layer microhardness-feed can be
obtained (Fig. 9). From these diagrams, the region where the white layer appearance
causes a minimal negative influence on the machined surface integrity can be
identified. The criteria that were used to examine the influence of the white layer on
the machined surface integrity were the quantity (amount), thickness, and
microhardness of the white layer. Actually, larger values of quantity (amount),
thickness, and microhardness of the white layer lead to more negative influence on
the machined surface integrity. From the diagrams shown in Fig. 9, the following
observations can be made:

. In the range of cutting speeds up to the value of approximately 150 m/min,

the conventional machining takes place. In this range, the microhardness of
the white layer on the chip as well as on the cutting plane and machined
surface slowly increases as the cutting speed increases. Above the cutting
speed value of 150 m/min, and up to the investigated cutting speed of 250 m/
min, the microhardness remains approximately constant.
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High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel 337

White layer microhardness, HV

Conventional machining High speed machining
1750 ft = 0.2 mm/tooth
CP
ft = 0.15 mm/tooth
1500 ft = 0.1 mm/tooth

1250
ft = 0.2 mm/tooth ft = 0.05 mm/tooth

1000
vc
750 Ch ft = 0.05 mm/tooth Approx. constant white layer
ft = 0.1 mm/tooth microhardness.
630 Increase of surface quality.
ft = 0.15 mm/tooth
Initial Increase of chip frequency.
Ch - Chip
microhardness Decrease of white layer thickness
CP – Cutting plane

60 100 150 200 250

Cutting speed, vc, m/min
White layer microhardness, HV

vc = 150 m/min
1750
Ch -Chip
Chip CP vc = 250 m/min
CP – Cutting plane vc = 100 m/min
1500
vc = 60 m/min
vc = 150 m/min
1250
vc = 250 m/min
vc = 100 m/min
1000 vc = 60 m/min
Ch ft
750 Increase of white layer microhardness.
630 Decrease of surface quality.
Decrease of chip frequency.
Initial Approx. constant white layer thickness.
microhardness

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

Feed, ft, mm/tooth

Figure 9. White layer mirohardness variation with cutting speed and feed.

. In the range of cutting speeds up to 150 m/min, the white layer on the
machined surface occurs in the form of smaller particles and lower thickness.
Simultaneously, the chip segmentation frequency increases.
. The interesting observation here is that the microhardness of the white layer
on the cutting plane, is always higher than that of the chip (approximately by
30–35%).
. The measured microhardness values of the white layer on the chip, the
cutting, plane, and the machined surface are lower in case of lower feeds.
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338 Ekinovic, Dolinsek, and Jawahir

. When the feed increases, the chip segmentation frequency and the surface
quality decrease. It is interesting to note that the white layer thickness is
approximately constant when the feed range is from 0.05 to 0.2 mm/tooth.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of experimental investigation of chip shape, its microhardness, chip

segmentation frequency, magnitude of cross-section area of chip segments deformed
parts and white layer appearance are presented in this article. This investigation
covers milling of hardened steel X63CrMoV51 (52 HRc) at a cutting speed range of
50 to 1500 m/min.
During conventional and high-speed milling of the work material at the cutting
speed range from 50 to 1500 m/min, different mechanisms of chip-formation appear.
When the cutting speed is low, steady-state continuous chip is characteristic, and
lower or higher plastic deformation occurs. When the cutting speed is high, especially
in the high-speed region, the chip-formation mechanism is crack initiation along with
higher or lower influence of shear-localized mechanism. The consequence of this is
the formation of saw-toothed chip with apparent chip parts, i.e., un-deformed part
and extremely deformed part (white layer). The appearance of white layer is closely
associated with machining of hard materials. This can be explained in terms of the
increase in cutting temperature in the cutting zone, which makes the thermal
softening more influential on the plastic behavior of material in comparison with the
effect of the strain-hardening. The following is a summary of our observations:

. The evaluation of the chip shape obtained during the machining of the
hardened steel used in the experimental work shows that high-speed
machining conditions occur at cutting speeds above 150 m/min.
. As the cutting speed increases, the chip segmentation frequency also
increases, while the chip thickness and size of chip segments decrease. At
the same time, the size of chip segment deformed part decrease.
. As the cutting speed increases, the thermal softening of material during the
process of plastic deformation becomes greater, while in a part of chip
segment cross-section area exposed to this thermal softening influence
becomes lower.
. As the chip segmentation frequency increases, the deformed part of the chip
segment cross-section area decreases.
. These results are useful for high-speed milling of hardened materials, as they
put a new insight into the chip-formation mechanism, chip shape, and the
segmentation frequency.

Finally, a systematic investigation and analysis of the chip and machined surface
can provide relevant results for evaluation of the white layer influence on the
machined surface integrity during conventional and high-speed milling of steels in
their hardened state. The diagrams presented in Fig. 9 show these combinations of
cutting speeds and feeds which could provide a minimal negative influence of the
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High Speed Milling of Hardened Steel 339

white layer on the machined surface integrity. The criteria that were used to examine
the influence of the white layer on the machine surface integrity were the quantity,
thickness, and microhardness of the white layer. Actually, the greater quantity,
thickness, and microhardness of the white layer lead to more negative influence on
the machined surface integrity. On the basis of this investigation and the analysis of
results the following conclusions can be drawn:

. Lower microhardness of the white layer is achieved at lower values of the

feed rates.
. An increase in feed rates decreases the region of usable cutting speeds, thus
ensuring a minimal negative influence of the white layer on the machined
surface integrity.
. The highest microhardness is achieved in machining in the range between
conventional and high-speed machining. For the steel grade investigated here
this refers to the machining at a cutting speed of approximately 150 m/min.
. The average measured values of the white layer microhardness are the highest
at the cutting plane, then on the machined surface, while the lowest observed
are on the chip.
. Minimal negative influence of the white layer to the machined surface
integrity is achieved at small feed rates as long as the cutting speeds are
within the range of high-speed cutting.
. In high-speed cutting, the range the microhardness of the white layer remains
approximately the constant. This means that the benefits of high-speed
machining can be achieved at the lowest cutting speed in the high-speed
machining range. This is reasonable because by increasing the cutting speed,
microhardness of the white layer remains almost constant, i.e., the
microhardness does not decrease significantly and there is no evident
improvement of the machined surface integrity. Also, the lower cutting speed
is always associated with lower tool-wear rates.

REFERENCES

Becze, C. E., Clayton, P., Chen, L., El-Wardany, T. I., Elbestawi, M. A. (2000).
High-speed five-axis milling of hardened tool steel. International Journal of
Machine Tools & Manufacture 40:869–885.
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