RACE AND ETHNICITY

The multi-dimensional nature of economic factors further complicates efforts to

understand how economic status shape academic and non-academic outcomes and
how this in turn contributes to racial/ethnic inequalities. It is generally agreed that
economic status consists of multiple interrelated factors that act at various scales
(individual, household, community) and exert their effects via a variety of mechanisms
(Braveman et al., 2010). In addition, it is well established that there is no equivalence
between measures of economic status across racial/ethnic groups (Braveman et al.,
2010), and that there is no interchangeability between measures of economic factors
within and between levels (such as income, education, occupation, wealth,
neighborhood economic and educational characteristics, or previous economic status).
For instance, studies have shown that even among groups of people of the same race
or ethnicity and the same economic status, there are significant differences in wealth. In
order to properly document racial/ethnic inequalities within different economic tiers and
to ensure that crucial social gradients across the entire socioeconomic spectrum are not
missed (Braveman et al., 2010), it is crucial that studies take into account these multiple
dimensions of economic factors. So that the impact of economic status on outcomes
within particular racial/ethnic groups can be studied, it is also crucial to account for
variations in school outcomes across varying degrees of socioeconomic status, both
within and between racial/ethnic groups (Williams et al., 2010). However, research that
operationalizes these recommendations across aca demic and non-academic outcomes
of school children is weak, even though these analytic approaches have been identified
as research priorities to improve our understanding of the complex ways in which
economic status and race/ethnicity intersect to influence school outcomes.
Understanding the within- and between-group differences in academic and non-
academic outcomes by race/ethnicity, economic status, and identity is an important
research area that may help explain observed inequalities, identify key population
groups, and determine where interventions should be focused to reduce inequalities
(Braveman et al., 2010, Bauer, 2014). Not only is this information crucial for population-
level policy and/or local-level action within affected communities, but it is also argued
that failing to detect potential factors for interventions and potential solutions reinforces
perceptions of the unchangeable nature of inequality and injustice (Bauer, 2014).
Despite this limitation, it is essential to note that racial as well as gender prejudices and
discrimination at both structural and individual levels drive economic inequality in the
United States, with racial and gender discrimination having a significant impact on both
academic and non-academic inequalities. Racial discrimination, which is common in the
United States and other industrialized nations (Priest et al., 2013), is a major factor in
creating racial and ethnic disparities in health and development that persist over the
course of a person's life and are passed down from generation to generation (Kelly,
Bécares, & Nazroo, 2013, Priest et al., 2013). This study's primary outcomes take place
in educational settings, where racism and racial discrimination experienced by both
parents and children are likely to contribute to explaining observed racial/ethnic
inequalities in outcomes among disadvantaged classes.

REFERRENCES

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Priest, N., Paradies, Y., Trenerry, B., Truong, M., Karlsen, S., & Kelly, Y. (2013). A
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health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine, 95,
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Kelly Y, Bécares L, Nazroo J. (2013) Associations between maternal experiences of

racism and early child health and development: Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort
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Braveman, P., Cubbin, C., Egerter, S., Williams, D., & Pamuk, E. (2010). Socioeconomic
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Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A., Leavell, J., & Collins, C. (2010). Race,
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