Logical symbolism and Sets

Tiko Javakhadze

December 9, 2020

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

Logical Symbolism

Along with the special symbols, which will be introduced as

needed, we use the common symbols of mathematical logic
¬, ∨, ∧, → and ↔ to denote respectively negation (not) and the
logical connectives and, or, implies, and is equivalent to.
We shall often give a different verbal expression to the notation
A → B which means that A implies B, or, what is the same, that
B follows from A, saying that B is necessary criterion or necessary
condition for A and A in turn is a sufficient condition or sufficient
criterion for B, so that the relation A ↔ B can be read in any of
the following ways:

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

 1 A is necessary and sufficient for B;
2 A holds when B holds, and only then;
3 A if and only if B;
4 A is equivalent to B.
Thus the notation A ↔ B means that A implies B and
simultaneously B implies A.
The use of the conjunction and in the expression A ∧ B requires no
explanation.
It should be pointed out, however, that in the expression A ∨ B the
conjunction or is not exclusive, that is, the statement A ∨ B is
regarded as true if at least one of the statements A and B is true.
For example, let x be a real number such that X 2 − 3X + 2 = 0
Then we can write that the following relation holds:

X 2 − 3X + 2 = 0 ↔ X = 1 ∨ x = 2

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

Proofs on Remarks

A typical mathematical proposition has the form A → B, A is the

assumption and Bthe conclusion. The proof of such a proposition
consists of constructing a chain A → C1 → · · · → Cn → B of
implications, each element of which is either an axiom or a
previously proved proposition.
In proofs we shall adhere to the classical rule of inference: if A is
true and A → B, then B is also true.
In proof by contradiction we shall also use the law of excluded
middle, by virtue of which the statement A ∨ ¬A (A or not-A) is
considered true independently of the specific content of the
statement A. Consequently we simultaneously accept that
¬(¬A) ↔ A , that is, double negation is equivalent to the original
statement.

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

Sets

A set is a collection of objects. These objects are called the

elements of the set. If x is an element of the set A, then we will
also say that x belongs to A or x is in A. A shorthand notation for
this statement that we will use extensively is

x ∈A

Two sets A and B are the same set if they have the same elements
- that is, if every element of A is also an element of B and every
element of B is also an element of A. In this case, we write A = B.

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

One way to define a set is to simply list its elements. For example,
the statement
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
defines a set A which has as elements the integers from 1 to 4.
Another way to define a set is to begin with a known set Aand
define a new set B which consists of all elements x ∈ A which
satisfy a certain condition Q(x ).The condition Q(x ) is a statement
about the element x which may be true for some values of x and
false for others.We will denote the set defined by this condition as
follows:
B = {x ∈ A : Q(x )}

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

This is mathematical shorthand for the statement “ B is the set of
all x in A such that Q(x )”.For example, if A is the set of all
students in KIU, then we might define a set B to be the se tof all
students in KIU who are from Batumi. In this case,Q(x ) is the
statement “x is from Batumi”. The set B is then defined by
B = {x ∈ A : x is from Batumi }
Example
Describe the set (0,3) of all real numbers greater than 0 and less
than 3 using setnotation.
In this case the statement Q(x ) is the statement “0<x <3”. Thus,

(0; 3) = {x ∈ R : 0<x <3}

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

A set B is asubset of a set A if B consists of some of the elements
of A - that is, if each element ofB is also an element of A. In this
case, we use the shorthand notation

B⊂A

Of course,A is subset of itself. We say B is a proper subset of A if

B ⊂ A and B 6= A (i.e.there exists an x such that x ∈ Aand
x∈/ B).
For example, the open interval (0;3) of the preceding example is a
proper subset of the set R of real numbers. It is also a proper
subset of the half-open interval (0; 3] - that is (0; 3) ⊂ (0; 3], but
the two are not equal because the second contains 3 and the first
does not.

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

There is one special set that is a subset of every set. This is the
empty set ∅.It is the set with no elements. Since it has no
elements, the statement that “ each of its elements is also an
element of A ” is true no matter what the set A is. Thus by the
definition of subset,
∅⊂A
for every set A.
If A and B are sets, then the intersection of A and B , denoted
A ∩ B , is the set of all objects that are elements of A and of B.
That is,
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ Aandx ∈ B}
The union of A and B , denoted A ∪ B , is the set of objects which
are elements of A or elements of B (possibly elements of both).
That is,
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ Aorx ∈ B}

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

De Morgan’s Laws

if A and B are aubsets of a set X and Ac and B c are their

complemets, then
(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
Proof.
We prove (a) first. To show that two sets are equal, we must show
that they have the same elements. An element of X belongs to
(A ∪ B)c if and only if it is not in A ∪ B .This is true if and only if
it is not in A and it is not in B. By definition this is true if and
only if x ∈ Ac ∩ B c .Thus, (A ∪ B)c and Ac ∩ B c have the same
elements and, hence, are the same set.

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets

Proof.
If we apply part (a) with A andB replaced by Ac and B c nd use
the fact that (Ac )c = A and (B c )c = B , then the result is:

(Ac ∪ B c ) = A ∩ B

Tiko Javakhadze Logical symbolism and Sets