Sets and Set Operations

Set Terminology and Notation

We often deal with collections of different kinds of objects. For example, in conducting a study of the
distribution of the weights of newborn infants, we might consider the collection of all infants born in the
Massachusetts General Hospital during 2006. In a study of the fuel consumption of compact cars, we might
be interested in the collection of compact cars manufactured by General Motors in the 2006 model year.
Such collections are examples of sets. More specifically, a set is a well-defined collection of objects. Thus, a
set is not just any collection of objects; a set must be well defined in the sense that if we are given an
object, then we should be able to determine whether or not it belongs to the collection.
The objects of a set are called the elements, or members, of a set and are usually denoted by lowercase
letters , b , c , … ; the sets themselves are usually denoted by uppercase letters A , B , C ,… The elements of
a set may be displayed by listing each element between braces.
For example, using roster notation, the set A consisting of the first three letters of the English alphabet is
written
A={ a , b , c }
The set B of all letters of the alphabet may be written
B= { a ,b , c , … , z }

Another notation commonly used is set-builder notation. Here, a rule is given that describes the definite
property or properties an object x must satisfy to qualify for membership in the set. Using this notation,
the set B is written as
B= { x|x is a letter of the English alphabet }
and is read “ B is the set of all elements x such that x is a letter of the English alphabet.”

If a is an element of a set A , we write a ∈ A and read “a belongs to A ” or “a is an element of A .” If,

however, the element a does not belong to the set A , then we write a ∉ A and read “a does not belong to
A .” For example, if A={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } . Then 3 ∈ A but 6 ∉ A .

Set Equality
Two sets A and B are equal, written A=B , if and only if they have exactly the same elements.

EXAMPLE 1
Let A , B, and C be the sets
A={a , e ,i , o , u }
B={a .i , o , e . u }
C={a , e , i , o }
Then, A=B since they both contain exactly the same elements. Note that the order in which the elements
are displayed is immaterial. Also, A ≠ C since u ∈ A but u ∉C . Similarly, we conclude that B≠ C .

Subset
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If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then we sat that A is a subset of B and write
A ⊆B .
By this definition, two sets A and B are equal if and only if (1) A ⊆B and (2) B⊆ A .

EXAMPLE 2
Let A , B, and C be the sets
A={a , e ,i , o , u }
B={a .i , o , e . u }
C={a , e , i , o }
D={a , e ,i , o , x }
We find that C ⊆ B since every element of C is also an element of B.
Then D is not a subset of A , written D ⊈ A , since x ∈ D but x ∉ A .
Observe that A ⊈ D as well, since u ∈ A but u ∉ D .

If A and B are sets such that A ⊆ B but A ≠ B , then we say that A is a proper subset of B. In other words, a
set A is a proper subset of a set B, written A ⊊ B .
If (1) A ⊆ B and (2) there exists at least one element in B that is not in A . The latter
condition states that the set A is properly "smaller" than the set B.

EXAMPLE 3
Let A={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 } and B={2 , 4,6 }.
Then B is a proper subset of A ( B ⊊ A ¿ because (1) B⊆ A , which is easily verified, and (2) there exists at
least one element in A that is not in B-for example, the element 1.

Notice that when we are referring to sets and subsets we use the symbols ⊊ ,⊆ , ⊋ and⊇ to express the idea
of “containment.” However, when we wish to show that an element is contained in a set, we use the
symbol ∈ to express the idea of "membership." Thus, in Example 3, we would write 1 ∈ A and not
{ 1 } ∈ A.

Empty set
The set that contains no elements is called the empty set and is denotes by ∅ .

The empty set,∅ , is a subset of every set. To see this, observe that ∅ has no elements and thus contains no
element that is not also in A .

EXAMPLE 4
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a. List all subsets of the set A={a , b , c }.
Solution: There is one subset consisting of no elements – namely, the empty set
∅ . Next, observe that there are three subsets consisting of one element,
{a }, {b ¿ , {c }
three subsets consisting of two elements,
{a , b }, {a , c }, {b ,c }
and one subset consisting of three elements, the set A itself.
Therefore, the subsets of A are
∅ , { a } , { b } , { c } , { a , b } , { a , c } ,{b , c },{a , b , c }

b. List all proper subsets of the set A={a , b , c }.

Solution: Because proper subsets of the set A does not include the set A itself.
Therefore, the proper subsets of A are
∅ , { a } , { b } , { c } , { a , b } , { a , c } ,{b , c }

In contrast with the empty set, we have, at the other extreme, the notion of a largest or universal, set A
universal set is the set of all elements of interest in a particular discussion. It is the largest in the sense that
all sets considered in the discussion of the problem are subsets of the universal set. Of course, different
universal sets are associated with different problems, as shown in Example 5.

EXAMPLE 5
a. If the problem at hand is to determine the ratio of female to male students in a college, then a logical
choice of a universal set is the set consisting of the whole student body of the college.
b. If the problem is to determine the ratio of female to male students in the business department of the
college in part (a), then the set of all students in the business department may be chosen as the
universal set.

A visual representation of sets is realized through the use of Venn diagrams, which are of considerable help
in understanding the concepts introduced earlier as well as in solving problems involving sets. The universal
set U is represented by a rectangle, and subsets of U are represented by regions lying inside the rectangle.

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EXAMPLE 6
Use Venn diagrams to illustrate the following statements:
a. The sets A and B are equal.
b. The set A is a proper subset of the set B.
c. The sets A and B are not subsets of each other.
a. A=B b. B⊊A

U U
A B

B A

c. A ⊈ B and B ⊈ A

U U

A B
or
A B

Set Operations
Having introduced the concept of a set, our next task is to consider operations on sets-that is, to consider
ways in which secs may be combined to yield ocher sets. These operations enable us to combine sets in
much the same way the operations of addition and multiplication enable us 10 combine numbers to obtain
other numbers. In what follows, all sets are assumed to be subsets of a given universal set U .

Set Union
Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B, written A ∪ B , is the set of all elements that belong to either A
or B or both.
A ∪ B={x ∨x ∈ A∨x ∈ B∨both }

U
A B

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EXAMPLE 7 If A={a , b , c } and B={a , c ,d ¿, then A ∪ B={a , b , c , d }.

Set Intersection
Let A and B be sets. The set of elements in common with the sets A and B,written A ∩ B, is called the
intersection of A and B.
A ∩ B={ x∨x ∈ A∧x ∈ B }

U
A B

EXAMPLE 8 Let A={a , b , c }and B={a , c ,d }. Then A ∩ B={a , c }.

EXAMPLE 9 Let A={1 ,3 ,5 , 7 , 9 } and B={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,10 }. Then A ∩ B=∅.

The two sets of Example 9 have null intersection. In general, the sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they
have no elements in common –that is, if A ∩ B=∅.

EXAMPLE 10 Let U be the set of all students in the classroom. If M ={ x ∈U ∨x is male } and
F={x ∈U ∨x is female }, then F ∩ M =∅ and so F and M are disjoint.

Complement of a Set
If U is a universal set and A is a subset of U , then the set of all elements in U that are not in A is called the
complement of A and is denoted AC or A' or A .
AC ={x∨x ∈ U , x ∉ A }

U
A

EXPLORE & DISCUSS

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Let A , B, and C be nonempty subsets of a set U .
1. Suppose A ∩ B≠ ∅, A ∩C ≠ ∅ , and B∩ C ≠ ∅ . Can you conclude that A ∩ B∩ C ≠ ∅ ? Explain your
answer with an example.
2. Suppose A ∩ B∩ C ≠ ∅ . Can you conclude that A ∩ B≠ ∅, A ∩C ≠ ∅ , and B∩ C ≠ ∅ simultaneously?
Explain your answer.

EXAMPLE 11 Let U ={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ,9 ,10 } and A={2,4 , 6 , 8 , 10 }. Then Ac ={1 ,3 , 5 , 7 , 9} .

The following rules hold for the operation of complementation. See whether you can verify them.

Set Complementation
If U is a universal set and A is a subset of U , then
c
a. U c =∅ b. ∅ c =U c. ( A c ) =A
d. A ∪ A c =U e. A ∩ Ac =∅

The following rules govern the operations on sets.

Set Operations
Let U be a universal set. If A , B and C are arbitrary subsets of U , then
A ∪ B=B ∪ A Commutative law for union
A ∩ B=B ∩ A Commutative law for intersection
A ∪ ( B ∪ C )=( A ∪ B ) ∪C Associative law for union
A ∩ ( B∩ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∩C Associative law for intersection
A ∪ ( B ∩C )=( A ∪ B ) ∩( A ∪ C) Distributive law for union
A ∩ ( B∪C )=( A ∩ B ) ∪( A ∩C) Distributive law for intersection

Two additional rules, referred to as De Morgan's laws, govern the operations on sets.

De Morgan's laws
Let A and B be sets. Then
( A ∪B )c =A c ∩ B c
( A ∩ B )c = Ac ∪B c

Equation (1) states that the complement of the union of two sets is equal to the intersection of their
complements. Equation (2) states that the complement of the intersection of two sets is equal to the onion
of their complements.

EXAMPLE 12
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Using Venn diagrams, show that
(a)( A ∪B )c =A c ∩ B c
( A ∪ B )c Ac ∩B c

U U
A B
A
B

(b) ( A ∩ B )c = Ac ∪B c
( A ∩ B )c c
A ∪B
c

U U
A B A B

Example 13
LetU ={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ,9 ,10 }, A={1 , 2, 4 , 8 , 9}, and B={3,4,5,6,8} . Verify by direct computation that
( A ∪B )C = AC ∩ BC.

Solution
A ∪ B={1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9 }, so ( A ∪ B )c ={7 , 10 }. Moreover, Ac ={3 ,5 ,6 , 7 , 10 } and Bc ={1 , 2.7 , 9 ,10 }, so
A ∩B ={7 , 10 }. The required result follows.
c c

Example 14
shade the portion of the accompanying figure that represents each set.
(a) A ∪B ∪C (b) A ∪B c ∪ C c (c) A ∩C ∩ Bc
A U A U A U

C B C B C B

Self-Checking Exercises
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1. Let U ={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 } , A={ 1 ,2 , 3 } , B={3 , 4 , 5 , 6 } and C={2 , 3 , 4 } . Find the following sets:
(a) Ac (b) A ∪ B (c) B∩ C
(d) ( A ∪ B ) ∩C (e) ( A ∩ B ) ∪ C (f) Ac ∩ ( B ∪C )c

Concept Questions
1. a. What is a set? Give an example.
b. When are two sets equal? Give an example of two equal sets.
c. What is the empty set?

2. What can you say about two sets A and B such that
(a) A ∪B ⊆ A (b) A ∪B=∅ (c) A ∩ B=B (d) A ∩ B=∅

3. a. If A ⊊ B , what can you say about the relationship between Ac and Bc

b. If Ac =∅ , what can you say about A ?

Exercises
In Exercises 1-4, write the set in set-builder notation
1. {3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 }
2. { 1 ,3 ,5 , 7 , 8 ,11 , … , 39 }
3. { 4 , 7 ,10 , 13 , 16 … }
4. { 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 … }

In Exercises 5-8, list the elements of the set in roster notation.

5. { x|x is a digit ∈the numbd 352,646 }
6. {x∨x is a letter∈the word HIPPOPOTAMUS }
7. {x∨2−x=4 ; x is an integer }
8. { x| x2 −5 x−6=0}

9. State whether the statements are true or false.

(a) { a , b c }={c , a , b} (b) A ∈ A (c) ∅ ∈ A
(d) A ⊊ A (e) 0 ∈ ∅ (f) 0=∅
(g) { 0 }=∅ (h) { ∅ }=∅ (i) { a , b } ∈ {a , b , c }

10. let A={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 }. Determine whether the statements are true or false.
(a) 2 ∈ A (b) A ⊆ { 2 , 4 , 6 } (c) 0 ∈ A (d) { 1 ,3 ,5 } ∈ A

11. Let A={1 , 2, 3 }. Which of the following sets are equal to A ?

(a) { 2 , 1, 3 } (b) { 3 , 2 ,1 } (c) {0 ,1 , 2 ,3 }

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12. Let A={a , e ,i , t , r }. Which of the following sets are equal to A ?
a. {x∨x is a letter of the word later }
b. {x∨x is a letter of the word latter }
c. {x∨x is a letter of the word relate}

13. List all subsets of the following sets:

(a) {1 , 2} (b) {1 , 2 ,3 } (c) {a , b , c , d }

14. Find the smallest possible set (i.e. the set with the least number of elements) that contains the given
sets as subsets.
(a) { 1 , 2 } , { 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 } , {4 , 6 , 8 , 10} (b) { 1 , 2, 4 } ,{a , b }

15. Use Venn diagrams to represent the following relationships:

(a) A ⊊ B and B ⊊ C
(b) A ⊊ U and B ⊊ U , where A and B have no elements in common
(c) The sets A , B and C are equal.

16. Shade the portion of the accompanying figure that represents each set.
(a) A ∩ Bc U
(b) Ac ∩B A
B
(c) A ∩B
c c
B
(d) ( A ∪ B )c
(e) A ∪ B c
(f) ( A ∩ B )c

17. shade the portion of the accompanying figure that represents each set.
(a) A ∪ B ∪C
(b) A ∩ B∩ C A U
(c) Ac ∩B ∩C
(d) A ∩ B∩ Cc
(e) Ac ∩B c ∩C c
(f) ( A ∪ B )c ∩C C B
(g) A ∪ ( B ∩C )c
(h) ( A ∪ B ∪C )c

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18. let U ={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 , 10 } , A={1 , 3 ,5 ,7 , 9 }, B={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10}, and C={1 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 8 , 9} . List
the elements of each set.
(a) Ac (b) B∪ C c (c) C ∪C c
(d) C ∩C c (e) ( A ∩C )c (f) A ∪( B ∩C)
(g) ( A ∩ B ) ∪ C (h) ( A ∪ B ∪C )c (i) ( A ∩ B∩ C )c
(j) Ac ∩ ( B∩ Cc ) (k) ( A ∪ Bc ) ∪ ( B ∩C c ) (l) ( A ∪ B )c ∩C c

19. Determine whether the pairs of sets are disjoint.

(a) { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 } , { 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 } (b) { a , c , e , g } ,{b , d , f }
(c) ∅ , { 1, 3 , 5 } (d) { 0 , 1 ,3 , 4 } , {0 , 2 ,5 , 7 }

20. Express the indicated regions in set notation

(a) Region 1 A U
(b) Region 8 7
(c) Region 1 and 4 together 4 3 8
(d) Region 4 and 5 together 1 8
(e) Region 4, 5, 7 and 8 together C 5 2 6 B
(f) Region 1, 2, 3 and 4 together

21. Use Venn diagrams to Illustrate each statement.

(a) A ∪ ( B ∪C )=( A ∪ B ) ∪C (b) A ∩ ( B∩ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∩C
(c) A ∩ ( B∪ C )=( A ∩ B ) ∪( A ∩C) (d) ( A ∪B )c =A c ∩ B c

22. let U ={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 , 10 } , A={ 1 ,3 ,5 , 7 , 9 } , B={ 1 ,2 , 4 ,7 , 8 } , C={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 }

Verify each equation by direct computation.
(a) A ∪ ( B ∪C )=( A ∪ B ) ∪C (b) A ∩ ( B∩ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∩C
(c) A ∩ ( B∪ C )=( A ∩ B ) ∪( A ∩C) (d) ( A ∪B )c =A c ∩ B c

23. Refer to the accompanying figure and list the points that belong to each set.
(a) A ∪B
(b) A ∩ B U
(c) A ∩ ( B∪ C ) B ∎v A
(d) ( B∩ C ) c
∎x ∎y
(e) ( B∪C )c ∎t ∎w ∎u
(f) A c
∎z ∎s
(g) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ Cc C
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 (h) ( A ∪B ∪C )c

24. Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why it is true. If it is false, give
an example to show why it is false.
(a) A set is never a subset of itself.
(b) A proper subset of a set is itself a subset of the set but not vice versa.
(c) If A ∪B=∅, then A=∅ and B=∅ .
(d) If A ∩ B=∅, then either A=∅ and B=∅ or both A and B are empty.
c
(e) ( A ∪ Ac ) =∅
(f) If A ⊆B , then A ∩ B= A .

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