IR Module 2

Course Introduction
Dear distance learners! Welcome to the course International Relations (GaDS 225).
Throughout this course, you will equip yourself with the basic knowledge of international
relations. This course observes and makes sense of international political, economical,
social and cultural events that have bearings on international relations. It also examines
relation of cooperation and conflict among states and other international actors like
international organizations, multi-national corporations and trans-national actors.
The major issues covered under this course include approaches to study international
relations, actors in international relations, the different theoretical perspectives that
explain international relations, foreign policy and instruments of international relations,
and major contemporary issues. So by knowing all these and other issues, you will be
able to understand the role and place of our country in the international affairs.
The world today is in an exciting time for the study of international relations because of
the dramatic changes taking place over time. The world is experiencing negative,
disintegrating forces as well as positive and integrating forces. The negative forces like
terrorism, nuclear proliferation and ethnic turmoil run counter to positive forces including
the spread of democracy, economic growth and greater cooperation in an integrating
world. The relevance of the study of international relations as a subject is evident along
several dimensions that make people around the globe including you “world citizens” In
this course, therefore, you will be able to know these and other dynamic international
issues. And you should understand world affair because you are a world citizen!
The course is a three credit hours course. Thus you need a total of 146 study hours to
complete this course.
The module is accompanied by activities, self-check exercises questions and check-lists

at appropriate places. This is intended to strengthen your over all study of the course.
Thus, I strongly advise you to read the material and go through each and every exercise.
1
Objectives
After you completed studying this course, you are expected to:
 Define international relations
 Explain approaches to study international relations
 Identify the major international actors
 Relating the contending international relations theories with major world political
events.
 Define foreign policy
 Identify the major instruments of international relations
 Know major contemporary global issues
2
UNIT ONE
UNDERSTANDING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Introduction
Hello, dear learners! This is the first unit of the module. It will focus on understanding
international relations in general. In this unit, you will learn the historical development
and essence of international relations, how to study the issues of international relations,
and the major different actors that play roles in international relations.
The unit comprises four major sections. The first section will briefly discuss the historical
development of international relations. The essence of international relations will be the
second section of the unit. The issue of how to study issues of international relations will
be covered under section three. The fourth section will be devoted to identifying the
major actors and their role and impact in international relations.
Objectives
After completing this particular unit, you will be able to:

 Define international relations
 Know its historical development
 Identify the different approaches to study issues of international relations
 Describe the major international actors
 Explain the roles played by theses actors and their impact on international
relations
3
Section One: Historical Development of the study of International
Relations and the International System
Overview
Dear learners! Welcome to the first section of the unit. It is about historical development
of the discipline of international relations. This section also tries to explain the evolution
of the international system.
Objectives
Up on successfully completion of this section, you will be able to:

 Describe the historical development of the discipline of international relations.
 Identify and explain the different stages of the evolution of international system.
1.1 Historical Development and Scope of International Relations as a

Discipline
Dear learners! Like some other disciplines, the study of International Relations as a
discipline is ancient if we bear in mind that writers centuries ago performed analysis of
the history of wars of the Greek city-states, the relations of Italian city-states, the ties of
tribute states to the Chinese Empire, and most importantly the Peloponnesian War by
Thucydides. But political science specializing in the subject of International
Relations appeared in the United States with the advent of the First World War
(1914-1918) and the formation of the League of Nations (1919).
4
? Why the study of international relations appeared after the First World War? (You
can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The desire to avoid war in the future after the First World War determined the initial
direction of the International Relations field of study. Following this, political
scientists specialized in international relations emerged in the USA.
International relations as a field of study has its own scope. Traditionally, international
specialists have been attention to the have to the state as an actor and the state’s interest,
chiefly national security and power. A concern with arms race, crisis and wars, and the
causes of wars became logic extensions of these interests. Then, understandably, as a
response to the anarchical nature of international relations, some scholars began to focus
on diplomacy, international law, world order and even proposals for a world government.
Newer subjects that have arisen recently in international relations are gender
perspectives, environmental issues, ethnicity and terrorism. These issues are now
attracting many scholars in the field of international relations. Moreover, one of the
prominent subjects in the field of international relations in recent years has been the
international political economy. This subject involves the interactions of political and
economic phenomena and the two affect each other. The international closely looks at the
political effects of economic phenomena such as international monetary exchange rate,
international loans and debt, intellectual property rights, and foreign direct investment.
5
Apart from political science, the subject of international relations has enriched the
subject matter by borrowing knowledge and theoretical ideas from such diverse fields as
economics, history, law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology,
and cultural studies from time to time. This makes the subject of international relations as
an interdisciplinary field of study. It is becoming eclectic in nature. New subject matters
are frequently added to this field of study from time to time.
1.2 Historical Evolution of the International System
? How the current International system evolved? (You can use the space provided
below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
International system has been evolving from one historical period to the other.
International system is a dominant set of ideas, power structure, economic patterns, and
rules that shape the domestic politics in a particular and international relations of more
countries in more places in a particular historical era.
? How the current International system evolved? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The contemporary international system evolved out of the European interstate relations
which began after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. It was a land mark in the transition
from medieval political order to modern authority with a new international system which
rests on two basis principles which still guides the international system till today. These
principles are statehood and sovereignty. There begin a recognition that the world is
6
divided into territorial parcels, each of which is ruled by a separate government that
enjoys a legal monopoly over the means of violence in the area of its jurisdiction. The
principle of sovereignty recognizes that the state has a comprehensive and exclusive
control over its territory. This principle also recognizes that no state has the right to
intervene in the domestic affairs of other states. According to the same principle, all
states are legally equal regardless of their size, power, type of government, and other
things that distinguish one state from the other. But that sovereignty was accorded to the
kings not to the people or the state.
The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 that ended the religious warfare in Europe marked the
beginning of the modern nation-states. This treaty recognized the sovereignty of
European nation-states. Sovereignty became the cornerstone of the modern state. This
also marked the beginning of the modern international system. Some kings of Europe
came to view their sovereignty as completely uncontrolled authority. Westphalia
encouraged the rise of the nation-state and the institutionalization of diplomacy and
armies. This particular European system was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia
via colonialism and the "standards of civilization".
? How the American and French Revolutions weakened the power of monarchs?
(You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
However, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French revolution of 1789 jolted the
monarch’s powerful positions, since those Revolutions rejected the entire concept of
monarchical rule. After the Revolutions, France and the United States of America became
Republics, governments conducted by representatives of the people.
? Why the International system became Euro-centric up until the 20 th

Century? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7
Until well into the 20th Century, the pattern of interaction among states was largely a
European experience. The international system was Euro-centric. Europe contained the
most important states in terms of military and economic power and their ability to project
power to other areas of the world. When contact occurred with other peoples on other
continents, Europe usually dominated the relations. By 1900, for the first time, the world
had become a single geopolitical unit involving European competition over trade and
colonies as well as global competition for pride and prestige. This competition did not
veer into serious conflict and war, however, because of successful negotiations among
European states.
However, war broke out in Europe among states in 1914 which continued up to 1918.
This was the First World War. After the war, the League of Nations was established in
1919 to prevent future war and to maintain international peace and security. But the
League of Nations failed to achieve its objectives. This was manifested by its failure to
take action against fascist Italy when it invaded Ethiopia in 1935. The League’s total
failure culminated in the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.
? What was the consequence of the Second World War in the evolution of
International System? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The Second World War (1939-1945) totally weakened European powers, both victorious
and loser states. This had led to the emergence of two superpowers, the United States and
the Soviet Union. Even though the two superpowers had been allies against the Axis
powers during the Second World War, and pledged to create a new peaceful international
order, they eventually could not agree on the shape of the post-war world order. They
deeply divided in their political philosophy and had conflicting political and economical
goals. The United States wanted a world based on free market and liberal political
8
philosophy. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, wanted the spread of communism at
least a security zone in Eastern Europe.
? What did the period of the Cold War involve? (You can use the space provided below
to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Having contradictory ideologies (US capitalism and Soviet Communism), both

superpowers entered to what is called the period of the Cold War. The bipolar
international system created after the Second World War was characterized by an
atmosphere of extreme tension and hostility between the two superpowers. The Cold War
period involved the intense animosity and the threat of a nuclear holocaust; it never
developed into a full-scale ‘hot’ warfare between the two superpowers. This was because
the two superpowers were armed with a nuclear weapon that made a war between them
was essentially unwinnable. This period was also characterized by a new balance of
power whereby the two superpowers counterbalance one another. This helped to keep
peace at least between the two superpowers. Other states affiliated in some way with one
of the two sides for protection against the dominance of one superpower.
? How did the Cold War end? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet empire and its communist ideology.
The post-Cold War era is still new and its pattern of cooperation is not entirely clear. But
it can be safely said that the bipolar system of rivalry between the United States and the
Soviet Union disappeared with the United States remains as the sole superpower. There is
9
a trend towards international cooperation among states of the world in matters of
common concern.
Activity 1
1. Why did the First World War become the major motive to the study of International
Relations as a modern field of study? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the fields of studies that the discipline of International relations has
drawn up on? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Why the Peace of Westphalia was taken as a landmark in the evolution of the
international system? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. How do you characterize the period of the Cold War? (You can use the space
provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What kind of international system evolved after the collapse of the Soviet Union
and the end of the Cold War? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10
Section Two: The Study of International Relations
Overview
Dear learners! This is section two of the unit that introduces you with the issues of what
is the study of international relations. In this section, I will define what international
relations is and describe the characteristics of the international system.
Objectives
Up on the completion of this particular section, you are expected to:

 Define international relations
 Describe the characteristics of the international system
? What does International Relations study? (You can use the space provided below to
write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The subject of International Relations is the study of who gets what, when and how
in matters external to states or matters crossing national boundary. Trade and other
commercial exchanges are the most common types of transitional activities. Now
days, security issues are dominating the discipline of international relations.
In the above definition, the who of international relations are primarily states. In
addition, non-state actors are also recognized. The goals of these actors are the what of
international relations, and these goals can be political, economic, social and cultural in
their nature. The when of international relations can range from continuous activity by
states providing for the security of their populations to the episodic activity of private
11
international organizations. The how of international relations refers to the instruments
actors use to achieve goals. A wide range of instruments are available including military
force, propaganda, foreign aid, diplomacy and others.
? What is anarchy? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Unlike domestic politics, international political take place in arena that has no central
governing body. Traditionally, the distinctive character of international relations has been
the condition of anarchy, i.e. the absence of government, a legal and coercive center that
can control the actors in the international system. Therefore, states that become involved
in disputes must ultimately settle their disputes themselves whether by negotiations or
through war. Other states or international organizations may give helpful advice and exert
pressure on the disputants, there is no body of any sort that can sort that can impose a
settlement of a dispute among states. Although the United Nations is an international
organization, it has no army or police force of its own depend on voluntary help from its
members.
? Does it mean that the United Nations has no role in international relations? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Not necessarily! Despite the limitations, the UN has frequently been able to play a
helpful role when states involved in disputes want to bring a neutral group to police their
negotiated settlement. In addition, countries frequently choose to avoid war and follow
the internationally accepted principles, norms and rules of international law. No agency
exist above the individual state with authority and power to make laws and settle
disputes. States can make commitments and treaties, no sovereign power ensure
compliance and punish deviations.
? What is a state of war? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
12
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Anarchy said to constitute a state of war, when all else fails, force is the ultima-ratio-the
final and legitimate arbiter of disputes among states. State of war does not mean that
every nation is constantly at the brink of war or actually at war with other nations. Most
countries, although do fell threatened by some states at some point in time, and every
state has experienced period of intense security. No two contiguous states, moreover,
have had a history of close friendly relations uninterrupted by sever tensions if not
outright war. According to realist thought, co-existence in anarchy thus requires self-help.
States have no permanent friend or permanent enemy, but have only permanent interests.
Activity 2
1. What does International Relations study? (You can use the space provided below to
write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you think that the anarchical nature of the international system always leads
to violence and disorder? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13
Section Three: How do we Study International Relations?
Overview
Dear learners! In this section I will explain the different approaches and methods to
understand issues of international relations. We can conceptualize international
phenomena as occurring on several levels of human activity. Inquiry about international
phenomena and explanations about them is an analytical tool known as levels of analysis.
Although different schemes of these levels exist on the part of international specialists,
most scholars recognized at least the three levels of analysis: the system level, the state
and individual level analysis. Each level offers a different perspective. With these
different perspectives, we can learn much about an international subject that might
otherwise go unanswered. We can study international relations by using one level, two
levels or all the levels. So, this section is organized into three sub-sections. Each section
will describe and explain the three different levels of analysis.
Objectives
Up on successful completion of this section, you will be able to:

 Describe the different levels of analysis
 Describe the different concepts in each levels of analysis
 Identify the systemic tools of international relations
1.1 System Level Analysis
? What does system level analysis focus to study issues of international relations?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14
This level focuses on the international system. It is based on the idea that the whole is
divided in to subparts and how those components related to one another. The system level
can be either global or regional in span, meaning countries collected together
geographically and perhaps culturally, as in Africa and Latin America. Questions raised
in this level of analysis are:
 Are the states of the world interacting with growing interdependence?

 Are trade partners intensifying more at regional level than the global level?
 Is global military power more or less centralized with the collapse of the Soviet
Union?
 Can the global economy affect a country more than the initiatives of its national
government?
System level analysis adopted essentially a “top-down” approach to study international

relations. It begins with the view that states and other international actors operate in a
global social, economic, political and geographic environment and that the specific
characteristics of the system help determine the pattern of interaction among the actors.
The international system forces actors to behave in a certain way.
Systemic Level Concepts
The systemic level concepts are those broad concepts that define and shape an
international milieu, characterized by anarchy.
A. Power
? What is power? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15
The concept of Power in international relations can be described as the degree of
resources, capabilities, and influence in international affairs. It is a political resource,
which encompasses the various elements that allow one state to have its interest prevail
over the interest of another country. Power is the capacity of one actor to persuade or
coerce another, thus allowing for the control of that actor. Power is multifaceted. But it is
often divided into hard power and soft power. States use these various types of power to
achieve their goals at the international system.
Soft Power is the capacity to persuade another actor to do something through influence.
The appeal of a country’s ideology, culture, prestige, or success may result in that
country’s becoming a leader to others that willingly follow. The United States being a
champion of democracy and capitalism, and Japanese economical and technological
superiority are examples of soft power that influence others.
Hard power is a country’s ability to force its will on others through military or a threat of
force or a combination of the two. The threat of use of force and the actual military
attacks are examples of instruments that power states like the United states are using in
the international relations to achieve goals.
However, there is no clear dividing line between the two forms of power. Perhaps, the
use of power today has shifted from an emphasis from hard power to a focus on soft
power.
Polarity in international relations refers to the arrangement of power within the

international system. The concept arose from bipolarity during the Cold War, with the
international system dominated by the two superpowers (USA and Soviet union), and has
been applied retrospectively. Consequently, the international system prior to 1945 can be
described as multi-polar, with power being shared among great powers. The collapse of
the Soviet Union in 1991 has lead to what some would call unipolar international system
with the United States remains as a sole superpower.
Hegemonic Stability Theory also draws upon the idea of Polarity, specifically the state of
unipolarity. Hegemony is the preponderance of power at one pole in the international
16
system, and the theory argues this is stable configuration because of mutual gains by both
the dominant power and others in the international system.
? What does it mean when we say that the USA is the only superpower after the
collapse of the Soviet Union? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The balance of power was a concept prevalent in Europe prior to the First World War.
This concept was used to balance power blocs and created stability and prevent war.
Theories of the balance of power gained prominence again during the Cold War when the
two superpowers balanced each other in the international system. Balance of power
provides a natural tendency for the international system to prevent any one state from
dominating the system. Here, the concepts of balancing (rising in power to counter
another) and bandwagonning (siding with another) are developed.
B. Interdependence
? What factors do make states interdependent at the global level? (You can use the
space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Many advocate that the current international system is characterized by growing

interdependence; the mutual responsibility and dependency on others. This is related to
the phenomenon of growing globalization, particularly with increasing international
economic interaction. The role of international institutions, and widespread acceptance of
a number of operating principles, rules and norms in the international system reinforces
the idea that relations are characterized by interdependence.
17
C. Dependency
Dependency theory is a theory most commonly associated with neo-Marxism, stating that
core states exploit weaker periphery states for their prosperity. Some versions of the
theory suggest that the development of some states (in this case countries of the North)
necessarily has led to the underdevelopment of some other states (in this case countries of
the South). They support their idea by saying that theoretically it is impossible for all
states to develop at the same time.
Systemic tools of International Relations
? What are the systemic tools of international relations? (You can use the space
provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
 Diplomacy is the practice of communication and negotiation between
representatives of states. To some extent, all other tools of international relations
can be considered the failure of diplomacy.
 Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of
the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or
economic sanctions and involve the cutting of ties and imposition of barriers to
communication or trade.
 War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate tool of international
relations. A widely accepted definition is that war is "the continuation of politics
by other means".
 The mobilization of international shame can also be thought of as a tool of
International Relations. This is attempting to alter states actions through 'naming
and shaming' at the international level. A prominent use of this would be the UN
Commission on Human Rights 1235 procedure, which publicly exposes states
human rights violations.
18
1.2 State Level Analysis
? How do individual states influence the international system? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The state level of analysis focuses on states. It exists between the international system
and individual levels. It poses questions like:
 Are the foreign policies of most powerful states the core of international
relations?
 What differences does it make that varied kinds of governments such as
democratic and authoritarian, lead national societies?
 What patterns in group decision making occur in governments and international
organizations, and with what effects?
 What are the types of national cultures in the world, and are they relevant to
international affairs?
State level analysis argues that the course of international relations is mostly a sum of the
actions and reactions of individual states. The internal factors of states force them to act
in a certain way. In other words, the nature of the international system is influenced by
the behavior of states. One of the most pronounced observations about the states is that
democratic states do not fight among themselves but will fight non-democratic states.
? Will the present trend toward more democratic states result in a more peaceful
world? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
19
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
State level concepts
A. Regime Type
It is often considered that a states regime type can dictate the way that a state interacts
with others in the international system.
Democratic Peace Theory is a theory that suggests that the nature of democracy means
that democratic countries will not go to war with each other. The justifications for this
are that democracies externalize their norms and only go to war for just causes, and that
democracy encourages mutual trust and respect.
? Why do non-democratic states usually go to war? (You can use the space provided
below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Revisionism/Status quo
States can be classified by whether they accept the international status quo, or are
revisionist, i.e. want change. Revisionist states seek to fundamentally change the rules
and practices of international relations, feeling disadvantaged by the status quo. They see
the international system as a largely western creation which serves to reinforce current
realities. Japan is an example of a state that has gone from being a revisionist state to one
that is satisfied with the status quo, because the status quo is now beneficial to it.
? What is the reason why some states need to change the present international
status quo? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
20
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
B. Religion
It is often considered that religion can have an effect on the way a state acts within the
international system. Religion is visible as an organizing principle particularly for Islamic
states.
? Is there a state that uses its religion to influence the international system in a
certain way? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
1.3 Individual Level Analysis
? How do individuals influence the international system? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The individual level of analysis can be useful both for explaining factors in international
relations that other theories fail to explain, and for moving away from a state-centric view
of international relations.
This level of analysis invites questions of all sorts such as:

 Are there special political personalities?
 Do power seekers or belligerent personality types appear who, once positioned as
leaders, are more likely to lead countries to war?
21
 Do people have innate biological characteristics that induce them, through herd
like instincts, to follow an authoritarian leader, or are people individualistic by
nature and resist authority altogether?
 How do individual decision makers process information and make decisions?
and who make decisions?
 Are the biographies of “great leaders” worthy of study? Can they shape an era as
Napoleon did?
Individual level of analysis focuses on the characteristics of individuals who make

decisions. After all, in all actors that play some role in the international relations are
driven by human actions.
? What makes the individual level of analysis different from other levels of
analysis? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Individual level concepts

 Psychological factors in International Relations - Evaluating psychological
factors in international relations comes from the understanding that a state is not a
'black box', and that there may be other influences on foreign policy decisions.
Examining the role of personalities in the decision making process can have some
explanatory power. A prominent application of psychological factors in
international relations is the concept of groupthink.
 Bureaucratic politics looks at the role of the bureaucracy in decision making, and
sees decisions as a result of bureaucratic in-fighting, and as having been shaped
by various constraints.
22
Activity 3
1. What does system level analysis study? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What is polarity? How polarity at the international level affects the international
system and relations? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What is balance of power? How can it maintain international peace and stability?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. How strong states exploit weaker states at the world stage? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the importance of focusing on the individual behaviors in international
relations? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
23
Section Four: Actors in International Relations
Overview
Dear learners! This particular section of the unit identifies and describes the different
actors in international relations, with an emphasis on their impact on international
relations. It also examines the implications of multiple actors for the evolving
international society. This section has two sub-sections. The first section has a discussion
on state as an international actor. The second section will describe non-state actors. In
this sub-section sub-state actors, international organizations and transnational actors will
be identified and described.
Objectives

 Define an international actor
 Identify the different types of actors in the international relations
 Describe the role and impacts of the different actors
? What is an international political actor? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
An international political Actor is an individual or a group that seeks to achieve goals

by either cooperating or conflicting with others in a policy context in international
24
relations. The traditional view that states dominate international relations has to give way
to the recognition that multiple actors are now competing for authority and influence in
the world. New actors now undertake roles alongside the state on the international stage.
This makes the state not as the dominant actor but as the primary actor among other
influential actors. Consequently, we have two major actors in international relations: state
and non-state actors. Actors that cross national boundaries and frequently jostle with
states over policy outcomes are non-state actors such as: transnational actors below the
state level like ethnic groups, local governments, and individuals; Inter-Governmental
Organizations (IGOs), prominently including the United Nations; International Non-
Governmental Organizations (INGOs), Multinational Corporations (MNCs), various
churches and terrorist organizations. Dear learners, now let’s dwell on these actors turn
by turn.
4.1 State Actors
? What is a state? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
States are considered as the primary actors in international relations. According to

Henderson, the term state can be defined as a sovereign actor with a central government
ruling over a population and territory as well as representing and protecting that
population in the international context.
It can also be understood as a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the
rules that govern the people, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite
territory. In Max Weber's influential definition, it is that organization that has a
"monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." It thus
includes such institutions as the armed forces, civil service or state bureaucracy, courts,
and police.
25
Although the term often refers broadly to all institutions of government or rule, the
modern state system bears a number of characteristics that were first consolidated in
Western Europe, beginning in earliest 15th century, when the term "state" also acquired its
current meaning. Thus the word is often used in a strict sense to refer only to modern
political systems.
? Do you think that all states are similar in their characteristics? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Absolutely no! States are different in terms of their internal diversity, wealth, population
and geographical area. These differences have their own impact and implication on the
international relations of states. Beyond sharing a definition of what constitutes a state,
the nearly 200 countries reflect much diversity in their major characteristics:
I. Military power of states- ranges from the superpower status of the USA with its
long-range missiles and air craft carriers to small entities such as Bhutan and
Nepal.
II. Ideological Differences-have abated remarkably since the end of the Cold War,
with the “democracies emerging triumphant over communist states” of Europe.
Yet China, the largest country in the world with over a billion people, remains
stubbornly communist, along with Cuba, N. Korea and Vietnam.
Authoritarian states, characterized by a system of government in which the power
of the leaders is unconstrained by law, are also the other variants.
Rogue States (termed by the USA) are states which are inimical to the norms and
rules of the formative international society. For instance, the United States
publicly denounced Iran, N. Korea, Iraq, and Libya among others, as terrorist-
sponsoring states and criticizes their human right records. Israel is a rogue state in
the eyes of Arab states. States leave their rogue status behind only by
transforming their governments or policies as South Africa did.
26
III. Wealth – states can also differ from one another in terms the level of their
economic development and the viability of their economy.
IV. Population Size and growth- there is a huge difference between states in terms of
population number and growth. This difference ranges from China, the most
populous state, to Vanuatu, the least populous.
V. Territorial Size- States also differ from each other in terms of their territorial size:
Russia, USA, China, Canada and Brazil are territorially large on the one hand,
and Bahrain, Comoros, Qatar, etc are small on the other hand.
In casual usage, the terms "country," "nation," and "state" are often used as if they were
synonymous; but in a more strict usage they can be distinguished:
 Country refers to a geographical area

 Nation designates a people. However, national and international both refer as
well to matters pertaining to what are strictly states, as in national capital,
international law
 State refers to set of governing institutions with sovereignty over a definite
territory.
? What are the empirical and judicial meanings of state? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The word 'state' has both an empirical and a juridical meanings, i.e., entities can be
states either de facto or de jure or both.
Empirically (or de facto), an entity is a state if, it is that organization that has a 'monopoly
on legitimate use of force over a specific territory. Such an entity imposes its own legal
27
order over a territory, even if it is not legally recognized as a state by other states (e.g.,
the Somali region of Somaliland).
In its Juridical (or de jure) sense, an entity is a state in international law if it is recognized
as such by other states, even if it does not actually have a monopoly on the legitimate use
of force over a territory. Only an entity internationally recognized as a state can enter into
many kinds international agreements and be represented in a variety of legal forums, such
as the United Nations.
? Why are states now weaker than before in the international system? (You can use
the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
States are not as able today as in the past to be strong, independent actors in the
international system. For example, modern terrorism tears at the viability of states in the
security area. In non-security areas, states also fail to be free of outside forces. Economic
interdependence is increasingly intertwining states, requiring coordinating policy making
through international organs and inter-state conferences. Moreover, the sovereign
authority of states is softer today because states are more prone to accepting standards
formed at the international level. Their own citizens often insist on applying these
international standards at home. Mass killings, revolutions, ethnic conflicts and violent
overthrow of government in some weaker states of the world are also evidences of
breakdowns in internal authority. Therefore, the state today is less hard-shelled in its
sovereignty regarding the outside world and less able to assert authority inside.
Moreover, in the late 20th century, the globalization of the world economy, the mobility
of people and capital, and the rise of many international institutions all combined to
circumscribe the freedom of action of states. These constraints on the state's freedom of
action are accompanied in some areas, notably Western Europe, with projects for
28
interstate integration such as the European Union. However, the state remains the basic
political unit of the world, as it has been since the 16th century. The state is therefore
considered the most central concept in the study of international politics.
? What is an international community? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
International relations theorists have traditionally posited the existence of an international

system, where states take into account the behavior of other states when making their
own calculations. From this point of view, states embedded in an international system
face internal and external security and legitimacy dilemmas. Recently the notion of an
'international community' has been developed to refer to a group of states who have
established rules, procedures, and institutions for the conduct of their relations. In this
way the foundation has been laid for international law, diplomacy, formal regimes, and
organizations.
In the late 20th century, the globalization of the world economy, the mobility of people
and capital, and the rise of many international institutions all combined to circumscribe
the freedom of action of states. These constraints on the state's freedom of action are
accompanied in some areas, notably Western Europe, with projects for interstate
integration such as the European Union. However, the state remains the basic political
unit of the world, as it has been since the 16th century. The state is therefore considered
the most central concept in the study of politics, and its definition is the subject of intense
scholarly debate.
4.2 Non-state Actors
29
? What are the other international actors other than states? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
These actors may include sub-state actors, international actors, and other transnational
actors. Sub-state actors are essentially domestic actors pursuing their goals through
transnational activities. Some scholars call such a merger of domestic and international
political activity as intermestic politics.
4.2.1 Sub-state Actors
? What are the sub-state actors? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Specialists in international relations have given attention to sub-state actors such as ethnic
groups, NGOs (interest groups), MNCs, local governments, and individuals that cross
permeable state boundaries. They cross boundaries either by travel, communications or
both to accomplish goals. Dear learner! Out of these sub-state actors let us try to focus on
three important actors: ethnic groups, cities and individuals.
A. Ethnic Groups
? What is an ethnic group and ethnic nationalism? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
30
An ethnic group is a set of people who share a special and enduring sense of
identification based on experiences and cultural characteristics that can include a
common history, regional identification, language, tribal status, and indigenous status.
Ethnic nationalism is a strong sense of ethnic identification and advocacy for the group’s
interests, including statehood. This type of nationalism is sociological in nature and
deeply rooted in strong, primordial identifications involving language, religion or some
other cultural identity.
Ethnic nationalism may lead to the disintegration of big empire states. For Example, the
collapse of the Soviet Union led to an unexpected revival of national movements in
Europe around 1990. Its constituent states became independent: Belarus, Ukraine,
Moldova, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The three Baltic states, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania, regained
independence, (they had already become independent from Russia after the First World
War). The second Yugoslavia also broke up into six nation states, while Czechoslovakia
split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Within established nation-states, there are
many secessionist movements, some of them seeking the creation of a new sovereign
state, for instance in Quebec. The unresolved status of in Northern Ireland led to
protracted violence known as The Troubles, but without changes in the border.
B. Cities (Local Governments)
? What is the role of local governments in international relations? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Local Governments of varied types have become transnational actors, at least for
commercial reasons. For instance, many of the 50 states within the federal system of the
31
United States of America compete over foreign MNCs and send trade delegations
overseas to generate business.
The reason why we consider cities/local governments as sub-state actors is that they
routinely practice “citizen diplomacy,” bypassing their national ministries:
 to make trade arrangements;
 to pass resolutions on every imaginable subject, such as opposing nuclear bomb
testing, racism, etc; and
 to establish “sister city” programs to offer advice and material aid to cities in
other countries.
Some city leaders’ tendency to acquire the “global bug” irritates national leaders who are
formally in charge of foreign policy. New York’s mayors, for instance, often operate
“foreign policy” which is unsuitable to Washington D.C.
Cities adjacent to one another but separated by a border can have special problems and
relations. For instance, cities along the American-Canadian and American-Mexican
boundaries have worked out agreements concerning roads, bridges, and water
management.
C. Individuals
? Which type of individuals can play an important role in international relations?

(You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Scholars in International Relations probably have gone too far by de-emphasizing the
impact of individual actors in favor of a traditional focus on states. But individuals can be
considered as important actors because they are the only thinking, feeling, and acting
32
entities. After all, International Organizations, terrorist groups, MNCs, etc are collectives
of people organized in special ways. Thus, let us focus on the two types of individual
actors:
a) Public Actors: are individual actors that are empowered with resources of an
institution, such as a state, and may face dynamic situations that bring opportunities
and dangers requiring bold steps. Public leaders obviously have power if they head
powerful states but they may further enhance their impact as they operate amid world
events. That is, when leaders face crisis and develop successful approaches to the
problems they face, they may become great leaders.
Example: Henry Kissinger- was a National Security advisor and secretary of state
for two presidents, Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford between 1968 and 1976. He
developed the détente policy of relaxed tensions with Soviet Union. He also took part
in a rapprochement with communist China, which led to trade and diplomatic
recognition of China by the United States.
b) Private Actors: are individual actors that become important as a symbol for moral
cause.
Example: Desmond Tutu- as a black churchman, Archbishop Desmond Tutu’s brave

stand against apartheid, a harsh form of racial segregation in South Africa, helped to
mobilize world opinion against discrimination at the global level.
Mother Teresa- has served the poor, the sick, and the abandoned of India, and other
countries for about half a century through Missionaries of Charity that she founded.
Unnamed individuals have also made remarkable imprints on the world’s conscience
thanks to the modern capability of televising pictures around the world.
33
? Can you name other important individuals that were/are playing important roles
in international relations? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4.2.2 International organizations
? What is an international organization? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
An international organization is an institution with membership drawn from two or more

countries. Its activities transcend national boundaries as it facilitates cooperation among
members in the performance of one or more tasks. International organizations can be
public or private.
? What are public International organizations? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
A. Public International organizations: are international governmental organizations

(IGOs) with states as its members. The major advantage of an IGO is that it can structure
communication and cooperation among members on a continuing basis as they deal with
common needs. Prominent examples of IGO’s are the United Nations Organizations
(UN), African Union, Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD).
34
The existence of IGOs diminishes the status of the state from dominant to primary actor.
Not only does the state partly depend on IGOs to meet its needs, but the IGO can make
initiatives that shape states policy and behavior. For instance, the UN Commission on
Human Rights has come to scrutinize a state policy that was once entirely within a state’s
domestic domain.
It may also possible for IGOs to be supranational organizations. This means that the
international organizations have authority over its member states which are subordinate
units. This is when states concede any significant part of their sovereignty to any
international body. In reality however, supranationalism is extremely limited as only few
states can concede significant part of their sovereignty to any given international
organization. But there are some signs that some states give away their sovereignty to
such international organizations. Many European states, for instance are moving towards
a European Union.
? What is a Private international organization? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
B. Private international organizations: are international non-governmental

organizations (INGOs). They base their membership on groups and individuals acting in
a private capacity that may or may not have a political agenda. These organizations are
transitional and draw membership from individuals and associations located in several
countries. The international Committee of the Red Cross Society is the best example.
? Can you identify other INGOs? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
35
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
International organization can also be classified into two on the basis of the functions
they perform. These are multifunctional international organizations and Unifunctional
international organizations.
? How are International organizations classified? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Multifunctional international organizations are those international organizations (may be

IGO’s or INGO’s) that engage in several distinct activities. The United Nations is an
example of an IGO that has several functions. International Committee for Red Cross is
also an example of INGO that has several functions. It works for victims of war,
prisoners of war, natural disasters, famine, etc. Unifunctional international organizations
are those which engage in very specific issue areas. Amnesty International works only in
areas of human rights and focuses on persons imprisoned because of their political and
religious opinions. World Health Organization deals only with health issues.
We can also classify international organizations on the basis of their area of operation.
Accordingly we have two types of organizations: global and regional international
organizations. Global international organizations are world organizations which rest on
the belief that many problems are worldwide in scope and will respond only by a global
effort. Environmental problems, human rights, trade and even peace seem to be global in
their nature. For example, the United Nations is a global international organization.
36
However, the world is heterogeneous to allow for the global handling of all problems.
Regional organizations form from the assumption that groups of people or states, sharing
similar geography, culture, and concern can more effectively solve many of their local
problems. For example, the Arab league, the African Union, the Inter-governmental
Authority on Development (IGAD) of East Africa are all regional organizations.
? Does the existence of global and regional international organizations necessarily

incompatible? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Not necessarily! Global and regional organizations need not be incompatible. The UN
Charter encourages robust performances by regional organizations as long as they
complement the activities and principles of the United Nations.
? What is Collective Security? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The presence of international organizations in the world is a measure of the progress

states have made toward international cooperation to solve their common problems and
concerns. The United Nations has a principle of Collective Security. This refers to the
combined power of states to deter or punish an aggressor with economic and/or military
sanctions.
? What is an NGO? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
37
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
In addition to the above mentioned types of organization there are organizations called
Non-governmental organizations (NGO’s). The term non-governmental organization
(NGO) is used in a variety of ways all over the world and, depending on the context in
which it is used, can refer to many different types of organizations. In its broadest sense,
a non-governmental organization is one that is not directly part of the structure of
government.
Globalization in the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems
could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations
such as the World Trade Organization were perceived as being too centered on the
interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have
developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable
development.
? What are the stages of NGO evolution? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Three stages or generations of NGO evolution have been identified. First generation, the
typical development NGO focuses on relief and welfare, and delivers relief services
directly to beneficiaries. Examples are the distribution of food, shelter or health services.
The NGO notices immediate needs and responds to them. NGOs in the second
generation are oriented towards small-scale, self-reliant local development. At this
evolutionary stage, NGOs build the capacities of local communities to meet their needs
through 'self reliant local action'. The third generation focus on 'sustainable systems
development'. At this stage, NGOs try to advance changes in policies and institutions at a
38
local, national and international level; they move away from their operational service
providing role towards a catalytic role. The NGO is starting to develop from a relief NGO
to a development NGO.
? How are NGO’s classified? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses
divides them into Operational and Advocacy NGO’s.
The primary purpose of an Operational NGO is the design and implementation of

development-related projects. One categorization that is frequently used is the division
into 'relief-oriented' or 'development-oriented' organizations; they can also be classified
according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are
religious and secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational
NGOs can be community-based, national or international.
The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause. As

opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise
awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist events.
4.2.3 Transnational Actors
? What are transnational actors? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
39
Trans-national actors may include Multinational Corporations (MNCs), terrorist
organizations and churches.
? What is a multinational corporation? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
I. Multinational Corporations
A multinational corporation (MNC) or multinational enterprise (MNE) or transnational

corporation (TNC) or multinational organization (MNO) is a corporation or enterprise
that that expends ownership, management, production and sales activities in to several
countries. It is a business enterprise that engages in Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and
that owns or controls value added activities in more that one country. The head office is
in a home state, and a cluster of subsidiary corporations carry on business in multiple of
host states. Modern communication and travel allow the various elements of the MNCs to
coordinate closely. About 80 per cent of the world’s trade passes through the hands of
these MNCs.
? Are all business enterprises Multinational corporations? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Absolutely no! There are a number of ways of assessing the degree of multi-nationality of
a specific firm. Firms are considered to be more multinational if:
 they have foreign affiliates or subsidiaries in foreign countries
40
 the proportion of assets, revenues or profits accounted for overseas operations
relative to total assets, revenues or profits is high
 they operate in a wide variety of countries around the globe
 their employees, stakeholders, owners and managers are from many countries
 their overseas operations are much more ambitious than just sales offices,
including a full range of manufacturing, and research and development activities
? What type of MNC’s do you know? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are often divided into three broad groups:
 Horizontally integrated multinational corporations manage production

establishments located in different countries to produce the same or similar
products. (example: McDonalds)
 Vertically integrated multinational corporations manage production
establishment in certain country/countries to produce products that serve as input
to its production establishments in other country/countries. (example: Adidas)
 Diversified multinational corporations manage production establishments
located in different countries that are either horizontally or vertically integrated.
(example: Microsoft)
? What are the common characteristics of MNC’s? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
41
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
MNC’s have common characteristics. Among these characteristics, the following are the
major ones:
 MNC’s are among the world largest firms. They tend to operate in oligopolistic
markets. Some are able to dominate markets because of their sheer size, their
access to financial resources, technology and possession of special and
differentiated products.
 MNC’s are not simply large firms that market their products abroad, but they are
firms that have sent abroad a package of capital, technology, managerial skill and
talent, and marketing skills to carry out production in foreign countries. Most
MNC’s production is truly worldwide with different stages of production carried
out in different countries.
 Decision making for MNC’s tends to be central. Key decisions involving foreign
activities such as the location of production facilities, distribution of markets,
location of resources and development facilities, long range planning and capital
investment tend to be made by the parent company.
 MNC’s tend to be mobile and flexible.
? What are the impacts of MNCs? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
42
Modern MNCs began to make impacts after the Second World War. But there have been
different interpretations as far as their impact on the Third World countries. Proponents
consider the MNC as a bone to economic growth and development by diffusing
technology, capital and expertise throughout the world. These groups of people argue that
FDI is a mechanism of increasing economic efficiency and stimulates growth. By
transferring capital, technology and know-how, and by mobilizing idle domestic
resources, MNC’s can increase efficiency, foster growth and thereby improve welfare.
On the other hand, opponents see the MNC as a predator taking advantage of host
countries. They claim MNCs mine irreplaceable natural resources, siphon capital out of
the host state, bring in technology unsuited for the host state’s development plan, hired
skilled people away from local businesses, and cause host governments to restrict human
rights. Further more, states deny the right to organize labor unions, keeping wages low to
attract MNCs. Critics even accuse MNCs of co-opting host elites by turning them into
compradors that help exploit their own countries. MNC’s may also intervene in national
political affairs.
? Are the impacts of MNCs always negative in the Third World? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
No! Gradually, however there is recognition that overtime MNCs may do more good than
harm in Third World countries. Many host leaders now see the MNC as a tool for
development, producing jobs and tax revenue. Competition among both industrialized
and developing countries to attract MNCs has become more intense.
Multinational corporations can nevertheless have a powerful influence in international

relations, given their large economic influence as well as their extensive financial
resources available for public relations and political lobbying. Multinationals have played
an important role in globalization given their international reach and mobility.
43
II. Terrorist Organizations
? What are terrorist organizations? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
These are other major trans-national international actors. Their act which is terrorism is
an act or a threat of violence by one or more persons calculated to create an atmosphere
of fear and alarm. This practice is intended to make other actors including governments
do what terrorists want. Terrorists may focus on particular targets and ruthlessly kill
innocents, unarmed civilian at will to dramatize their cause or to punish a country.
? Why people are motivated to engage in terrorist acts? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The varied causes of terrorism are difficult to pin down. At one level, some terrorists may
be individuals with personality disturbances looking for a cause. At another level, we
should not underestimate the sense of legitimate injustice that many people living in the
squalor of an oppressed society while few elites live in luxury. Revolutionaries may
sometimes resort to terrorism because it is the ‘weapon of the weak.’ Irrespective of the
cause, many countries are becoming targets and targets of terrorist acts. Our country,
Ethiopia has also been a victim of many different terrorist attacks which have led loss of
lives of many innocent civilians. To counter terrorist acts, many countries are now
working together by increasingly coordinating efforts. This international effort and
alliance against terrorism is led and sponsored by the United States of America especially
after the country was attacked by a terrorist organization called al-Qaeda on September
11, 2001.
44
? What are the measures taken by states against terrorisms? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 4
1. Describe the major differences between states of the world? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. How International Organizations play a role in international relations? (You can

use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think that African states can move to a supranational type of African
Union? (You can use the space provided below to write your response)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. How Ethnic groups become international actors? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe the transnational actors? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response)
45
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. What do you think the measures against terrorism should be? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Checklist
Put an (X) mark in the boxes in front of the ideas you performed well.
I can
1. Explain the historical evolution of International relations as a field of study
2. Define the study of international relations
3. Describe the different levels of analysis
4. Define state as an international actor
5. Identify and describe non-state actors
46
UNIT TWO
CONTENDING THEORIES ON THE STUDY OF

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Introduction
Dear learners! Welcome to unit two of the module. This unit discusses the main theories
on the study of international relations. It is divided into two major sections. The first
section focuses on discussing the major classical theories of international relations.
Contemporary theories of international relations will be covered in section two.
Objectives
Up on successfully completing this unit, you are expected to:
 Identify the major classical theories of international relations

 Describe the contemporary theories of international relations
 Identify the major difference between the classical theories of international
relations
 Identify the major differences of the contemporary international relations
47
Section One: Classical Theories of International Relations
Overview
Dear learners! This is section one of the unit. It is about classical theories of international
relations. It discusses the two major classical theories of international relations like
idealism/liberalism and realism. This section has three sub-sections. The first sub-section
gives a general classification of theories on the study of international relations. The
second sub-section talks about idealism/liberalism and its theoretical propositions
regarding international relations. Realism and its outlook of international relations are
discussed in the second sub-section.
Objectives
After completing this section, you are expected to:
 Identify the main propositions of idealism/liberalism

 Describe the outlook of idealism toward issues of international relations
 Compare idealism/liberalism to that of the other classical theory of international
relations
48
2.1.1 General Classification of Theories of International Relations
? What are the epistemological classifications of theories of international relations?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Theories of international relations can roughly be divided into one of the two
epistemological camps: "positivist" and "post-positivist". Positivist theories aim to
replicate the methods of the natural sciences by analyzing the impact of material forces.
They typically focus on features of international relations such as state interactions, size
of military forces, balance of powers etc. Post-positivist epistemology rejects the idea that
the social world can be studied in an objective and value-free way. It rejects the central
ideas of neo-realism/liberalism, such as rational choice theory, on the grounds that the
scientific method cannot be applied to the social world and that a 'science' of international
relations is impossible.
A key difference between the two positions is that while positivist theories, such as neo-
realism, offer causal explanations (such as why and how power is exercised) post-
positivist theories focus instead on constitutive questions, for instance what is meant by
'power'; what makes it up, how it is experienced and how it is reproduced. Often, post-
positivist theories explicitly promote a normative approach to international relations, by
considering ethics. This is something which has often been ignored under 'traditional'
international relations as positivist theories make a distinction between facts and
normative judgments, or values.
During the late 1980s/1990’s, debate between positivists and post-positivists became the
dominant debate and has been described as constituting the Third "Great Debate". Main
stream international relations theories: are those theories which have been dominant in
the debates and discourses of international relations, especially liberalism and realism.
49
2.1.2 Idealism/Liberalism
? What are the main propositions of idealism/liberalism? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Idealism, also called Liberalism arose after World War I in response to the inability of
states to control and limit war in their international relations. Idealists focused much of
their attention on understanding the causes of war so as to find a remedy for its existence.
They have the following propositions:-
 There is a greater potential of cooperation among states, even if the international

system is anarchic.
 International institutions (such as IGOs) are important in terms of reducing the
dangers of war.
 War is not inevitable rather it is frequent, and that frequency can be reduced by
strengthening norms, creating regimes, etc which could limit the anarchical
condition of the world.
 War and justice are international problems that require collective/multi-lateral

efforts.
50
? What were the major principles among the Fourteen Points of W. Wilson ? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Woodrow Wilson is one of the famous proponents of liberalism/idealism. Following

World War I, Wilson came up with the ‘Fourteen Points’ of 1917, some of which are
discussed below:
i) Democracy should be promoted in all countries. This arises from the assumption that
“democracies do not fight one another” since parliamentary accountability and public
opinion control the ambitions and desires of leaders.
ii) Self-determination of subjected people and nations should be encouraged, because if

they are not allowed they may opt for violent responses.
iii) Lowering barriers (like unhindered flow of people, removal of obstacles for trade,
information, etc) between countries to encourage interdependence.
iv) Strengthening international law and creating international organizations would be so

important. Respect for international law is emphasized by Wilson because he believed
that it is reliable to predict the behavior of actor, especially states.
Idealists believe that international law and morality are key influences on international
events, rather than power alone. They believe good habits (such as telling the truth in
diplomatic dealings with other nations), education, and the existence of international
organizations will result in peaceful and cooperative international relationships. Idealists
see the world as a community of nations that have the potential to work together to
overcome mutual problems.
51
? What was the motivation of idealist proponents? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
The proponents of idealism from the early 1900’s throughout the late 1930s were
motivated by the desire to prevent war. However, many idealists were skeptical that
laissez faire economic principles, like free trade, would deliver peace. The First World
War shifted liberal thinking towards a recognition that peace is not a natural condition but
is one which must be constructed. According to Woodrow Wilson, peace could only be
secured with the creation of an international institution to regulate the international
anarchy. Security could not be left to secret bilateral diplomatic deals and a blind faith in
the balance of power. Like domestic society, international society must have a system of
governance, which has democratic procedure for coping with disputes, and an
international force which could be mobilized if negotiation failed.
? What is collective security? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
In his famous ‘fourteen points’ speech, Wilson argued that ‘a general association of
nations must be formed’ to preserve the coming peace. The League of Nations was the
general association which the idealists willed into existence. For the League to be
effective, it had to have the military power to deter aggression and, when necessary, to
use a preponderance of power to enforce its will. This was the idea behind the collective
security system which was central to the League of Nations. Collective security refers to
an arrangement where each state in the system accepts the security of one is the concern
of all, and agrees to join in a collective to aggression. It can be contrasted with an alliance
system of security, where a number of states join together usually as a response to a
specific external threat (sometimes known as collective defense).
52
Idealists were particularly active in the 1920s and 1930s, following the painful
experience of the First World War. United States president Woodrow Wilson and other
idealists placed their hopes for peace in the League of Nations, an international
organization that existed from 1920 to 1946 to promote world peace and cooperation.
These hopes were dashed when the League of Nations failed to stop Italy, German and
Japanese aggression in the 1930s, which led to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
Realists blamed idealists for looking too much at how the world should be instead of how
it really is.
2.1.3 Realism
? What is the origin of realism? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The realist tradition goes back to many centuries. It can be traced back to the thoughts of
Thucydides in the 5th Century. This school of thought has also been the predominant way
of characterizing international politics throughout the 18 th, 19th and 20th Centuries.
Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes and J.J. Rousseau are the most prominent of these
thinkers. E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau are considered to be modern realist thinkers.
Particularly, Morgenthau is considered to be the “father of realism”. It should also be
noted that contemporary self-described realists often cite classical writers such as
Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes as the “founding fathers” of realism.
53
? What are the assumptions of realism? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Realism in the modern sense arose as a critique to liberalism, chiefly denying the
assumption that states seek to cooperate. One of the criticisms realists waged against
idealists was that idealists ignored the role of power and overestimated the degree to
which human beings were rational, mistakenly believed that states shared a set of
common interest, and were overly passionate in their belief in the capacity of human
beings to overcome the scourge of war. Some of the propositions of realism are:
 States/Nation-states are the primary actors in international relations. That is, the
world is made up of states or nation states that exist in anarchy.
 If states are supposed to exist under the condition of anarchy, they should rely on
their own means of security, i.e., power.
 The instinctive lust for power, and the desire to dominate one another is the
dominant character of human nature.
 The primary task of states, in this situation, is to promote national interest, i.e., the
acquisition of military power. However, states on occasion may supplement their
own power by creating alliances, though there is no guarantee for unwavering
loyalty.
 Under such a condition, international politics is best to be explained in terms of

endless desire for power. And this might lead to a “war of all against all”.
 Hence, power and security; war and peace are fundamental issues in world
politics.
54
 Realists, therefore, are bold to state that stability can be achieved, if states
accumulate more power or build their capability. The assumption is that “states
have to be ready for war, in order to maintain peace”. This focus on power by
realists became a dominant paradigm of International Relations during the 1950s
and 1960s.
? What is the starting argument of realism? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Realists start with the critical proposition that the world is made up of states that exist in
an environment of anarchy. In realist thinking, anarchy means that ultimately states can
only upon themselves for their security and other purposes. There is no subordinate
authority that can manage the relations between sovereigns.
? Can anarchy be equated with chaos and insecurity? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Yes! According to Rousseau, states must arm themselves to prepare for the contingency
that some neighbor someday may harbor aggressive designs and attack. But in the
process of a state accumulating arm for its insurance, other states will interpret these
actions of a potential threat to their security. This process of action and reaction is called
security dilemma: the means by which one state provides for its security creates
insecurity for others.
55
? What are the big issues of world politics for realists? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
For the realist, the great issues of international politics have to do with the question of
security, war and peace. The gains of one state are at the expense of others, and no state
can afford to rely on others for its security and welfare. There may be international law
and institution, but every state will look out for itself. States compete with each other for
limited goods, territory, prestige, access to raw materials and markets, and control over
strategic points.
According to some realists, the raison d etat (reason of the state) is the fundamental
principle of international conduct, the state’s First Law of Motion. It tells the statesmen
what he must do to preserve the health and strength of the state. The state is considered to
be a key actor in international politics, and it must pursue power. It is the duty of a the
statesperson to calculate rationally the most appropriate steps that should be taken so as
to perpetuate the life of the state in a hostile and threatening environment.
? What is the importance of power for realists in the anarchical international
system? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Generally, realists such as E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau argued that, for the purpose
of increasing their security, states are self-interested, power-seeking rational actors.
International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power. They argue that the basic
structure of international politics is one of anarchy in that each of the independent
sovereign states consider themselves to be their own highest authority and do not
56
recognize a higher power above them. The first priority for state leaders is to ensure the
survival of the state. Under anarchy, the survival of the state cannot be guaranteed. Power
is crucial to the realist lexicon and traditionally has been defined narrowly in military
strategic terms. It is the ability to get what you want either through the threat or use of
force. Self-help is the principle of action in anarchical system where there is no global
government. Realists noted the unfortunate fate of Ethiopia under the League of Nations
when it was invaded by Fascist Italy and Kuwait under the United Nations when it was
invaded by Iraq and conclude that states should ultimately rely on themselves for
security.
Therefore, any cooperation between states is explained as purely incidental. If a state

feels threatened, it should seek to augment its own power capabilities by engaging in, for
example military build-up. Realists saw World War II as the vindication of their theory.
Realism dominated the study of international relations in the decades following the
Second World War.
? What is balance power? What is its significance in anarchical international

system? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
If the survival of a state or a number of weaker states is threatened by a a hegemonic state

or a coalition of stronger states, they should join forces, establish a formal alliance, and
seek to preserve their own independence by checking the power of the opposing side.
This is called the mechanism of balance of power. The mechanism of the balance of
power seeks to ensure an equilibrium power in which case no one state or coalition of
states is in a position to dominate all the others and the international system. The Clod
War competition between the East and West, as institutionalized through the formal
alliance system of the Warsaw Pact and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
provides a prominent example of the balance of power mechanism in action.
57
Activity 1
1. What are the defining themes of idealism/liberalism? (You can use the space
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. What is the basic proposition of realism? (You can use the space provided
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Identify the basic differences between idealism/liberalism and realism. (You

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Are the thoughts of idealism/liberalism dominant today? Or are the realist

thoughts predominant in todays international relations? (You can use the
space provided below to write your response.)
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. What options are available for states to ensure their own security? (You can
use the space provided below to write your response.)
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
58
Section Two: Contemporary Theories of International Relations
Overview
Dear learners! This is section two of the unit. It is about the contemporary theories of
international relations such as neo-liberalism and neo-realism. The debate between neo-
realism and neo-liberalism has dominated mainstream international relations since the
mid 1980’s. This is the neo-neo debate. This particular section is divided into three sub-
sections. The first sub-section dwells on neo-realism and its outlook toward international
relations. Neo-liberalism and its thesis are presented in the second sub-section. The main
features of the neo-neo debate (the debate between the neo-realism and neo-liberalism) is
presented in sub-section three.
Objective
After completing this particular section, you are expected to:
 Describe the main propositions of neo-realism

 Describe the main propositions of neo-liberalism
 Identify the major differences between these two dominant contemporary

theories
 Identify which contemporary theory best explain a certain international relations

phenomenon
2.2.1 Neo-realism
? What is the role of the structure of the international system for neo-realist
thinking? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
59
The debate between neo-realism and neo-liberalism has dominated mainstream
international relations since the mid 1980’s. For most academics, the school of neo-
realism refers to Kenneth Waltz’s Theory of International Politics. His theory emphasizes
the importance of the structure of the international system and its role as the primary
determinant of state behavior. Because of its focus on the international structure, Waltz’s
neo-realist thinking is also known as structural realism.
? What are the differences between the classical realism and the neo-realist
thinking? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Neo-realism is distinct from traditional or classical realism in a number of ways. First,

realism is purely an inductive theory. Traditional realist would explain international
politics by looking at the actions and interactions of the states in the system. Thus, the
decisions by Pakistan and India to have nuclear weapons would be explained by looking
at the influence of military leaders in both states and the longstanding differences
compounded by geographic proximity. All of these explanations are bottom-up
explanations. Neo-realists, the structure of the international system must be considered.
According to them, the structure is defined by the ordering principles of international
system, which is anarchy. The structure of the international system shapes foreign policy
choices. For neo-realists, a better explanation for India and Pakistan’s nuclear testing
could be anarchy or the luck of a common power or a central authority to enforce rules
and maintain order in the system. In a competitive system, this condition crates a need for
weapons to survive.
60
? What is power to classical realists? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
A second difference between realism and neo-realism is their view of power. To realists,
power is an end in itself. Hans Morgenthau argued that statesmen think and act in terms
of interest defined as power. Although classical realists recognize different elements of
power (like economic resource and technology), military power is considered the most
obvious element of a state’s power. For neo-realist, power is more than the accumulation
of military resource and the ability to use this power to coerce and control other states in
the system. Power is a combined capability of a state. States are differentiated in the
system in their power not by their function. Power gives a state a place or a position in
the international system and that shapes the state’s behavior. The distribution of power
and any dramatic changes in that distribution of power help to explain the structure of the
international system. In the eyes of many neo-realists, the end of the Cold War and the
disintegration of the Soviet Union upset the balance of power, and this has increased the
uncertainty and instability in the international system. Neo-realists like Waltz would
challenge neo-liberalists that who believe that we can manage international issues by
merely building effective international institutions. He would argue that the effectiveness
of international institutions depends on the support of major powers.
? What is the view of traditional realism toward anarchy? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
61
The third difference between traditional realism and neo-realism is each one’s view on
how states react to the conditions of anarchy. To realists, anarchy is a condition of the
system, and states react to it according to their size, location, domestic politics, and
leadership qualities. In contrast, neo-realists suggest that anarchy defines the system.
Further, all states are functionally similar units, meaning that they all experience the same
constraints presented by anarchy and strive to maintain their position in the system. Neo-
realists explain any differences in policy have differences in power or capabilities. Both
Belgium and China, for example recognize that one of the constraints of anarchy is the
need for security to protect their national interest. Leaders in these countries may select
different policy paths to achieve that security. A small country such as Belgium, with
limited resources, responds to anarchy and the resulting security dilemma by joining
alliances and taking an activist role in regional and international organizations, seeking to
control the arm race. China, a major power and a large country, would most likely pursue
a unilateral strategy of increasing military strength to protect and secure their interests.
Generally, while retaining the empirical observations of realism, that international

relations are characterized by antagonistic interstate relations, neo-realists point to the
anarchic structure of the international system as the cause. They reject explanations that
take account of states' domestic characteristics.
? What is the stand of classical realism on the possibility of cooperation? (You can
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Neo-realists have little room in the world for cooperation than realists. When cooperation
does occur, power relationships are at work within the cooperative arrangement. The
more powerful states take larger share of any joint share (relative gains) that flows from
the cooperation. Cooperation means relative gains based on the amount of power a given
state possesses. States are compelled by relative gains and balance against concentration
of power. Furthermore, neo-realists believe that when states fail to comply with rules that
62
encourage cooperation, other states may abandon multilateral activity and act unilaterally.
Unlike realism, neo-realism seeks to be scientific and more positivist. What also
distinguishes neo-realism from realism is that the former does not accept the latter's
emphasis on the behavioral explanation of international relations.
2.2.2 Neo-liberalism/Neo-liberal Institutionalism
? What is the basic thesis of neo-liberalism? (You can use the space provided below
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Although traditional realists and neo-realists were pessimist on the possibilities of

international cooperation, other writers observe an even more cooperative world. These,
in the academic world, are neo-liberalists which their theory is generally referred to be
liberal institutionalism or what is now called institutional theory. Neo-liberalism- seeks to
update liberalism by accepting the neo-realist presumption that states are the key actors in
international relations, but still maintains that non-state actors and intergovernmental
organizations (IGOs) matter. Liberal institutionalism is considered by many scholars to
present the most convincing challenge to realist and neo-realist thinking.
? What are the major changes in international relations that motivate the thinking
of neo-liberalism.? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Though not rejecting realist view outright, neo-liberalists believed that realism did not
account for visible changes in the international scene. Reality began to appear that niehter
realism or neo-realism could adequately explain. According to many neo-liberalists, these
63
are major visible changes in international relations that have shaped the thinking of neo-
liberalists. Instances of these visible changes include, among others:
 The decline of international warfare

 The shift to economic sources of power for influence over military means for
coercion.
 Intensified effort to integrate global trade patterns through international

cooperation.
 Growth of transitional activities
 Emergence of various kinds of actors on the international stage making states as

primary actors, not dominant actors.
A major feature of international relations is the growth of transitional activities. These are
private activities that take place across national boundary lines. Realists, of course have
tended to focus on state-to-state dealings. Another important, closely related feature is the
emergence of various kinds of actors on the international stage. The dominance of the
state has declined (though states remain as the primary actors) making room on the
international stage for numerous kinds of non-state actors such as churches, multinational
corporations, environmental and human rights groups, and other private individuals and
groups that are increasingly pursuing interests and goal in an international context.
International activities by growing number of states and non-state actors concerning an
increasing range of issues have drawn the world into a tighter frame of interaction that
calls for more cooperation to secure multiple actors’ needs.
? What does this mean? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
64
This means that neo-liberalists focus on interdependence. States and non-states actors are
now dependent on one another than ever before. Since interdependence means shared
problems and needs, it produces the potential for mutual help (absolute gains).
Interdependence can be negative due to global environmental decay, the spread of AIDS,
international terrorism, and internationally organized drug trafficking. Or it can be
positive because of joint economic growth through mutual trade. Overall, since
interdependence means shared problems and needs, it produces the potential for mutual
help. Thus, states tend to move toward cooperation as well as continuing to engage in
some degree of conflicts.
? What does transnationalism refer to? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Other neo-liberal thinking focuses on transnationalism and complex interdependence.

Theorists in this camp presented arguments that suggest that the world has become more
pluralistic in terms of actors involved in international interactions and that these actors
had become more dependent on each other.
? What are the characteristics of complex interdependence? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
65
Complex interdependence presented a world with four characteristics:
o Increasing linkages among states and non-state actors

o A new agenda of international issues with no distinction between low and high
politics
o A recognition of multiple channels for interaction among actors across national

boundaries; and
o The decline of the efficacy of military force as the tool of statecraft.
For complex interdependence scholars, globalization represent an increase linkages and

channels for interaction, as well as in the number of interconnections.
? Does neo-liberal institutionalism share the assumptions of neo-realism? (You can

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Yes of course! Neo-liberal institutionalism or institutional theory shares many of the

assumptions of neo-realism; however, its adherents claim that neo-realism focus
exclusively on conflicts and competition and minimize the chances of cooperation even
in an anarchic international system. Neo-liberal institutionalisms see ‘institutions’ as the
mediator and the means to achieve cooperation among actors in the system. Neo-liberals
are now focusing their research on issues of global governance and the creation and
maintenance of institutions associated with managing the processes of globalization.
? What is the view of neo-liberals on institutions? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
66
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
For neo-liberal institutionalism, institutions are seen as persistent and as connected sets of
rules and practices that prescribe roles, constrain activity, and shape the expectations of
actors. Institutions may include organizations, and informal practices that states accept as
binding. The balance of power in the international system is an example of an institution.
? What is the view of neo-liberals on international regimes? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
International regimes on the other hand, are social institutions that are based on agreed
rules, norms, principles and decision-making procedures. These govern the interactions
of various states and non-state actors in issue areas such as environment or human rights.
The global market on coffee, for example is governed by a variety of treaties, trade
agreements, scientific and research protocols, market protocols, and the interest of
producers, consumers and distributors. States organize these interests and consider the
practices, rules, and procedures to create a governing arrangement or a regime that
controls the production of coffee, monitors its distribution, and ultimately determines the
price for consumers.
? What are the core assumptions of neo-liberalism? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
67
Like any other theory, neo-liberalism has its own assumptions or propositions. The core
assumptions of neo-liberal institutionalists include:
 States are key actors in international relations, but not the only significant actors.
States are rational or instrumental actors, always seeking to maximize their
interests in all issue areas.
 In this competitive environment, states seek to maximize absolute gains through
cooperation. Rational behavior leads states to see value in cooperative behavior.
States are less concerned with gains or advantages achieved by other states in
cooperative arrangement.
 The greatest obstacle for successful cooperation is non-compliance or cheating

by states.
 Cooperation is never without problems, but states will shift loyalty and resources
to institutions if these are seen as mutually beneficial and if they provide states
with increasing opportunities to secure their international interests.
? Which issue areas are more relevant that the neo-liberal view? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The neo-liberal institutional perspective is more relevant in issue areas where states have
mutual interests. For example, most world leaders believe that we will benefit from an
open trade system, and many support trade rules that protect the environment. Institutions
have been created to manage international behavior in both areas. The neo-liberal view
may have less relevance in areas in which states have no mutual interest. Thus,
68
cooperation in military or national security areas, where someone’s gain is perceived as
someone else’s loss (a zero-sum perspective) may be more difficult to achieve.
Proponents such as Joseph Nye and Robert Keohane argue that states will cooperate
irrespective of relative gains, and are thus concerned with absolute gains. The growing
interdependence throughout the Cold War through international institutions means that
neo-liberalism is also called neo-liberal institutionalism. This also means that nations
are; in essence, free to make their own choices as to how they will go about conducting
policy without any international organizations blocking a nation's right to sovereignty.
Neo-liberalism also contains an economic theory that is based on the use of open and free
markets with little, if any, government intervention to prevent monopolies and other
conglomerates from forming.
2.2.3 The Main Features of the Neo-realist/neo-liberal Debate
? What features can you draw from the forgoing discussions on neo-realism and
neo-liberalism? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
According to the discussion above about the two major contemporary theories of
international relation, some features can be drawn. Here, let us outline some of these
major feature as follows:
1. Both agree that the international system is anarchic. Neo-realists say that anarchy
puts more constraints on foreign policy and that neo-liberals minimize the
importance of survival as the goal of each state. Neo-liberals claim that neo-
realists minimize the importance of international interdependence, globalization,
and the regimes created to manage these interactions.
2. Neo-realists believe that international cooperation will not happen unless states
make it happen. They feel that it is hard to achieve, difficult to maintain, and
69
dependent on state power. Neo-liberals believe that cooperation is easy to achieve
in areas where states have mutual interests.
3. Neo-liberals think that actors with common interests try to maximize absolute
gains. Neo-realists claim that neo-liberals overlook the importance of relative
gains. Neo-liberals want to maximize the total amount of gains for all parties
involved; whereas neo-realists believe the fundamental goal of states in
cooperative relationships is to prevent others from gaining more.
? What is meant by high and low politics? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Neo-realists state that anarchy requires states to be preoccupied with relative

power, security, and survival in a competitive international system (high politics).
Neo-liberals are more concerned with economic welfare or international political
economy issues and other non-military issue area such as international
environmental concern (low politics).
5. Neo-realists emphasize the capabilities (power) of states over the intentions and
interests of states. Capabilities are essential for security and independence. Neo-
realists claim that uncertainty about the intentions of other states forces states to
focus on their capabilities. Neo-liberals emphasize intentions and preferences.
6. Neo-liberals see institutions and regimes as significant forces in international

relations. Neo-realists state that neo-liberals exaggerate the impact of regimes and
institutions on state behavior. Neo-liberals claim that they facilitate cooperation,
and neo-realists say that they do not mitigate the constraining effects of anarchy
on cooperation.
70
? Do neo-realists and neo-liberal institutionalists share some assumptions? (You can
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Yes they do! Despite all the above differences between the two dominant contemporary
theories of international relations, both theories share several assumptions with regard to
anarchy. First, they agree that anarchy means that there is no common authority to
enforce any laws constraining the behavior of states or other states. Neo-liberal
institutionalists and neo-realists agree that anarchy encourages states act unilaterally and
to promote self-help behavior.
? Why does anarchy make cooperation more difficult? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The condition of anarchy also makes cooperation more difficult. However, neo-realists
tend to be pessimistic and see the world as much more competitive and conflictive. To
most neo-realists, international relations is a struggle for survival, and in every
interaction, there is a chance of a loss of power to a future competitor or enemy. For neo-
liberal institutionalists, international relations is competitive; however, the opportunities
for cooperation in areas of mutual interest may mitigate the effects of anarchy.
For neo-liberal institutionalists, foreign policy is now about managing complex

interdependence and the various processes of globalization. It is also about responding to
problems that threaten the economic well-being, if not the survival, of people around the
world. However, neo-realists take a more state-centric view of foreign policy. For them,
issues of national security and survival dominate the foreign policy of states. The most
71
effective tool of statecraft is force or the threat of the use of force. States must continue to
look for their own interest. All states are egoistic value maximizers.
? What is the position of neo-realists on international institutions and regimes?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Both contemporary theories of international relations accept the existence of international

institutions and regimes. From a neo-realist point of view, states work to establish these
institutions and regimes if they serve their interests (absolute gains), and they continue to
support these same institutions and regimes if the cooperative activities promoted by the
institutions do not unfairly advantage (relative gains) other states. Neo-realists could
agree that institutions can shape foreign policy in certain issue areas and when the issue
at hand is not central to the security interest of a given state.
Neo-liberals agree that once established, institutions can do more than shape or influence
the foreign policy of states. Institutions can promote a foreign policy agenda by providing
critical information and expertise. Institutions may also facilitate policy-making and
encourage more cooperation at local, regional and international levels.
? What is the difference of opinion between the two contemporary theories

regarding the significance of institutions in international relations? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
72
A major issue of contention in the debate is the notion that institutions have become
significant in international relations. Further, they can make a difference by helping to
resolve global and regional problems and encourages cooperation rather than conflicts.
Neo-liberal institutionalists expect an increase in the number of institutions and an
increase in cooperative behavior. They predict that these institutions will have a greater
role in managing the processes of globalization and that states will come to the point
where they realize that acting unilaterally or limiting cooperative behavior will not lead
to the resolution or management of critical global problems.
Neo-realists recognize that these institution likely to become more significant in area of
mutual interest, while national security interests are not at stake. However, the emphasis
that states place on relative gains will limit the growth of institutions and always makes
cooperation difficult. For neo-realists, the important question is not ‘will we all gain from
this cooperation’, but ‘who will gain more?’
Activity 2
1. What are the similarities between tradition realism and neo-realism? (You can use
the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the intellectual foundations of neo-liberal institutionalism? (You can use
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What assumptions about international politics are shared by neo-liberals and

neo-realists? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
73
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the significant differences between neo-realists and neo-liberalists?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the difference between relative and absolute gains? What role do these
concepts play in neo-realist thinking? neo-liberal thinking? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Make a group of five with your colleagues and read the Ethiopian foreign policy and
try to critically examine the policy whether it gives a special emphasis on high or low
politics or both.
Checklist
I can
1. Identify classical theories of International relations.
2. Identify the major contemporary theories of international relations
3. Describe the major theoretical differences between the two classical theories.
4. Describe the assumptions of traditional realism.
74
5. Describe the propositions of classical liberalism/idealism.
6. Identify the major differences between neo-realism and neo-liberalism.
7. Describe the assumptions shared by neo-realism and neo-liberalism.
UNIT THREE
FOREIGN POLICY AND INSTRUMENTS OF

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Introduction
Dear learners! Welcome to unit three of the module. This unit discusses foreign policy
and instruments of international relations. This unit has two major sections. The first
section talks about foreign policy and its objectives and determinants. Section two
identifies and describes the major instruments of foreign policy and international
relations.
Objectives
Having completing this unit, you are expected to:

 Define foreign policy
 Identify the major objectives of foreign policy
 Identify the different types of foreign policy
 Describe the major determinants of foreign policy
 Identify the stages involved in foreign policymaking
 Identify and describe the major instruments of foreign policy and international
relations
 Describe the foreign policy of Ethiopia
75
Section one: Foreign Policy
Overview
Dear learners! Welcome to the first section of the unit which talks about foreign policy.
This section has eight separate sub-sections. The first sub-section defines foreign policy.
The foreign policy objectives are identified and described in sub-section two. The
different types of foreign policy are discussed in sub-section three. Sub-section four deals
with the major determinants of foreign policy decision making. Stages in foreign policy
decision making and decision making in foreign policy are issues under the fifth and sixth
sub-sections, respectively. The eighth sub-section deals with the different approaches to
study foreign relations. The last sub-section tries to highlight the current Ethiopian
foreign policy and relations.
Objectives
After completing this particular section, you will be able to:

 Define foreign policy
 Identify the major objectives of foreign policy
 Identify the different types of foreign policy
 Describe the major determinants of foreign policy
 Identify the stages in foreign policymaking
 Describe issues involved in foreign policymaking
 Identify the different approaches to study foreign relations
 Describe the Ethiopian foreign policy and relations
76
3.1 Foreign policy
77
? What is foreign policy? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The state has traditionally been viewed as the most important and basic unit in
international relations. Every state is essential to the others at least in one or, depending
on circumstances, in several ways. Therefore, states are necessarily related with each
other in one way or another. It takes place with the purpose of achieving the goals of a
state’s national interest. This is formulated in the form of a state’s foreign policy. It may
be shaped and influenced by different factors depending on time and circumstances.
Foreign policy may generally be described as the official policy actions taken by one
state to wards other states. It involves the formulation and implementation of a group of
principles which guide the actions of a state while negotiating with other state to protect
or further its national interest.
? Are all foreign relations associated with foreign policy? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Not necessarily! It should, however, be noted that not all international contacts and
relations are associated with foreign policy. Only those matters that originate with, or are
openly or secretly sponsored by the government of a state may be considered as
belonging to its foreign policy. That is, only ‘official’ or government directed relations
between states is included in the concept of foreign policy.
Foreign policy is a set of ideas and actions designed by policy makers to solve problems;
to promote some changes in policy attitudes and actions of other states/actors. It is the
78
sum total of all activities by which all actors interact with the environment beyond
national borders. Generally, it involves the formulation, analysis and implementation of a
set of principles to achieve and promote a states’ interest (national interest).
3.2 Objectives of Foreign Policy
? What is a national interest? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The general objective of states foreign policy is nothing but maximizing the national
interest. National interest is self-interest of state as a legitimate and fundamental basis of
foreign policy. It is the totality of goals and policies of a state. It can be understood as a
set of enduring concern that states want to protect. It involves core values of a society in
the form of security, welfare, protection of national way of life, maintaining territorial
integrity, and self-preservation. National interest, often referred by the French term
raison d’etat, is a country’s goals and ambitions whether economics, military, or cultural.
As considerable disagreement exists in every country over what is or what is not
“national interest,” the term is often invoked to justify isolationist and pacifist policies to
justify interventionist or warlike policies of states.
By national interest, we mean the sum of the goals and objectives of a state’s foreign
policy. Even if the national interests of states vary in that detail, core national interests is
the same for different courtiers. The minimum essential components of the national
interest of any state are security, national development and world order.
? Is national interest multifaceted? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
79
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Yes of course! The national interest of a state is multi-faceted. Primarily, it is about the
state’s survival and security. States could now openly embark on wars purely out of self-
interest. Also important is the pursuit of wealth and economic growth and power. Many
states, especially in modern times, regard the preservation of the nation’s culture as of a
great importance. A foreign policy geared towards pursuing the national interest is the
foundation of the realist school of international relations. The first thinker to advocate for
the primacy of national interest is usually considered to be Niccolò Machiavelli.
? What are the specific objectives of foreign policy? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
National interest is a key concept in foreign policy. The making of foreign policy begins
by identifying the state’s key national interests. Foreign policy cannot be subordinated to
any other principle than national interest. The total task of foreign policy is to defend
national interests peacefully and rationally. The goals and objectives of any state foreign
policy constitute national interest as a basis. The objectives of any state foreign policy are
the following:
a) Autonomy/Maintaining Independence: - the ability to formulate and carryout

domestic and external policies in terms of one’s own priority. It is simply about the
desire to act without being coerced or influenced by other actors.
b) National Security: - it about the survival of a state, i.e., safety; confidence; precaution
against espionage, external threat etc. It is one of the highly subjective and
controversial terms in politics which is frequently used and abused (in the name of
actual and/or potential security threat) by states as justification for the warlike deeds.
80
c) Welfare/promoting the economic interest: - this is highly related with ensuring the
socio-economic needs/wellbeing of citizens.
d) Status and prestige: - actors are more interested in generating recognition, enhancing
positive image and attitude aiming at the public opinions, being understood as a land
of freedom, etc.
Example: Military display to deter an enemy; achievement in science and
technology; and providing leadership in the world stage.
e) Maintaining world order- in order to maintain inter-state relationship and promote
one’s foreign policy, state’s actions should conform to certain ethical and moral values
acceptable to other state. A minimum state of orderliness is a precondition of measure of
justice. Thus, state need to maintain a world order with in which they can realize their
national interests.
3.3 Types of Foreign Policy
? What are the different types of foreign policy? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Generally speaking, we can identify two types of foreign policies: The policy of the
status quo: This policy, whether followed by a large or small state, seeks to maintain a
stabilized set of international relationship that includes the relatively advantageous
situation the state now enjoys. When a state that follows this policy is faced with conflict,
it tries to avoid the aggravation of the conflict. It works for the resolution of the dispute at
low level of tension.
The policy of revisionism: This policy is strategically offensive. A state that follows this
kind of policy will not seek or agree to a stabilization of international relationship until it
achieves what it seeks. Such a state will not only accept conflict, but also actively seeks it
as long as it offers a hope for the attainment of an objective.
81
3.4 Determinants of Foreign Policy
? What are the different techniques of foreign policy making? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The relation of any two states with in any situation may range from total agreement to
total hostility. Whether they are in state of peace or war, states try to achieve their
objective by influencing each other using different mechanisms. The different techniques
they use are the following:
A. Political Techniques: Diplomacy- Diplomacy may be defined as the process of

representation and negotiation by which states usually deal with one another in terms of
peace. The Oxford English Dictionary calls it ‘the management of international relations
by negotiation’ or ‘the method by which these relations are adjusted and managed’.
Diplomacy is the means through which states seek to attain their purpose by agreement
rather than by war.
B. Economic Techniques –Trade policies and foreign aid are known as economical
instruments. The economic techniques that are used to influence the relationship between
states can generally be classified in to two: persuasive economic techniques and coercive
economic techniques. Persuasive economic techniques use the method of offering
economic reword or advantage in return for a satisfactory modification of another state’s
behavior. The coercive is a method through which a state threatens the other with
deprivation or impoverishment unless it submits.
C. Psychological Techniques –propaganda and culture- Propaganda is systematic
attempt to affect the minds, emotions, and actions of a given group for public purposes. It
is an organized effort by governments to convince foreign states to accept policies
favorable to them. The great bulk of the propaganda messages put out by state aims at
creating a favorable view of a state by other states. Effective propaganda may help
increase the acceptability of diplomatic, economic or military moves.
82
A special development in the field of psychological action is the cultural offensive. Using
the standard techniques of public relations such as exchanging cultural experiences, states
have undertaken active international promotion of their culture beyond their borders.
? What is Collective security? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D. Collective Security - It is a device of maintaining peace and preventing aggression. It

is a machinery for joint action in order to prevent or counter any attack against an
established order. The underlying principle in collective security is that an attack on any
one state is an attack on all. It is a permanent arrangement that aims against any
aggression anywhere.
E. International Law-It primarily serves as a system regulating the rights and duties of
states. International law is a body of law by which a growing area of inter-state relations
will be regulated and controlled.
F. Military Techniques: - are used as a last alternative means of influence. It refers to

some sort of application of military power, the ultimate outcome being actual conduct of
war. The objective of the exercise of military power is exactly the same as that of any
other type of state action. It is achievement of enough consent by other states to permit
the attainment of an objective.
? What factors do influence foreign policy making? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
83
Generally, it can be summarized that the factors that determine forging policy making
may be internal and external. The following are some of these factors.
i) Geographic Factors:
 Geographic location of a country, for instance, determines its military policy.
 Size and climate is also important. For example, countries in the insular position
built navy/naval forces such as UK and Japan.
ii) Population growth and size. It is a fundamental source of power. E.g. China and India
iii) Economic Factors:
 Effectiveness in mobilization of resources; E.g. mineral resources as a basis of
industry.
 Economic dependence/interdependence
 Strength of national currency
iv) Ideology: It is a set of integrated/persistent principles which provides justification for
political action.
v) Public Opinion determines political actions and decisions. For example public opinion
forced USA to withdraw from Vietnam
vi) State and government structure: The mode of state and government organization
determines policy output and outcomes.
vii) External Pressures: the hierarchical relations between states are important, however
all states are, in principle, equal.
E.g. voting in the UNSC (veto power)
3.5 Stages in Foreign Policy Decision Making
? What are the major stages in foreign policymaking? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The making of foreign policy involves a number of stages:
84
 Assessment of the international and domestic political environment - Foreign
policy is made and implemented within an international and domestic political
context, which must be understood by a state in order to determine the best
foreign policy option. For example, a state may need to respond to an
international crisis.
 Goal setting - A state has multiple foreign policy goals. A state must determine
which goal is affected by the international and domestic political environment at
any given time. In addition, foreign policy goals may conflict, which will require
the state to prioritize.
 Determination of policy options - A state must then determine what policy

options are available to meet the goal or goals set in light of the political
environment. This will involve an assessment of the state's capacity to implement
policy options and an assessment of the consequences of each policy option.
 Formal decision making action - A formal foreign policy decision will be taken
at some level within a government. Foreign policy decisions are usually made by
the executive branch of government. Common governmental actors or institutions
which make foreign policy decisions include: the head of state (such as a
president) or head of government (such as a prime minister), cabinet, or minister.
 Implementation of chosen policy option - Once a foreign policy option has been
chosen, and a formal decision has been made, then the policy must be
implemented. Foreign policy is most commonly implemented by specialist
foreign policy arms of the state bureaucracy, such as a Ministry of Foreign Affairs
or State Department. Other departments may also have a role in implementing
foreign policy, such as departments for: trade, defense, and aid.
3.6 Decision Making in Foreign Policy
85
? What does foreign policymaking involve? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Decision-making in foreign policy involves the analysis and assessment of past and
current data, in the light of our past experience and that of others, who had dealt with
similar situations, in order to identify the need and available options for action in the
future and the likely implications of each of those options for the protection and
promotion of national interests.
? What are the aspects of foreign policy? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Foreign policy has four aspects: political, internal and external security-related,
economic including commercial, and societal, which has a bearing on our society as well
as those of others. A successful conduct of foreign policy protects and advances our
national interests and contributes to the preservation and enhancement of our status and
power, without being unduly detrimental to the national interests, power and status of
others. It seeks to avoid conflicts and, where this is not possible, to minimize the likely
damage to our national interests, power and status.
? Why is the process of foreign policymaking complex? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
86
The process of decision-making in foreign policy has become more complex than in the
past due to the following reasons:
 The emergence of ethical issues such as human rights, democracy, disarmament

etc as important components of the political aspect of foreign policy.
 The greater focus on non-political aspects such as economic, environmental etc.
 The new complexities of the security aspect due to the proliferation of weapons of
mass destruction and the never-diminishing threats from trans-national religious
and other terrorist groups and narcotics smuggling gangs to national and regional
security.
 The trend towards greater trans-nationalization of the decision-making process

due to the impact on the process of a country's membership of international and
regional organizations.
 The increasingly assertive role of national and trans-national non-State actors

such as the non-governmental organizations (NGOs), think tanks etc in seeking to
influence the process.
 The networking of such non-State actors, at the national and trans-national levels,
in order to strengthen their ability to influence policy making and implementation.
 The insatiable demand from the non-State actors and other sections of the public
for transparency and accountability.
 The role of the printed and electronic media and the Internet in spreading greater
awareness of the database of the process and in providing yardsticks by which the
success of the policy-formulation and implementation could be judged. The
availability of knowledge at the mouse-tip has contributed to a greater non-State
participation in policy-making and implementation and to an instant and ever-
continuing scrutiny of policy-making.
87
? How does a meaningful foreign policymaking depend on? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Provided one has a clear idea of one's national interests, meaningful decision-making
depends on the following factors:
 Effective storage of past facts, experience and assessments and the capability for
their rapid retrieval in order to use them for current decision-making.
 Capability for the collection of current data, open as well as secret.
 The availability of knowledge of how other countries handled similar or

comparable situations and with what results.
 The quality of the in-house expertise and the availability of external (non-State)
expertise to analyze and assess the relevant data and experience and to identify
the available options for the future and the willingness of the in-house experts to
continually seek and use such external expertise.
2.7 Approaches to the Study of Foreign Relations
? What are the different approach to the study of foreign policy? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
88
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
There is a checklist of national power. There are two basic approaches in the study of
foreign policy. These are the ideological and the analytical approach. These approaches
are contending ones.
A. The Ideological Approach: - It has been there since the days of the French
Revolution. It was very much instrumental for the foreign policy of West Europeans.
This approach underlines the following issues.
 Foreign polices of states are expressions of the prevailing social, political,

religious beliefs of that particular country.
 Foreign policies are classified as democratic or totalitarian, imperialist or
socialist, peace loving or aggression.
 Foreign policies of states are primarily viewed in psychological terms. The
motives and interests of political elites of governments are seen as central to
foreign policies of states. Foreign polices of countries are influenced by the
ideological motives and interests of leaders.
Generally speaking this approach sees foreign policy as a function of a political system. It
is highly influenced by values.
B) The Analytical Approach: - This approach of foreign policy was also dominant in
the eighteen and nineteenth centuries. During the twenty century, it was overshadowed by
the Cold War. But after the end of the Cold War, there is a revival of this approach. Vis-
à-vis the ideological approach, the analytical approach is more or less a scientific
approach to the study of foreign relations. This approach strongly believes that the
foreign policy of state is affected by multifarious factors, apart from ideological or
motive of leaders. Foreign policies of states have marked similarity or unity. Among the
factors, historical, national interest, security, the political system, the style of régimes
could be cited.
89
2.8 The Current Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
? What are the current changes in foreign policy of Ethiopia after 1991? (You can
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
There were many changes that occurred in the country with the downfall of the military
regime in 1991. There were domestic and international changes. Domestically, the
political changes incorporate ideological change. The change in ideology is associated
partly with global political changes. Marxism ceased to be a state ideology. The most
important institutions were dismantled such as the Worker Party of Ethiopia which was
established in 1984, and the National Shengo. In nutshell at the political level, there was a
change of government from centralism and unitary form of state to decentralized and
federal form of state. Ethiopia also transformed from one party system to multi-party
system. As far as economic change is concerned the market economy philosophy
replaced the command economy of the previous régime. Liberalization and privatization
are adopted as economic policies of the new regime. During the Derg’s time analysis of
social relations along class lines was the dominant. This changed with the coming into
power of EPRDF. Instead of classes, ethnic lines for analysis of social relations become
dominant. This becomes prevalent with the regimes recognition of Eritrea’s self-
determination.
? Does the global political change affect the Ethiopian foreign policy? (You can use
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
90
Besides the internal changes that happened at home there were also external changes. The
coming to power of EPRDF is associated with the time when the Cold War came to an
end. The collapse of the Cold War has a considerable impact on the foreign policy of the
country. During the Cold War there was Socialist internationalism in the sense that
socialist countries used to support and encourage national liberation movements to draw
allies. The west also used to support and encourage authoritarian régimes in the Third
World for fear of communism. The collapse of USSR brought ideological changes in that
there appears a New World Order. The New World Order is manifested by the west's
promotion of ideas of democracy, free market economy and human rights particularly in
the Third World. These principles become internationally standardized principles for
domestic rule.
? What are the roles of international institutions in Ethiopian foreign policy? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The west also raised the role of international institutions in the New World Order. The
UN, World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have come to the
international limelight. They are given significant role in the international relations. They
have also affected the foreign policy of Third World Countries. The policy of containing
communism was replaced by supporting democratization, peaceful way of conflict
resolution and fight against Islamic Fundamentalism or terrorism as important policy and
domestic policy of the Third World.
? What are the responses of the Ethiopian government toward domestic and
international changes? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
91
The EPRDF government has to respond to the domestic and international changes to stay
in power. The foreign policy concerns of EPRDF right up on coming to power were:
peace and security at the domestic scene and sub regional levels particularly with the
neighboring countries; and the need to change the attitudes of neighbors towards the new
policy measures taken by EPRDF.
The issue of democratization has been an issue of Third World countries in general. But
the democratization process of the new regime was unique in the sense that it is ethnic
based. The neighboring countries are multi-ethnic but do not base their democratization
process on ethnic lines. Neighbors for fear that it would have some implications for their
domestic politics did not accept ethnicization of politics.
? Why did Eritrea become a foreign policy concern of the government? (You can
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The issue of Eritrea was also the foreign policy concern of EPRDF. The issue of Eritrea
was not only the issue of Ethiopians but also for African diplomacy. There was
propaganda from both internal and external atmosphere that the new regime is pursing a
policy of disintegrating the Ethiopian historic state. Eritrea’s departure from Ethiopia was
not in line with the OAU Charter for the Charter declares that boundaries are not subject
to changes. But Ethiopia changes this principle by providing self-determination right for
Eritrea and recognized Eritrea’s independence. Therefore, the new regime have to have a
strong diplomacy to persuade other African countries that this will not affect Ethiopian
foreign policy vis-à-vis other African countries.
? What were the major diplomatic measures undertaken by the Ethiopian

government after the separation of Eritrea? (You can use the space provided below to
92
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
In line with the above fact, the regime pursued the following diplomatic measures to
change the attitude of other countries:
 Invitation of state leaders to visit Addis Ababa and reciprocating them. A good
instance was that Sudan visited Ethiopia perhaps the first to visit Ethiopia after the
downfall of the military regime.
 Signing of treaties of friendship and cooperation with neighboring countries. This
embraces issues of repatriation and extradition.
 Abolition of visa requirement for nationals of the neighboring countries. This was
done to restore the positive image of the Ethiopian state
 Stopping supporting the insurgencies of neighboring countries. This means the
regime was attempting to show the gesture of not interfering and destabilizing the
neighboring countries.
? What were the challenges of the government from other regions of Africa? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The challenge of the regime was not only from the Horn of Africa but also because of the
positive relation between Eastern Africa and Southern Africa with the previous military
regime was a problem for the new regime. Therefore, the new regime was endeavoring to
make its relation good with these countries especially with Zimbabwe.
West Africa region was also a challenge for the EPRDF government especially Nigeria
for it is very vocal in the region. It was believed that the policy of the new regime was
dissatisfying the policy makers of Nigeria because of the on going internal problem with
93
the Biafra Secessionist Movement. Therefore, changing the attitude of Nigerian policy
makers was one of the tasks of the regime.
? What are the areas of Ethiopian involvement in Africa? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Generally, speaking Ethiopia’s involvement in Africa affairs was splendid with the
coming into power of EPRDF. Ethiopia involved actively in Africa common market,
conflict prevention, management and mechanism of the OAU, take part in African peace
keeping issues, active support to anti-apartheid struggle in south Africa, participated
actively in the issues of the Horn of Africa, participated in negotiating Eritrea and Yemen
during their conflict over Hannish islands, the then president of Ethiopia’s visit to USA,
Ethiopia’s stand against terrorism, and etc. Ethio-US relation started to be reinforced after
the aborted assassination attempt of President Mubarek of Egypt in Addis Ababa. This in
turn had a negative impact on Ethio-Sudanese relation. The 1998 Ethio-Eritrea conflict
has brought changes in the foreign policy objectives of the Ethiopia.
2.8.1 Priorities of the Ethiopian Foreign Policy
? What are the priorities of Ethiopian foreign policy? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
94
The Ethiopian foreign policy has three important priorities. These are:
 Promoting relation of peace and security with other countries.
 Serving the economic development needs, economic policies and objectives of the
country.
 Defining realistic goals on the basis of the country’s capacity to achieve desired
goals and objectives for development and democratization in its foreign policy.
2.8.2 Basis of the Ethiopian Foreign Policy
? What are the basis of Ethiopian foreign policy? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Having outlining the priorities, the Ethiopian foreign policy has an inside-out approach. It
is based on three major basis. These are:
1. Promoting development and building democratic system: It is

recognized in the foreign policy that Ethiopia is one of the poorest
countries of Africa. Not only poverty characterizes the country, but
prevalent of diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria as well as illiteracy are
also characterizes the country. Therefore, this is a basis for the
government’s effort of its foreign relations, which has to aim at
eradicating poverty, diseases and illiteracy. In the areas of governance, the
foreign policy of Ethiopia acknowledges that Ethiopian external relations
should aim at ensuring democratic system and democratization that ensure
ensuring citizens rights, good governance, and peaceful co-existence.
2. National pride: The Ethiopian foreign policy recognizes that the present
generation is humiliated due to poverty, backwardness and lack of
95
democracy and good governance. Therefore, the Ethiopian foreign policy
should aim at changing the image of the Ethiopia abroad.
3. Globalization: Globalization is the increasing integration of the world

societies and countries in multifaceted issue areas. Ethiopia cannot escape
from this reality. Globalization has its own opportunities and risks. The
Ethiopian foreign policy focuses on how to use this opportunity and
minimizing its influences.
2.8.3 Principles of Ethiopian External Relations
? What are the Principles of Ethiopian foreign policy? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The major principles of the external relations of Ethiopia are explicitly stated the
Constitution of the country in Article 86. These are:
 To promote policies of foreign based on the protection of national interest and
respect for the sovereignty of the country.
 To promote mutual respect for national sovereignty and equality of states and
non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.
 To ensure that the foreign relations policies of the country are based on mutual
interest and equality of states as well as the international agreement promote the
interest of Ethiopia
 To observe international agreements which ensure respect for Ethiopia’s
sovereignty and are not contrary to the interest of its Peoples.
 To forge and promote ever growing economic union and fraternal relations of
People’s eth Ethiopia’s neighbors and other African countries.
96
 To seek and support peaceful solutions to international disputes
2.8.4 Aims of the Ethiopian Foreign Policy
? What are the aims of Ethiopian foreign policy? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The Ethiopian foreign policy is aimed at:

i. Creating a conducive environment to make use of the available market and
investment.
ii. To get technical assistance, loans and aids for the development and
democratization process.
iii. Enhancing friendship with countries to bring about conducive global and
regional situation that contribute to our economic development, peace and
democracy. Promoting sub-regional cooperation is top priority of the policy.
iv. Predicting the possible threats for peace and security and solve them through
negotiations.
v. Minimizing the impacts of globalization.
Activity 1
1. Define foreign policy? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
97
2. Define National Interest? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the major specific objectives of foreign policy? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the internal factors that influence foreign policy making? (You can use
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Identify and describe the major stages in foreign policymaking? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the stages involved in meaningful foreign policymaking process? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
98
8. What were the global political changes that had influenced the EPRDF foreign
policy? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. What kind of roles is the new regime in Ethiopia playing in the African affairs?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Section Two: Instruments of Foreign Policy and International Relations
Overview
Dear learners! Section two of this particular unit attempts to identify and describe
instruments of foreign policy and international relations. The instruments of foreign
policy and international relations are those instruments by which states try to achieve
their foreign policy objectives. There are at least four types of instruments of foreign
policy and international relations. In this section, we have two sub-sections. Diplomacy
and its functions as well as diplomatic immunity will be discussed in the first sub-section.
Other instruments like propaganda, international organizations and international laws,
economic statecraft and force/war are described in the second sub-section.
Objectives
Up on the successful completion of this section, you will be able to:
 Define diplomacy
 Describe the different function of diplomacy
 Define diplomatic immunity
99
 Identify and describe other instruments of international relations
2.1 Diplomacy
? What is Diplomacy? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Diplomacy is the process of conducting communication among states through officially

recognized representatives. It is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between
representatives of states. The communication is almost continuous among states as their
representatives or called diplomats protect state interest and reduce conflicts.
Diplomats usually negotiate international treaties prior to endorsement by national
politicians.
Diplomacy is a major dimension of a state’s foreign policy. But there is recognition now
that diplomacy is being practiced by non-state actors including international
organizations, human rights groups, and multinational corporations, among others. These
actors may not have accredited diplomatic representatives, but they negotiate and bargain
with states and with one another.
Although most diplomacy is bilateral, between two states, multilateral diplomacy, which
involves various members of states and non-state actors, has been on the rise. The value
of multilateral diplomacy is inherent to global organizations such as the United Nations
and regional organizations like the African Union and the Arab League. The value of
diplomacy is that its communication and negotiation offers a cost-effective way to head
off problems such as wars and trade conflicts.
? What is a diplomat? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
100
A diplomat is someone involved in diplomacy; the collective term for a group of
diplomats from a single country who are resident in another country is a diplomatic
mission. Ambassador is the most senior diplomatic rank; a diplomatic mission headed by
an ambassador is known as an embassy. The collective body of all diplomats of particular
country is called that country's diplomatic corps.
Ambassadors, with little foreign experience and no expectation of a career in diplomacy,

need to be supported by large embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on larger
assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials
about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees,
including some dedicated to espionage.
2.1.1 Functions of a diplomatic mission
? What are the functions of diplomacy? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
1. Representing state interest: The first concern of ambassadors is always their won
government’s interest. In addition to ambassadors, head of states can represent state’s
interest. There are two methods of representing countries’ interest above the
ambassadorial level.
? What are the other forms of diplomacy other than the one conducted by a
diplomat? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
101
i. Summit Diplomacy: is a meeting by person by head of states to expedite
agreements and avoid misunderstandings. The advantage of summit diplomacy
is that it can generate broad areas of agreement or break diplomatic deadlocks
that have lingered at lower levels of diplomacy.
ii. Shuttle Diplomacy: is another means of representing a country’s interest above
the ambassadorial level. This involves negotiations that take place through the
travels of a high ranking officials serving as a mediator between capitols of
disputing states.
2. Symbolic Representation: normally, the exchange of ambassadors between two

countries accomplishes their formal recognition of each other. Before an ambassador’s
appointment to a country, the approval or agreement of the future host (receiving) state
must occur. Up on arrival at a diplomat’s new post, the ambassador presents a set of
credentials to a head of state in a formal ceremony.
? What is the importance of gathering information in the host state? (You can use
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Gathering Information: If a state’s government is going to react intelligently to new

challenges or take advantage of an opportunity, it must have information to formulate and
conduct an appropriate policy. State’s capabilities for obtaining information very
considerably, but they can include satellite pictures, spies’ activities, information from
globally based news services, and reports from other governments. Attachés send much
of the information that routinely flows back to the home state. An Attaché works in an
embassy under the head of an ambassador but represents a government department other
than the foreign ministry. Military, cultural, economic, etc attachés are typical of the
specialized information seekers that countries send out to their embassies. The process of
collecting and analyzing information for the benefit of policymakers especially
102
concerning the intensions and capabilities of opponents is called intelligence. Intelligence
activities usually suggest espionage and spying. This intelligence activity may be open
and legal (this is called overt intelligence) or illegal and secret (this is called covert
intelligence) or both.
? How does the diplomatic mission promote and protect the interest of nationals?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Promoting and Protecting the Interest of Nationals: The diplomatic corps of a given
state will try to serve the interest of fellow nationals living in the host state in two ways:
promoting the general interest of nationals abroad, and protecting individual citizens
while they are in other countries.
? How does diplomacy take place? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Although diplomacy involves formal communications among states and concerns several
functions, the most important stage of the diplomatic process is negotiation. This stage is
a communication specifically to resolve conflicts and avoid the use of force. Negotiation
normally takes place in face-to-face meetings. The means of negotiation is bargaining-
based on two sides making offers and counter offers until both sides reach agreements.
Bargaining requires a give-and-take spirit of compromise.
103
2.1.2 Diplomatic Immunity
? What is diplomatic immunity? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed. This sanctity has come to be known as
diplomatic immunity. It is a fundamental international law that allows a diplomat to
engage in international diplomacy without fear or interference. While there have been a
number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great
breach of honor. A diplomatic staff also enjoys the same immunity the ambassador does,
and this immunity extends to the attachés and the spouses and families of the diplomats.
The embassy of the sending state might have enjoyed the privilege of extraterritoriality.
This status means that embassy personnel could follow their own country’s laws, though
those laws might be incompatible with the laws of the host state.
These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations,
which protects diplomats from being persecuted while on a diplomatic mission.
Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home
countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level
employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy. If a diplomat does
commit a serious crime while in a host country he/she may be declared as persona non
grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their
homeland.
2.2 Other Instruments of International Relations
? What other instruments do you know? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
104
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.2.1 Propaganda
? What is propaganda? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The term propaganda refers to a process of dissemination of information and using of

symbols to change the attitude and thus the behavior of a target population in another
country so that they would influence policies of their won government using the media,
magazines, newspaper, television, the internet and other means. It is a psychological
warfare. Sophisticated efforts at propaganda frequently include a mixture of fact and
fiction to make the message more palatable. In hostile relationships, such as war, a
message designed to confuse, weaken, demoralize, and divide an opponent is a black
propaganda. There are different techniques of propaganda. Subversive propaganda
amounts to psychological warfare and carries the purpose of undermining an opponent.
? What are the techniques of propaganda? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Propagandists, having established a target and an appropriate strategy, may use a variety
of specific techniques in delivering the message. Among the more prominent are:
105
1. Name-calling: The propagandist attaches an emotion-laden symbol to a person or
a country. Targets are expected to respond favorably, from the propagandist point
of view, to the label without examining any evidence.
2. Glittering generality: This is similar to the preceding technique but is used to
describe an idea or policy rather than individuals. The term free world was a
favorite generality of western propagandists. “Socialist solidarity” was used in the
communist world to describe the complex relations among Communist states.
3. Transfer: The propagandist attempts to identify one idea, person, country, or
policy with another to make the target approve or disapprove it. Example, one way
to evoke a particularly hostile attitude among religious people against communism
is to equate it with atheism.
4. “Plain folks”: Propagandists are aware that their problems are compounded if they
appear to the audience as “foreigners” or strangers. They seek, therefore, to
identify as closely as possible with the values and style of life of the targets by
using local slang, accent, and idiom.
5. Testimonial: Here, the propagandist uses an esteemed person or institution to
endorse or criticize an idea or a political entity. A variation of this is the “appeal to
authority,” where the target is asked to believe something simply because some
“authority” says it is true.
6. Bandwagon: This technique plays on the audience’s desire to “belong” or be in
accord with the crowd. A mass of people, rather than a single esteemed person or
institution, serves as the attraction. The messages of “the whole world knows
that…,” “all peace-loving people recognized that…,” ets are frequently used.
7. Fear: Consciousness can be raised, and attitude changed, when audiences are made
aware of an impending or imminent threat to their lives and welfare. Example, to
promote arms-control and disarmament measures, and the fear of ecological
degradation.
2.2.2 International Organizations and International Laws
106
? How are international organizations and international law instruments of
international relations? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The sovereign state has been the primary actor in international relations and the essential
building block of the state-based international system. International organizations are one
of the alternatives that help states pursue their interest. It is possible to address world
problems by working towards global solutions through global organizations.
When using international organizations as instruments of international relations, states

usually evoke international laws to promote their interest. International laws and morality
have helped to govern the behavior of states. Increasing international interaction and
interdependence have significantly expanded the need for rules to govern a host of
functional areas such as trade, finance, travel and communications. Even the most
political of all activities like wars, human rights and other aspects of national security
have increasingly become the subject of international law.
? Can you give cases that indicate the potential role of international rules and
norms to protect states from going to war? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.2.3 Economic Statecraft
107
? How is economic power used as an instrument of international relations? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
This includes economic instruments of international relations used to influence foreign

states by:
 Using foreign aid for reward or punishment by holding out donations, its
continuation or its suspension.
 Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of
the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or
economic sanctions and involve the cutting of ties and imposition of barriers to
communication or trade. Imposition of economic sanctions consists of state
deliberately withholding normal economic relations to punish another. It is to
weaken the military potential of the enemy and destabilize the government of the
weak enemy state, to restore democracy, to attack the growing problem of
terrorism, to encourage states to observe human rights, to stop the spread of
weapons of mass destructions, etc.
2.2.4 Force/War
? Why force/war become the last resort used by states? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
108
The vast majority of international affairs are conducted through diplomacy. Despite
rhetoric, force remains the most important instrument. The use of military force to
resolve differences between two or more states is the last resort states use as an
instrument. This implies that the goals of the warring states are irreconcilable. While
diplomacy is ongoing, military strength may be useful to support diplomacy. There is a
saying that “diplomacy without an army is like music without instrument.” And hence,
war is a continuation of diplomacy by other means. The threat of use of force is known as
deterrence. States usually threaten to use their military power to deter the movement of
their enemy. The use or threat of force to encourage the opponent to have the second
thought is used with the purpose of preventing aggression. This is called deterrence. It is
designed to forestall attack by convincing a potential aggressor that the cost of action will
substantially outweigh any possible gains.
Activity
1. Is diplomacy a prerogative of States? (You can use the space provided below to
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. What is a diplomatic mission? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. What is the basic role of diplomacy in interstate relations? (You can use the
__________________________________________________________________
109
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Describe the specific functions that a diplomat carryout for the sending
state? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. What are the forms of gathering information (intelligence) in the host state?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. What is persona non grata? When it is used? (You can use the space provided
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. What is deterrence? What is its use in the international relations? (You can
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Checklist
I can
1. Define foreign policy
2. Identify and describe foreign policy objectives
110
3. Identify and describe determinants of foreign policy
4. Define diplomacy
5. Identify and describe functions of diplomacy
6. Describe the major stages involved in meaningful foreign policymaking
7. Identify and explain other instruments of international relations
UNIT FOUR
CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ISSUES
Introduction
111
Dear learners! Welcome to the last unit of the module. The world has become a global
village and no country and people can live in complete isolation in the existing
international system. The contemporary problems facing the people of the world are so
immense and complex that they influence and to some extent guide policies and actions
of all nations. They are global issues that their effects are felt by the whole world. Since
they are global problems that affect all countries and peoples, their solution requires
international efforts in which the governments and peoples of the world should take part.
This unit discusses about current global issues like globalization, terrorism, human rights
and humanitarian interventions, and environmental issues.
This unit comprises of four major sections. The first section will focus on describing
globalization. Section two focuses on issues related to environment. Terrorism, terrorist
acts and international counterterrorism are the major issues in section three. The last
section tries to briefly discuss population growth and its impacts.
Objectives
After completing this particular unit, you are expected to:

 Define globalization
 Identify the different aspects of globalization
 Assess major environmental issues
 Define terrorism
 Describe the impacts of high population growth
Section One: Globalization
Overview
Dear learners! Welcome to the first section of the unit. This particular section discusses
globalization and its aspect. It also tries to identify the major aspects of globalization and
112
its positive and negative impacts on countries of the world. This section is organized in to
three sub-sections. The first sub-section defines and describes globalization. The different
arguments (thesis) of globalization are the issues under the second sub-section. Aspects
of globalization are discussed in the third sub-section. The last sub-section tries to
identify the different impacts of globalization especially on the Third World countries.
Objectives
Up on the successful completion of this section, you will be able to:
 Define globalization
 Describe the major aspects of globalization
 Identify the positive and negative impacts of globalization
4.1.1 Globalization Defined
There is no agreement among scholars concerning the definition of the term

globalization. It is an elusive term to be plainly comprehended. There is debate
regarding the term and the phenomenon and its effect on international economic system.
As a result, it might be useful to start with defining a concept before defining
globalization. This concept is still used nowadays to denote a meaning different from
that of modern globalization, which has special dimensions.
? What is universality? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The concept that I will deal with very briefly is Universality. Universality means
belonging to the world and opening it to humans, their ideas and information and
transferring their practices, ideas and trends from their limited space (the homeland, the
birthplace or the place of residence) to a wider space throughout which all human beings
113
as well as all ideas, information, currents and creeds move without restrictions or
borders whatsoever so that the human thought becomes a factor that influences and is
influenced by the universal environment as a whole. Longing for universality grows into
a dream of seeing this very universality substitute citizenship, the single homeland, the
nation-state and the borders, a dream wherein the world becomes a large homeland for
human beings and an extended space for their work and movement. This trend is now
known as Universality. The tendency to generalize identification to the whole world is
called universalism. Capitalism joins its former enemy communism in their shared
universal trend. Communism endeavored to spread its dominion over the world. And
now capitalism is poised to be the sole world order.
However, universalism did not often stem from man’s ambitions of forcible expansion
on others’ land, as was the case of ancient emperors or modern colonizers, nor from
man’s tyrannical use of indigenous populations to serve his own interests. Universalism
rather sought essentially to secure benefits and foster exchange as changing
environment entails more diversified and larger prospects to achieve individual and
collective purposes in wider and more favorable horizons.
? What is globalization? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Covering a wide range of distinct political, economic, and cultural trends, the term
“globalization” has quickly become one of the most fashionable buzzwords of
contemporary political and academic debate. Some scholars believe that the implications
associated with the term are not new. They believe that the implications are already
mentioned by Marx (in the Communist Manifesto in 1848). Though it is disclosed by
Marx, the first attempts to theorize the process of globalization was traced back to 1960’s
114
and 1970’s. The growing interdependence and linkage between economies of the world
lead to develop a theory.
As a new phenomenon, the term has acquired different interpretations by different

people. Globalization is conceptualized in multiple senses. Some authors associated
globalization with the looming of a global economy, a global regime i.e. single world
government, a common set of rules regarding domestic political regimes, trade, human
rights, democratic rights etc. These lead to the emergence of one world government. Still
others are of the opinion that it is associated with the emergence of economic integration.
Some others adhere globalization with changes in the sphere of culture and identity.
? What does globalization involve? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Generally speaking, the definition of globalization resolves around economic integration

between societies and states. It embraces:
 Changes in material aspects- Falling transport costs, the huge decline in

communication and information costs, and cuts in tariff and non tariff barriers to trade
in goods, services, financial capital, and to some extent, labor have accelerated
globalization to an unprecedented speed that shows no sign of abating.
 Changes around compression of space and time- this revolves around the effects
of geography. It is to mean that because of technology, information advancement; there
is no any physical barrier for communication. Space and time are indeed compressed.
 Changes at the cultural and psychological level- It refers to changes at the level of
identity, knowledge and information. Because of advances in technology and
115
information, there is an escalated contact of previously separated people. Previously
because of barriers in technology and information contact among people of the world
was very few or less. Because of increased interaction, there is a looming of mixed
culture or hybridization of culture.
Globalization is the growing integration of economies and societies around the world. It
can also be understood as the phenomenon of increased cross-border movements between
countries of people, goods, money, investment, ideas and information. It also refers to the
increasing interconnectedness between states of the world. It is an expression of the
profound transformations in the nature of states and state-society relations.
Some argues that globalization can be distinguished from is internationalization.

Internationalization is s a term used to denote high levels of international interaction and
interdependence, most commonly with regard to world economy. In this context, it
refers to the volume of international trade and investment and the organization of
production. While globalization implies that there are no longer distinct national
economies in a position to interact.
? What does globalization bring in world societies? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Globalization refers to fundamental changes in the spatial and temporal contours of social
existence, according to which the significance of space or territory undergoes shifts in the
face of a no less dramatic acceleration in the temporal structure of crucial forms of
human activity. Geographical distance is typically measured in time. As the time
necessary to connect distinct geographical locations is reduced, distance or space
undergoes compression or “annihilation.” The human experience of space is intimately
116
connected to the temporal structure of those activities by means of which we experience
space. Changes in the temporality of human activity inevitably generate altered
experiences of space or territory. Areas of the world that were formerly excluded from
the full force of global capitalism, global communication and global cultural intrusion are
now more integrated into these networks than at any previous time. All these are
universal trends but, today’s universalism is marked by its reliance on sophisticated and
highly performing technology that was not available for the old form of universalism.
? What does global village mean? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Today, and more than ever before, the world has become a “global village” with the
expansion of the communication networks, the rapid information exchange, the gradual
shrink of borders and of attachment to identities and citizenship, the lifting of the
barriers of visas and passports, the consecration of a new era when national sovereignty
and the authority of the state is fading away in favor of regional groupings, international
organizations and international legality and law.
? What are the phenomena associated with globalization? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
In popular discourse, globalization often functions as little more than a synonym for one
or more of the following phenomena: the pursuit of classical liberal (free market) policies
in the world economy (economic liberalization), the growing dominance of western (or
even American) forms of political, economic, and cultural life (“westernization” or
117
“Americanization”), the proliferation of new information technologies (the “Internet
Revolution”), as well as the notion that humanity stands at the threshold of realizing one
single unified community in which major sources of social conflict have vanished
(“global integration”).
4.1.2 Hard versus Soft Globalization Thesis
? What are the hard and soft thesis of globalization? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
There are two broad camps revolving around globalization. This emanates from the fact
that there is no consensus among scholars on the implications of globalization.
A. Soft Globalization Thesis: - According to this thesis globalization is not a fact or

reality. There is no a single global economic system. There is no a mixture of culture
or such things as hybridization of culture. Those who are proponents of soft
globalization thesis used the term “hegemony’’ to show the tendency of
globalization. They believe that the level of interaction is actually escalated between
states and societies. They preferred to use the term “internationalization’’ to describe
the trend. Internationalization refers to the linkages between separate sovereign
states and societies. The uneven benefits of the previous international system still
exist. The old distinctions still applies (there is center-periphery). They also describe
that there are changes but they prefer to use triadization-three centers and these
centers have their own particular individual peripheries. These are for USA-Latin
American countries, for European Union-Eastern Europe and Balkans and North
Africa, for Japan-Fareast and south East Asia. Africa is marginalized in the
triadization of international system.
118
? What does hegemony mean? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
B. Hard Globalization Thesis: - The present phase in the evolution of international

economic system represented a radical rupture. The change at the international level
is not seen as an ideological construction. There are profound changes at the
political, economic and cultural levels. These changes transform the international
economic system and brought changes on important aspects of international
organizations. There is a great weakening of the Westphalia state; there is a cultural
hybridization and increasing integration of societies in spite of policies of state.
? Why the changes associated with globalization weakened the state? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Hard globalization thesis assumes that the economic changes associated with
globalization weakened the state. This process can not be reversed or halted. There is a
truly global economy characterized by international transaction of capital, production
changes which are indeed international. Capital is completely denationalized. It is utterly
mobile across borders.
4.1.3 Aspects of Globalization
119
? What are the different aspects of globalization? (You can use the space provided
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Globalization in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional

phenomena into global ones. It can be described as a process by which the people of the
world are unified into a single society and function together. This process is a
combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural and political forces. The
phenomenon of globalization has different aspects. The following are some these
aspects.
A. Economic Globalization
? What does economic globalization constitute? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Globalization is often used to refer to economic globalization, that is, integration of
national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct
investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology. Economic
globalization appeared as an extension of the world capitalist liberalization which seeks
to enable strong capital to achieve utmost benefits through liberalizing trade and
establishing free competition in trade exchanges. This is the system of free economy
which is based on opening markets to capital able to conquer them. In other words this is
120
the market economy. The word globalization is also used, in a doctrinal sense, to describe
the neo-liberal form of economic globalization.
Economic globalization thrived with the beginning of the 1990’s as a result of a well-
organized interdependence between the world capital and the goods and services
markets. The global economy is primarily shaped by relations between the three key
groupings (usually referred to as triads) of North America, Western Europe, and East
Asia. Major international organizations are also facilitating and managing this
interdependence. Among these, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and
the World Trade Organization (WTO) are very prominent.
? How WTO does influences economic globalization? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT now the WTO, contribute to
globalization in several important ways. The WTO has four key objectives: to set and
enforce rules for international trade, to provide a forum within which to negotiate and
monitor trade liberalization, to improve policy transparency, and to resolve trade
disputes.
The WTO is different from GATT in the sense that WTO is much more comprehensive
than the GATT. The GATT was highly confined or restricted to manufacture products
and it excluded textile and clothing. But the WTO incorporates all goods subsuming
sensitive farm products, services, capital to some extent, and ideas or intellectual
property. Before the formation of WTO, the Secretariat of GATT was transient, but under
WTO, it become permanent with greatly strengthened trade policy review and dispute
settlement mechanisms. In order to achieve greater coherence in global economic policy
making the WTO started working in collaboration with the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and World Bank.
121
The provisions and covenants of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in particular
came to confirm the principles of free competition of capital and the gradual lowering of
barriers hampering the free movement of capital and their flow onto markets. The WTO
principles and covenants also confirmed the freedom of movement of national products
in the world markets. Goods and services, made in a local or national market, are
distributed and consumed in an international space, regardless of their origin. In this
way national economies are gradually integrated into the world market part of what is
called global economic openness.
? What are the purposes of WTO in the international trade? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
WTO rules to govern international trade serve at least three purposes. First, they protect
the welfare of small and weak nations against discriminatory trade policy action of large
and powerful nations. All members will be given the same condition of access to a
particular country’s market as the most favored member, and all foreign supplier will be
treated the same as domestic suppliers. These rules lower the risks that are associated
with a nation’s producers and consumers becoming more dependent on foreigners-risks
that other wise could be used by country as an excuse for not fully opening its borders.
Second, large economies have the potential of exploiting their monopoly power by taxing
their trade. Members are expected to limit trade only with tariffs and are obligated to
continue to provide market access never less favorable than that agreed to in their tariff
schedules. This also brings to international trading system the preparedness of countries
to become more interdependent and of business people to invest more. Thirdly, the rules
provide or help governments prevent from harming domestic interest groups, which are
seeking special favors.
122
? How does economic globalization affect states’ role in domestic economies? (You
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
No need to say that economic globalization requires states (or the public sector) to give
up their role in favor of the national or foreign private sector. It equally requires the
nation-state to implement a policy of the public sector privatization, to lift hurdles on
this privatization policy until the public sector is deprived of all its previous
prerogatives that used to entitle the nation-state to playing the leading and major role in
running the national economy. All this is done in favor of the private sector which has
become an actor in the fields of employment, health, education, and environment
protection, the management of some utilities like water and electricity distribution and
national firms.
? What does financial globalization? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Globalization also involves financial integration. The global financial order is now
virtually universal in its reach. This is the most striking aspect of globalization in the
sense that the integration of financial markets has been made possible by modern
electronic communication. The shaping of globalization is being dominated by the
financial dimension. Even the economic dimension was less important than the financial
one. This is facilitated and shaped by world financial institutions like International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank. The financial integration makes a very fertile
ground for the economic integration.
123
B. Information Globalization
? What is the role of information in the period of globalization? (You can use the
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Globalization of information is materialized through the globalization of

telecommunications and communication, i.e. new information technologies, which are
the communication networks and satellite TV channels which convey information
across the planet, making the world a small village. Humankind now lives in a world
without borders where humans share each other’s happiness and sadness in real time
and have a clear image everyday of their fellow human beings everywhere. The Internet
today plays a key role in this regard. Globalization of information benefits only a
minority of people who are able to acquire this technology. This is enabling the
strongest and the fittest to win its challenge. This is why some are calling globalization
social Darwinism.
C. Globalization of Science
? What is the role of science in globalized world? (You can use the space provided
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The greatness of states is no longer measured by their geographical size, their military
influence, or their possession of advanced armament. It is rather evaluated by state’s
ability to control and draw benefits from economic networks, monitor information and
communication channels and possess scientific research and invention capabilities.
124
Technological development was instrumental in the globalization of science, resulting in
the unification of scientific data and rules. These capabilities are available to three
groups of nations: North America, and on top of it the United States of America, the
European Union and Japan.
D. Cultural Globalization
? What is cultural globalization? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The globalization of economy, politics, systems of government, information and

technology inevitably leads to the globalization of culture, as a unified pattern of thinking
enshrined in the minds by TV channels, movies and ads which are presented as a means
of modern education. Most of this globalization message is conveyed in the English
language. It would be enough to know that the predominant language is English which
globalization seems to impose as the language of the world. Some 88 percent of data
available on the Internet, for example is in the English language. Most of today’s culture
consists of contents broadcast by the information networks, including values and ethics,
which are the mere values and ethics of those controlling and monopolizing these
networks.
4.1.4 Impacts of Globalization
125
? What impacts do you identify in the phenomenon of globalization? (You can use the
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The impacts of globalization are areas of debate among scholars. But this phenomenon
is becoming not a mere choice that can be accepted or rejected. It is rather an
inevitability of the new world order. Globalization has its own opportunities and
challenges for Third World countries like Ethiopia. The question is how to use the
opportunity created by globalization and how to minimize its risks/challenges.
Globalization offers extensive opportunities for truly worldwide development. The

opening up of world market for the products of Third World countries can be taken as
one opportunity. The expansion of investment flows toward these countries is also
increasing. But these opportunities are not progressing evenly across the world. Some
countries are becoming integrated into the global economy more quickly that others.
Countries that have been able to integrate are seeing faster growth and reduced poverty.
Globalization, for example has helped reduce poverty in a large number of developing
countries. Rapid growth and poverty reduction in China, India, and other countries that
were poor 20 years ago for instance, has been a positive aspect of globalization. So it is
up to these poor countries to utilize all these opportunities for their economic
development by making appropriate economic policies that can enable them to quickly
integrate into the global economic system.
The tremendous development of new information and communication technology has

also helped bring the various parts of the world closer and disseminate knowledge
particularly through the Internet which created a new and open world, a world with
unified feelings and with increasingly closer cultures and interacting civilizations.
Although globalization is an imminent current phenomenon, some criticize the

contemporary globalization of trade and finance as a major cause of unemployment, a
126
global decline in working standards, increased inequality, greater poverty for some,
recurrent financial crisis, and large scale environmental degradation. The gaps between
rich and poor states, and rich and poor people within countries have grown. Poverty
levels are now increasing and inflation became the norm of the majority of poor
countries. Other believe that globalization is an excessive hegemony of capitalism, as it
enriches the rich and impoverishes the poor countries, while some of them head steadily
towards more backwardness. Such a situation only plunges the majority of the world’s
population into yet more exclusion and marginalization.
Activity
1. What is the difference between universalism, internationalization and

globalization? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
127
2. Which aspect of globalization is currently more visible in our country? Why?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. What issues can be taken as opportunities of globalization for poor countries like
Ethiopia? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Is it possible and affordable for states like Ethiopia to be out side of the current
wave of globalization? If no why? If yes how? (You can use the space provided below
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Why do countries need the WTO to negotiate free trade? (You can use the space
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Section Two: Environmental Issues
Overview
128
Dear learners! This is section two of the unit. In this section issues of environments are
discussed. It also tries to highlight some of the international responses of global
environmental change. This particular section is divided in three sub-sections. The first
sub-section tries to identify and describe the major environmental problems by defining
environmental degradation. Responses to these environmental problems are briefly
highlighted in second sub-section. The third section focuses on the greenhouse effect and
its impact in global warming.
Objective

 Identify major environmental problems of the day
 Describe these problem in relation to you locality
 Discuss the responses given to these environmental problems
 Describe the causes of global warming
4.2.1 Environmental Problems
? What is a global environment? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The concept of global environment partly refers to the natural surroundings of the earth
including the dry land mass, water bodies, and the atmosphere. All these spheres exist in
129
an inter-connected and interdependent way. Environmental issues emerge in the late 20 th
Century as a major focus of international concern and activity. Since the late 1960’s,
awareness of the risks and implications of a wide range of international environmental
problems has increased greatly. Since then, it has become clear that most of the world
seas and oceans are over fished and soil is being degraded and eroded on large scale.
There are several reasons why the environment can be said to have became a global issue.
Some of these are:-
 Some environmental problems are global by nature.

 Some problems related to the exploitation of global commons: these are resources
shared by all members of the international community, such as the oceans, deep-
sea bed, atmosphere, Antarctica and outer space. The global commons are not
under the control of any state but they are essentials to the human welfare.
 Many environmental problems are transnational, in that by their nature they cross
state boundaries, even if they are not entirely global.
 Many processes of over-exploitation or environmental degradation are relatively
local or national in scale and yet they are experienced in such a large number of
localities around the world that they can be considered to be global problems.
? What are the major environmental problems of today? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Environmental problems are not new. Human societies for long had a major impact on
their environment. Their tendency to exploit it as if it were an inexhaustible resource has
repeatedly led to disaster. Natural habitats are being destroyed and pollution problem are
omnipresent. Acid rain, ozone layer depletion, and climatic change are major regional
and global environmental problems arising from atmospheric pollution. Sever
130
environmental damage and unsustainable exploitation of the planet’s natural resources
occurred over the whole regions of the world.
? What is environmental degradation? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Environmental degradation is the damage to the biosphere as a whole due to human

activity. It occurs when nature’s resources (such as trees, habitat, earth, water and air) are
being consumed faster that nature can replenish them, when pollution results in
irreparable damage done to the environment or when human beings destroy or damage
the ecosystem in the process of development.
? What are the different forms of environmental degradation? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Environmental damage can take different forms including, but not limited to,
desertification, deforestation, extinction, and radioactivity. Some of the major causes of
such degradation include overpopulation, over fishing, urban sprawl, industrial pollution,
waste dumping, intensive farming, industrialization and lack of environmental
regulations.
131
? What are the causes of environmental damage? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Environmental damage is caused by three closely intertwined variables. These are the
size and growth of human population, economic growth, and the effects of technological
developments. As the population grows, in size, the economy must expand to
accommodate more people who need job, housing, clothes and so on. As the economy
expands, technology also evolves, sometimes adversely affecting the environment and
other times helping to save resources.
Many environmental problems are intrinsically transnational in that by their nature they
cross state boundaries. For example, emissions of sulfur dioxide by one state will be
carried by wind and deposited as acid rain on downwind countries. With environmental
deterioration, human conflicts will almost surely intensify as a result of growing scarcity
of resources. Scarcity, of course intensifies the competition over who gets what, when
and how.
The environment is a relatively new issue, having received substantial attention by policy
makers and the public for little more than a quarter century. While some specific
ecological problems readdressed considerably earlier, they were not viewed as part of a
much larger crisis in the relationship between a rapidly growing and industrializing world
population and the natural order upon which it depends for its survival. Some of the
major environmental problems include:
132
? What are the major environmental problems? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
A- Despoiling the land- The earth is spoiled by both natural and social phenomena.
Human beings for their short-term purpose spoil the beauty of the earth. These
activities include oil drilling, clearing of trees and forests, building high ways,
overgrazing, and dumping garbage.
B- Radioactive wastes - The nuclear power plants produce radioactive wastes, and
disposing of it is a major problem. It can cause death, cancer and birth deformities.
C- Solid wastes- They are ugly, unpleasant and odorous. They pollute water that
circulates through them and provide breeding grounds for rats and other noxious
pests.
D- Air pollution- It is more prevalent and severe in large and densely populated
industrial centers. It is a health hazard.
E- Acid rain -Acid rain has damaged timber and is killing fish in lakes and streams.
F- General pollutants- These include lead, mercury, DDT, and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
G- Depleted mineral resources- Essential elements such as copper, zinc, iron, and
manganese are becoming less plentiful.
4.2.2 Responses to Environmental Degradation
133
? What are the responses of the global environmental damage? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The world’s environment, the surrounding physical condition of the globe, has helped
crystallize the idea that humanity has a common, interdependent future more that
anything else. Fearing that an over exploitation of the earth’s resources will cause an
environmental collapse, a world wide environmental movement now urges humankind to
find ways to live in balance with the natural environment. These movements reached
their high mark with the UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992
(Earth Summit) held in Brazil’s capital city, Rio de Janeiro. This conference was attended
by 150 state delegations, 137 head of states and 1400 NGO’s, 8000 journalists for the
purpose of providing for a sustainable future. The Earth Summit did set environmental
principles that states would observe in their action and decision.
? Do such international summits stop environmental deteriorations? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Not necessary! Despite the fact that the world’s physical environment continues to
deteriorate from time to time, there is no international consensus of opinion of a
concerted plan of action by states of the world. The planet’s life support system is being
destroyed mainly due to human action. The depletion of the ozone layer, and the
subsequent global warming (increasing of temperature) is becoming very dangerous even
for the survival of humankind.
134
? What is an international environmental regime? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
With the recognition that there is an environmental degradation which is leading to global
climatic change, in practice, most of the international politics responding to global
environmental problems has been focused around the developments, implementations and
effectiveness of international environmental regimes. In this context, an international
environmental regime is an international agreement or social institution with agreed up
on principles, norms, rules, decision making procedures and programs that govern the
activities and shape expectations of actors in a specific environmental issue area.
? What is an intergenerational equity? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
International concerns for environment are now becoming one major areas of cooperation
among states of the world. Rich and poor states are working more closely together
because they must have a healthy, sustainable environment for their peoples to survive
and to live well. States are now joined by IGO’s and INGO’s as non-state actors in the
pursuit of a healthy environmental future. There is also an international recognition that
there must be an inter-generational equity; meaning each generation inherits the natural
environment from the previous generation and then holds it in moral trust for the next
generation.
135
? Do all states impose similar costs in and get similar benefits on the environment?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Absolutely not! States impose varying costs on the environment, receive different
benefits and reflect a wide range of environmental commitments. States have been
signing different protocols to protect the environment. Nevertheless, because of the
varying costs states impose in the environment and the varying benefits states derive
from the environment, it has become difficult to reach a solid agreement among states on
environmental issues. The Montreal Protocol for the protection of the Ozone Layer
(1987) calling for restricting greenhouse waste gases to 1990 levels by the year 200 is
one example of these protocols. However, this protocol was not put into force by large
industrialized countries like the United States.
The Kyoto protocol (1997) involved more stringent limits on most developed countries’
greenhouse emissions. The European Union, USA and Japan committed themselves to
reduce their annual greenhouse gas emissions to 8, 7, and 6 per cent respectively by
2008-2012.
4.2.3 The Green House Effect and Global Warming
? What is greenhouse effect? What is its impact in the global warming? (You can
136
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
In the 1980’s there was a high temperature record in the world. That situation initiate rife
popular interest in global warming and its various ramifications. This alarming increase
of temperature also continues in the beginning of the 1990’s that has got the attention of
the media.
The increase in temperature is caused by the enhancement of the greenhouse effect. It is

presently accepted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have
been increasing from time to time. Among other things it is exacerbated by the increased
use of fossil fuels that in turn release a great deal of (carbon dioxide) CO 2, and the
persistence destruction of natural resource both by man and natural phenomena.
ChloroFloro Carbon gases (CFC’s) do have considerable impact in intensifying global
warming. The greenhouse effect is brought about by the ability of the atmosphere to be
selective in its response to different types of radiation. The atmosphere transmits solar
radiation, which is mainly short-wave energy from the ultraviolet end of the energy
spectrum allowing it to pass via unaltered to heat the earth’s surface. The energy
absorbed by the earth is radiated in to the atmosphere, but this terrestrial radiation is long
wave infrared, and instead of being transmitted it is absorbed, causing the temperature of
atmosphere to rise. Some of the energy observed in the atmosphere is returned to the
earth’s surface, causing its temperature to rise also.
Activities
137
1. Have you observed some environmental changes in you locality? How do you
explain these changes? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the impacts of environmental degradation in your day-to-day life? (You
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_-
________________________________________________________________________
3. Should poor countries like Ethiopia exploit the environment unsustainably for the
sake of economic development and for reducing poverty? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. What type of measure do you think should be taken to protect the environment?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
138
Section Three: Terrorism
Overview
Dear learners! This is the third section of the unit. It is about terrorism and the different
form of terrorism. It also highlights the different categories of terrorist victims.
Objectives
Upon successful completion of this particular section, you are expected to:
 Describe terrorism
 Identify the difficulties in defining terrorism
 Identify the different forms of terrorism
 Identify the different categories of terrorist victims.
4.3.1 Understanding Terrorism
? What is terrorism in your understanding? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Terrorism is a very abusive term to be defined. There is no universally agreed definition

of the term. Even the United Nations has never been able to define terrorism though
several times the world organization has condemned it in the abstract or specific acts of
it. A definition of terrorism has become critical sine the United States became engaged in
the global war on terrorism after the organization called al Qaeda made an attack on the
twin towers of the world Trade Center in New York City and on Washington D.C. The
question has become: just what is it that USA fighting against? President George Bush’s
139
post September 11, 2001 declaration of war on terrorism was followed by a rash of
similar labeling worldwide, as states jumped on the bandwagon, and sought to tar their
enemies with the terrorist brush.
This has been attested by the fact that many countries have begun to use terrorism as an
excuse to suppress the legitimate expressions of grievances and to justify the oppression
of the minorities. China and Russia, for example use the preoccupation of terrorism to
deal with their minority problems. China does this in dealing with in dealing with
Muslims in Xinjiang province who seek independence, which China made an allegation
that this organization operating in Xinjiang province have been trained and financed by
Osama bin laden and the Taliban. Russia applies it in Chechnya. Israel uses the issue of
terrorism to justify its actions against the Palestinian Hamas. This shows that the
definition of terrorism is political. It is difficult to define terrorism as one man’s terrorist
is another man’s freedom fighter.
? What is terrorism in your understanding? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Despite the difficulty to understand terrorism and terrorist groups, terrorism consists of
deliberate acts of a physical and /or psychological nature perpetrated on select groups of
victims. Its intent is to mold the thinking and behavior not only of these targeted groups,
but more importantly, larger sections of society that identify or share the views and
aspirations of the targeted groups or who might easily led to do so. The intent of terrorists
is to intimidate or coerce both groups by causing them intense fear, anxiety,
apprehension, panic, dread, and/or horror. Obviously, the groups that have been directly
targeted experience these emotions to a much higher degree than the larger section of the
society that the terrorism is also intended to intimidate and coerce. The overall purpose of
140
terrorism is to intimidate and coerce, not to eliminate a group physically or socially. The
latter is called genocide.
Terrorism is a violation of human rights, but the reverse is not always true. Burning
people is both an act of terrorism and a violation of human rights, but denying one the
right of freedom of speech is a violation of human rights, not an act of terrorism.
Terrorism is a serious threat to world stability. Terrorism is similar to traditional warfare
in that it kills or seriously disables many people, including innocent civilians. It wastes
both human energy and money, destabilizes economies and governments, and interferes
with efforts to resolve social problems.
? What is the difference between terrorism and war? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
In contrast to war, which is overt, terrorism is covert. It seeks to influence the masses
through fears and coercion. Common terrorist acts include the kidnapping or
assassination of politicians and business leaders, airline hijackings, blackmail, bombings,
fire-starting, and the taking of hostages.
? What are the different forms of terrorism? (You can use the space provided below to
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Terrorist acts have rapidly increased in frequency in this century. Many terrorist acts can
be classified as either revolutionary or repressive. Revolutionary terrorism is used by
groups seeking to bring about major political changes in a particular government. In
141
contrast, repressive terrorism has the goal of protecting an existing political order.
Terrorist acts by government officials are usually done to quiet dissidents and to serve as
a warning to the masses not to publicly express opposition to the government.
Adolph Hitler’s Nazi regime sent large numbers of civilians, (most of whom were Jews)
to concentration camps, where an estimated six million Jews were exterminated. Mao
Tse-Tung of China, Joseph Stalin of Russia and Idi Amin of Uganda imprisoned and
executed hundreds of thousands of dissident. Since the end of World War II, the most
extreme example of repressive terrorism occurred in Cambodia. In the mid-1970s
Cambodia’s government killed about two million of its citizens in less than four years.
This phenomenon was very common in many Latin American countries.
? What is the most common form of terrorism? (You can use the space provided below
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The most common form of terrorism is revolutionary terrorism. Some revolutionary

groups believe that periodic terrorist acts will create such chaos that the government they
oppose will either meet their demands or fall. Some groups hope that, their acts of
violence will make the public aware of their cause, enabling them to build popular
support and to recruit more members. Sophisticated terrorists openly seek media attention
by granting special interviews or releasing prepared statements to the press. Some
revolutionary terrorists receive the help of foreign governments that support their goals
and objectives.
It is true that most revolutionary terrorist recruits are young, well educated, and have
middle or upper middle class background. They want to save the world, even if their
vision of what the world should be is changed to their own inflexible beliefs, which
justify whatever methods they employ. As a result, the lives of innocent victims are often
sacrificed. Revolutionary terrorists seek to punish society for its shortcomings and to
142
intimidate the masses in to accepting their demands. Victims are often considered as
being responsible and accountable for society’s wrongs and there fore generally given
little attention.
? What are the victims of terrorism? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Victims perhaps are categorized in two types: Random victims and Selective victims.
Random victims are those who find themselves in the wrong place at the wrong time.
Selected victims are chosen because of their prominence. The specific beliefs and goals
of revolutionary terrorists are sometimes only vaguely understood. Some terrorists use
violent acts to gain publicity for their causes, to demonstrate their ability to avoid arrest
and prosecution and to encourage others who are discontented with the government to
join with them to create a revolution. Some terrorists seek to start a revolutionary war to
overturn the government.
Many terrorists unaffiliated with a recognized government agree with radical Marxist
theory that armed revolution by the exploited working classes is the only way to achieve
significant political change. Although only a minority of terrorists hopes to setup a
communist state, most believe in the necessity of armed revolution. Revolutionary
terrorist groups are generally not isolated factions. Although they vary in their goals and
beliefs, there is evidence of substantial cooperation and mutual protection by divergent
groups. Many revolutionary terrorist organizations finance their activities through illegal
activities such as forgery, bank robbery, and kidnapping and ransom.
Activity 3
143
1. Can you mention any terrorist act done upon civilians and the governments of
Ethiopian? (You can use the space provided below to write your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What sort of difference can you identify between terrorism and violence? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Is the global war on terrorism that is led by the United States justifiable? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Section Four: Rapid Population Growth and Over Population
Overview
Dear learners! This is the last section of the unit on contemporary global issues. This
section discusses rapid population growth and over population. It is divided in two sub-
sections. The first sub-section examines the rapid population growth and its effects on
multifaceted issues. The issue of overpopulation is a major topic of discussion for sub-
section two.
Objectives
144
After completing this particular section, you will be able to:
 Describe overpopulation
 Identify the major consequences of overpopulation on multifaceted issues
4.4.1 Growth of Global Population and its problems
? What is population explosion? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
While the term population means the total number of people living in a country, global
population, on the other hand, indicates the total population of the world. Since the early
19th Century, the trend of population growth has reached unprecedented proportions.
Indeed, the global growth rate of population is quickly doubling itself in a relatively short
period of time. This rapid growth rate, sometimes referred to as “population explosion” is
increasingly becoming a problem to development. The rapid growth of the population of
the world is uneven or unbalanced in different parts of the world.
? What are the consequences of population explosion? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
The problem of population growth is not simply a problem of increasing numbers of

people. Rapid and unbalanced population growth is linked with the issues of shortage of
145
food supplies, environmental problems, pressure on global resources, problems of human
welfare and distribution of service, lower in income and less employment opportunities.
? What is population doubling time? (You can use the space provided below to write
your response.)
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Doubling time is based on the extent to which the birth rate exceeds the death rate.
Doubling times have a compound effect. Just as dollars earn interest, people added to the
population produce more people. The countries experiencing the most severe doubling
time problems are the ‘developing countries’ (also called the Third World nations).
People in the developing countries are hungry; many are starving. They tend to have
primitive and inefficient agriculture, small gross national products, and high illiteracy
rates. The majority of the population spends most of its time attempting to meet basic
subsistence needs.
Third World countries are characterized by high birth rates and declining death rates. The
result is a rapid population growth rate. Developing countries, unfortunately, where living
conditions most need improvement, are exactly the countries whose populations are
increasing so rapidly that most people are scarcely better off than they were a generation
ago. Developing countries more than the developed countries are most likely to have a
population explosion.
? What is the vicious circle involved in high population growth? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
146
The problem of population increase in the world presently is not related to families
having more children than they did in the past, but more people are living to the age of
fertility and beyond. That is, more babies are growing to maturity to produce babies
themselves. There is a vicious circle involving rapid population growth and poverty.
Rapid population growth places an increasing strain on a nation’s ability to feed and cloth
its growing masses. Thus, rapid population growth strains resources, which leads to
poverty. Poverty, in turn, leads to a high birth rate, which leads to further population
growth.
Developed countries are featured by low birth rates and low death rates. In many
developing countries, families have an average of seven or eight children. As a result,
these developing countries are increasingly populated by the young. In Latin America
and Asia, nearly 40 percent of the population is under fifteen years old. One result of this
younger age population is that developing countries are much more apt to have a
population explosion.
4.4.2 Problems of over Population
? What are the problems of over population growth? (You can use the space provided
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
The former World Bank president Robert S. McNamara warns “short of thermonuclear
war itself, rampant population growth is the gravest issue the world faces over the
decades ahead’’. Many problems which are pervasively found in the developing world
specially are highly associated with over population. Among these problems:
A. Too Little Food -The majority of people presently are undernourished that is,
slowly starving and another bulky number is malnourished. In developing
147
countries, over population leads to malnutrition of inhabitants. Malnutrition has
severe effects on the body and the mind. It causes brain damage and mental
retardation, stunts physical growth, and reduces the life span.
Thomas Malthus theorized that population will grow geometrically if left unchecked and
the food supply will increase arithmetically. Therefore, according to him, population
growth overtakes the growth in food supplies. Thus, either population would have to be
controlled by society or starvation, hunger or poverty would be the unavoidable fate of
most of the world’s people.
B. Too Little Water – Not surprisingly, fresh water is also in short supply in the
world. 97 percent of the world’s water is salt water, only 3 percent is fresh water.
Developed nations are using substantially more water per person than developing
nations. Water is also needed in large quantities to produce food. If irrigation
efforts are expanded in the world to grow food, fresh water resources will
obviously be depleted at a faster rate. Therefore, what can be said about water is
that even if it is believed that there is abundant water resource, there is
insufficient or too little water to produce food.
? What is the relation between high population growth and water resources? (You can
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Water is an essential ingredient to life on earth. With the explosive growth in the world
population and rapidly increasing economic activities, demand for water has already
outstripped supply in many areas. This has led to critical water management problems
and in some areas, to potential sources of severe conflict. These global water supply
problems have been intensified in many areas by increasing levels of water pollution.
148
? Is water an unlimited resource? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Absolutely no! Some scholars underline that though water is a renewable resource, it is
also a finite one that is expected to grow scarce, thus threatening to become a major
source of economic and political instability in world politics. Water not only crosses
easily across political boundaries, it also offers upstream countries a distinct advantage
over downstream neighbors.
As human numbers increase, and more water is needed to supply farms, factories, and
house holds, nature’s water bodies are becoming over taxed. And as competition
escalates for more limited supplies, international friction over water is worsening.
? What is the impact of high population growth on economic well-being of societies?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
C. Economic problems-In very advanced developed countries, rapid population

growth diminishes the standard of living and the quality of life as rapid
population growth reduces the average per capita income. Among the lower-
income groups birth rates are persistently higher, besides there are social and
economic constrains. It also leads to a reduction in average educational
achievements. Besides the above strains insufficient jobs, air and water pollution,
traffic jams, inadequate housing could exacerbate the situations.
149
More than the developed countries, economic problems are more serious and very
threatening in developing countries. Economic growth in these countries is out weighed
by population growth. Moreover, people who are poorly housed, hungry and miserably
clothed considered themselves as if they are mistreated by their governments. This might
lead to political unrest and civil wars. This is more of true in Asia, Africa and Latin
America countries. The economic gap between the Third World and developed countries
is wide.
? Can high population growth be a root cause of terrorism? (You can use the space
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
D. International Terrorism-In developing countries civil unrest, violence and
international strife are the consequences of rapid population growth. It is true that
population growth exacerbates poverty and feelings of hopelessness. Definitely,
over population leads to higher unemployment, rapid urbanization, declining
public health, environmental degradation, economic stagnation, and a large youth
population. The young people in the Third World see violence and terrorism as
the only avenue for themselves and others in their country to achieve a better life.
? What is overcrowding? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
E. Overcrowding-It is a person’s subjective judgment that he or she has insufficient
space. Overcrowding leads to crime, emotional problems, incest, child abuse,
suicide, violence, dirty streets, and polluted air.
F. Immigration problem-Immigration is also the consequence of over population.
Immigration means to come in to a country of which one is not a native for
150
permanent resident. Obviously, throughout the world people living in poor
nations have a dream of moving to other opulent states. It has resulted in ethnic
and racial conflict, exploitation of illegal aliens, competition among different
nationality groups for a “piece of the pie” and the stresses and costs associated
with educating and caring for new arrivals.
Activity 4
1. Why do think that developed countries have decided to have fewer children? (You
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Can you outline the possible relationship between global population growth and
environmental problems? (You can use the space provided below to write your
response.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. What do you understand by the term “burden of dependency”? (You can use the
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Checklist
151
I can
1. Define globalization
2. Identify the different aspects of globalization
3. Describe the two globalization theses
4. Describe terrorism
5. Define environmental damage
6. Identify environmental problems
7. Identify the major impacts associated with high population growth
Self-test Exercises
Part one: True or False items.
1. The concern of international relations is more of domestic affairs.

2. The issue of environment has becoming the most burning issue in the twentieth
century.
3. The IMF and World Bank have the same functions.
152
4. The foreign policy objective of Ethiopia is maintaining the national interest of the
people.
Part Two: Multiple Choices.
1. International relations is s totality of relations. It means

A. political
B. Economic
C. Legal
D. All of the above
2. Identify an element that is not the main objective of foreign policy.
A. Maintaining world order
B. Promoting national interest
C. Promoting economic interest
D. None of the above
3. The core interests of a country like security and survival are:

a. Primary interests
b. Permanent interests
c. Secondary interests
d. Variable interests
4. Globalization subsumes all of the following except:

a. Changes in material aspects
b. Changes around compression of space and time
c. Changes at the cultural and psychological level
d. None of the above
5. Which continent is marginalized in the triadization of international system?

A. Africa B. Asia C. Latin America D. North America
153
6. Who theorized that population will grow geometrically if left unchecked and the
food supply will increase arithmetically?
a. Max Weber
b. Thomas Malthus
c. McNamara
d. K. Mathew.
Part Three: Matching
“A” “B”
1. Uni polar system A) Two dominant power
2. Promote private sector B) World Bank
investment C) International Financial
3. No single global economy cooperation (IFC)
4. Over population D) Hard global thesis
5. Influence the masses through E) Soft Global thesis
fears and coercion. F) Results in economic
problems i-e too little
food, water etc.
G) Diplomacy
H) One dominate power
I) Terrorism
154
Part four: Fill in the blank spaces
1. describe all as pacts of relations between

countries.
2. A level analysis that argues in the end people will make the policy is____________.
3. The sum total of the goals and objectives of state’s foreign policy is called _________
4. globalization thesis assumes that the economic
changes associated with globalization weakened the state.
5. The Rio summit on environment and Development was held in_________________.
Part five: Discuss
1. Mention some of the contemporary global issues.

2. Mention the foreign policy objectives of Ethiopia.
3. Why HIV/AIDS and terrorism become global issues?
155
References for Further Reading
1. Baylis, John and Smith Steve

1997 The Globalization of world politics – An introduction to
International Relations. Oxford University Press.
2. Chales, O. Lerche Jr. Abdul Aziz Said
1979 Concepts of International politics in Global perspective.
Third edition. New Jersey: Engel wood cliffs.
3. Gareau, Frederick H.
2004 State Terrorism and the United States: From Counter-insurgency to
the War on Terrorism. Zed Books. Atlanta: Clarity Press, Inc.
4. Gupta, Avijit and Mukul G. Asher
1998 Environment and Developing world: Principles, policies, and
Management. New York: Baffin’s Lane, Chi Chester.
5. Henderson, Conway W.
1998 International Relations: Conflict and Cooperation at the Turn of
the 21st Century. Boston: McGraw Hill.
6. Kegley, W Charles, Jr and Eugene R. Witt Kopf
1995 The Global Agenda: Issues and Perspectives. Fourth Edition. USA:
McGrow Hill Inc.
7. Naik, J.A.
1995 A Text Book of International Relations. Second edition. India:
MacMilan India ltd.
8. Oslon, W. Clinton
1994 The Theory and Practice of International Relations. Ninth edition.
New Jersey: prentice Hall, Engle wood cliffs.
9. Purkitt, Helen
2001 World Politics. Twenty fifth edition. Dushkin: McGraw Hill.
10. Rourke, Jhon T. and Mark A. Boyer
1998 World Politics: International Politics on the world stage, brief.
Dushkin: McGraw Hill.
156
11. Roskin, G. Michael (et al). (Eds.)
1994 Political science: An Introduction. Fifth edition. New Jersey:
PRENTICEHALL, Engle wood cliffs
12. Shively, W. Phillips
1990 Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. Boston:
McGraw Hill.
13. የኢትዮጵያ ፌደራላዊ ዲሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ የዉጭ ጉዳይና የደህንነት ፖሊሲና ስትራቴጂ፡፡ ህዳር 1995
ዓ.ም፡ አዲስ አበባ፡፡ አሳታሚ በማስታዎቂያ ሚኒስተር ፕሬስና ኦዲዮ ቪዥዋል መምሪያ፡፡
157

IR Module 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IR Module 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course Introduction

The module is accompanied by activities, self-check exercises questions and check-lists

UNDERSTANDING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

After completing this particular unit, you will be able to:

Relations and the International System

Up on successfully completion of this section, you will be able to:

1.1 Historical Development and Scope of International Relations as a

1.2 Historical Evolution of the International System

? Why the International system became Euro-centric up until the 20 th

Having contradictory ideologies (US capitalism and Soviet Communism), both

Up on the completion of this particular section, you are expected to:

Up on successful completion of this section, you will be able to:

1.1 System Level Analysis

 Are the states of the world interacting with growing interdependence?

System level analysis adopted essentially a “top-down” approach to study international

Systemic Level Concepts

Polarity in international relations refers to the arrangement of power within the

Many advocate that the current international system is characterized by growing

Systemic tools of International Relations

State level concepts

1.3 Individual Level Analysis

This level of analysis invites questions of all sorts such as:

Individual level of analysis focuses on the characteristics of individuals who make

Individual level concepts

Up on successful completion of this section, you will be able to:

An international political Actor is an individual or a group that seeks to achieve goals

4.1 State Actors

States are considered as the primary actors in international relations. According to

 Country refers to a geographical area

International relations theorists have traditionally posited the existence of an international

4.2 Non-state Actors

4.2.1 Sub-state Actors

B. Cities (Local Governments)

? Which type of individuals can play an important role in international relations?

Example: Desmond Tutu- as a black churchman, Archbishop Desmond Tutu’s brave

An international organization is an institution with membership drawn from two or more

A. Public International organizations: are international governmental organizations

B. Private international organizations: are international non-governmental

Multifunctional international organizations are those international organizations (may be

? Does the existence of global and regional international organizations necessarily

The presence of international organizations in the world is a measure of the progress

The primary purpose of an Operational NGO is the design and implementation of

The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause. As

4.2.3 Transnational Actors

A multinational corporation (MNC) or multinational enterprise (MNE) or transnational

 they have foreign affiliates or subsidiaries in foreign countries

 they operate in a wide variety of countries around the globe

 Horizontally integrated multinational corporations manage production

 MNC’s tend to be mobile and flexible.

Multinational corporations can nevertheless have a powerful influence in international

2. How International Organizations play a role in international relations? (You can

CONTENDING THEORIES ON THE STUDY OF

Up on successfully completing this unit, you are expected to:

 Identify the major classical theories of international relations

After completing this section, you are expected to:

 Identify the main propositions of idealism/liberalism

? What are the epistemological classifications of theories of international relations?

 There is a greater potential of cooperation among states, even if the international

 War and justice are international problems that require collective/multi-lateral

Woodrow Wilson is one of the famous proponents of liberalism/idealism. Following

ii) Self-determination of subjected people and nations should be encouraged, because if

iv) Strengthening international law and creating international organizations would be so

 Under such a condition, international politics is best to be explained in terms of

? What is the importance of power for realists in the anarchical international