Experimental Errors and Uncertainties

Any measurement performed in a laboratory is affected by experimental errors. These errors do not necessarily imply a
human mistake in taking the measurements. They likely result from limitations in instrumental and human measurement
capabilities.

Types of errors
1. Instrumental errors
Any measuring device can only be used to measure with a certain degree of fineness. For example you cannot measure
length to micrometer precision if you are using a ruler.
2. Systematic errors
These errors are caused by a mistake that does not change during the measurements, affecting all experimental data the
same. Examples: a poorly calibrated instrument or a systematically incorrect reading of an instrument scale.
3. Random errors
Oftentimes when you perform the same measurement multiple trials, you can get different results each time. These errors
are due to variations in the experimental technique/procedure, unpredictable fluctuations in the output of the measuring
instrument, etc. A typical example of random errors is the time measurement performed using a stop watch. For example,
you may repeat the same time measurement 3 times and get values of 1.634s, 1.711s and 1.552s. These values are not
unreasonable, given that a rough estimation of human reaction time is about 0.1s. In this case, the instrumental error is
irrelevant as compared to the errors induced by the reaction time.

Uncertainties
Errors are quantified by associating an uncertainty value (denoted Δ) with each measurement. For example, the best
estimate of a time is 2.4s, but due to uncertainty, the time might be as short as 2.3s or as large as 2.5s. In terms of
uncertainty, this can be expressed in two different ways:
1. Absolute uncertainty (expressed in the units of the quantity): 𝑡 ± ∆𝑡 = 2.4 ± 0.1𝑠

2. Relative (or percentage) uncertainty: 𝑡 ± ∆𝑡 = 2.4𝑠 ± (0.1⁄2.4)% = 2.4𝑠 ± 4%

Uncertainty values are not always easy to determine. One must keep in mind that a measurement may be affected by
more than one type of error (sometimes all three of them).
Considering now only instrumental errors:
 for scale instruments, the instrumental uncertainty is taken as half of the smallest increment of the instrument’s
scale (i.e. a ruler has a 0.5 mm associated uncertainty);
 for digital instruments, precision is usually given in the instrument specifications.

Statistical Analysis of Data Sets

Random errors can be detected by performing multiple trials and can be reduced by averaging over a large number of
measurements. Statistical analysis is suitable for evaluating random errors.
Say you want to measure quantity x. The measurement is repeated N times, so you have a set of 𝑥𝑖 values, where i varies
from 1 to N. The table below gives the definition of two very useful quantities in data analysis.
The average of all 𝑥𝑖 values; the best ∑𝑁
1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
Mean (𝒙𝒂𝒗𝒆 ) estimate of the actual quantity 𝑁

∑𝑁
1 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
2
Standard Deviation (σ) A measure of the variability of the data 𝜎=√
𝑁−1

𝝈
Standard Error (∆𝒙𝒂𝒗𝒆 ) Uncertainty of the mean value ∆𝒙𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
√𝑵

1
 Experimental Errors and Uncertainties

Propagation of Uncertainties
Often, the quantity of interest cannot be determined in a one-step measurement (for example, area of a rectangle using a
ruler). We combine several measurements, each with their associated uncertainties, into an equation. These uncertainties
propagate (are carried) into the uncertainty of the final answer.

Rules for propagation of uncertainties

Let 𝑧 be a quantity determined from combination of two direct measurements, 𝑥 ± ∆𝑥 and y±∆𝑦 . The uncertainty of z,
∆𝑧, depends on how the three quantities mathematically relate to each other.

𝝏𝒇 𝟐 𝝏𝒇 𝟐
In general, for any function of two variables, 𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚), the uncertainly is ∆𝒛 = √( ) (∆𝒙)𝟐 + ( ) (∆𝒚)𝟐 .
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Some of the most common cases, all derived from the general formula above, are shown in the table below.

Addition/Subtraction 𝑧 =𝑥±𝑦 ∆𝑧 = √(∆𝑥)2 + (∆𝑦)2

∆𝑥 2 ∆𝑦 2
Multiplication 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 ∆𝑧 = |𝑥𝑦|√( ) + ( )
𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥 ∆𝑥 2 ∆𝑦 2
Division 𝑧= √
𝑦 ∆𝑧 = | | ( ) + ( )
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
Power 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑛 ∆𝑧 = |𝑛|𝑥 𝑛−1 ∆𝑥
Multiplication by a constant 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑧 = |𝑎|∆𝑥
∆𝑥
𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥) ∆𝑧 =
𝑥
Logarithms 1 ∆𝑥
𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥)
∆𝑧 =
ln⁡(10) 𝑥

Examples of propagation of uncertainties

1. Addition
You need to measure the length of a table of roughly 30 cm and you have a 20 cm ruler available. Naturally, you need to
take two measurements. Your measurements are 20.00 cm and 8.50 cm, each of them having an uncertainly of ±0.05cm
(only considering the instrumental uncertainty of the ruler). Determine the length of the table, 𝐿 and its uncertainty, ∆𝐿.
𝐿 = 20.00𝑐𝑚 + 8.50𝑐𝑚 = 28.50𝑐𝑚
∆𝐿 = √0.052 + 0.052 = 0.07𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 28.50 ± 0.07𝑐𝑚
Note that the quantity and its uncertainty should be reported using the same units.

2. Division
An object travels a certain distance, d, with constant speed and you want to determine this speed, and its associated
uncertainty, from time and distance measurements.
You measure the time to be 𝑡 = 5.3 ± 0.2𝑠 and the distance 𝑑 = 2.355 ± 0.001𝑚.
𝑑 2.3550𝑚
𝑣= = ≈ 0.444 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑡 5.3𝑠
𝑑 ∆𝑑 2 ∆𝑡 2 0.001 2 0.2 2
∆𝑣 = | | √( ) + ( ) = 0.44 𝑚⁄𝑠 √( ) + ( ) ≈ 0.016 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑡 𝑑 𝑡 2.355 5.3
Considering the rules for rounding numbers, the final answer will be: 𝑣 = 0.44 ± 0.02 𝑚⁄𝑠