Skills and Learning Difficulties Involved in Stone Knapping: The Case of Stone-Bead Knapping in

Skills and learning difficulties
involved in stone knapping: the

case of stone-bead knapping in
Khambhat, India
V. Roux, B. Bril and G. Dietrich
Abstract
Skills involved in the knapping of Harappan long carnelian beads are studied in order to assess their
value as well as knappers' socio-economic status. Skills are studied by reference to present-day bead
knapping in Khambhat, India. They are examined from the way actors are able to handle the
complexity of the task and achieve it. They are analyzed in terms of learning difficulties and duration
of apprenticeship. The methodology followed is proper to the psychological field. It enables us to
understand, in particular, the necessary long apprenticeship required for knapping long beads
whatever the culture in which it takes place. It follows that Harappan long carnelian beads are
interpreted on the one hand as made by highly skilled craftsmen who developed specialized skills for
a very limited demand, on the other hand as highly valuable.
Keywords
Stone knapping; skills; apprenticeship; beads; Indus Valley.
Symbolic factors underlying technical systems or else mental and social representations
responsible for technological choices are, nowadays, the main focus of technological
studies by anthropologists and archaeologists (e.g. Dobres and Hoffman 1994; Lechtman
1993; Lemonnier 1993; van der Leeuw and Papousek 1992, van der Leeuw 1993). In this
paper, we would like to stress the point that, in order to interpret technological choices in
relationship with the symbolic system in which they take place, one should be able to
define objects not only in terms of technical and physical parameters (for a definition of
these terms, see Tixier 1967; Inizan et al. 1992) but also in terms of motor and cognitive
skills. The case study presented here relates to third millennium stone beads from the
Indus Valley. In order to define the skills involved in their knapping, actual stone-bead
knapping in Gujarat (Khambhat, North India) is examined according to a methodology
proper to psychology. Skills are studied from the way actors are able to handle the
World Archaeology Vol. 27 (1): 63-87 Symbolic Aspects of Early Technologies

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64 V. Roux, B. Bril and G. Dietrich
complexity of the task and achieve it. They are discussed in terms of learning difficulties
and duration of apprenticeship. Results of our study, applied to third millennium stone
beads, enable us, as a first step, to differentiate beads on the basis of skills involved in their
making and, as a second step, to interpret them in terms of intrinsic symbolic value and
knappers' socio-economic status.
Place of skills in technological studies
In anthropology, curiously, study of skills has not been a priority despite the fact that
pioneer studies have shown their importance in understanding the transformation and
evolution of technical systems (Leroi-Gourhan 1971 (1943); Mauss 1935; Haudricourt
1987); that anthropologists conducting studies in technology underline the necessity of a
thorough analysis of the technical action itself (Lemonnier 1993; Sigaut 1991); and that
appropriate methodology for describing gestures has been developed (Bril 1984, 1991).
Nowadays, analyses of techniques encompass basically two steps: a) an analysis of the
representations (mental and/or social) responsible for a given technological choice (e.g.
van der Leeuw 1993); b) an analysis of the way social representations of technology are
embedded in other representations (e.g. Mahias 1993). Mental representations (also
called concepts) are usually induced from the method followed to make an object. Their
descriptions are often privileged to the detriment of an analysis in terms of motor skills or
learning difficulties. This raises problems since it can lead to bias in the interpretation of
major phenomena like innovation or borrowing. Let us take an example: the diffusion of
the wheel-throwing technique of pottery making. Its borrowing or its rejection by potters
who do not use rotative kinetic energy to shape their pots may be interpreted differently
depending on whether skills are considered. In fact, this technique is much more difficult
and then takes much more time to learn than those which do not use rotative kinetic energy
(Roux and Corbetta 1989). It follows that, if one takes the factor 'apprenticeship of skills'
into account, borrowing of the wheel-throwing technique appears as a major break in the
transmission process, which implies variation in social, economic and/or environmental
conditions (Shennan 1989). It is not reducible to the limited problem of compatibility with
mental and/or social representations. Moreover, it implies a socio-economic context in
which a craft which takes a long time to learn can develop, or which favours an investment
in a long apprenticeship (as theorized by authors like Leroi-Gourhan 1973 (1945) or Gille
1978). According to technologists, economic context is not sufficient to explain borrowing.
Understanding of the new technique as a potential means, or else its integration in people's
representations of their technical system, is necessary for economic factors to be an
impetus. In fact, the aim should be to assess the complex interaction between technical or
economical factors and the construction of representations, and to study, in particular, the
conditions under which one element or the other is determinant.
In archaeology, skills have been mainly studied by prehistorians dealing with stone
knapping and coping with two major phenomena: the physical evolution of hominids and
differentiation in the making and conceiving of material culture. Skills are studied in order
to assess knapping actions in terms of the specificity and complexity of the skills of early
hominids (e.g. Gibson and Ingold 1993; Pelegrin 1991, 1993; Roche and Texier 1991;
Skills and learning difficulties involved in stone knapping 65
Wynn 1979); in terms of tradition, so as to define cultural assemblages (e.g. Boeda 1991;
Pelegrin in press); and in terms of level of competence, in order to understand the
composition of domestic units and the socio-economic organization of technical activities
(e.g. Perles 1990; Pigeot 1987, 1990; Ploux 1989).
Skills are characterized by reference to a psychological (Wynn 1985, 1993) or to a
neuro-psychological (Pelegrin 1985, 1990) body of knowledge. Wynn (1993) dis-
tinguishes three layers of thinking in tool behavior: 1) a biomechanical layer, 2) a layer
that constructs most of the action sequences, 3) a problem-solving layer. According to
Wynn, tools can inform us about a few general cognitive abilities, but not about specific
ones like those required for language. 'Tools are not words and there may be no syntax in
tool behavior, but tools can and do act as signs and symbols' (1993:302). Pelegrin
distinguishes between knowledge and motor and ideational know-how. Knowledge is
constituted by the mental representations of forms and materials (concepts). 'Ideational
know-how corresponds to operations - spatial and sequential transformations, compari-
sons - undertaken on the mental representations. . . . Motor know-how corresponds to
intuitive operations on the assessed adequacy of the knapping parameters involved in the
current operation' (1990:118). Know-how is assessed against the intentions of the
knappers, the variable constraints of the raw material and the results. Accordingly,
knappers are considered as more or less skilled (e.g. Pigeot 1990; Ploux 1989; Karlin,
Ploux and Bodu 1993).
Now, for a study of skills involved in knapping third millennium stone beads, the
questions at issue are: how to test the general propositions about mental representations
underlying stone knapping, or else about skills necessary to knap stone; how to study the
learning process of complex skills: is it possible to characterize degrees of skill in terms of
duration of apprenticeship? To approach these questions, we study the organization of
knapping activity by two groups of craftsmen specialized in stone knapping, socially
recognized as having different levels of dexterity. In the following paragraphs, we
present the theoretical framework of the study and we give a definition of skill. Then, we
describe briefly the socio-economic context and the knapping technique used in
Khambhat. The experimental design is then presented, followed by the results and the
discussion.
Theoretical frameworks in the domain of motor learning
The theoretical framework adopted here for studying skills is the ecological approach to
motor learning based on the dynamic system perspective and Gibson's idea of affordances
(1986(1979)). This ecological approach holds that regularities of movement patterns are
not represented in a motor program but rather emerge out of the complex interactions
among many interacting components (Thelen 1986). The optimal pattern of movement
co-ordination and control is viewed as emerging from three types of constraints -
organismic, environmental and task related (Newell 1986). Learning occurs within the
task space at many levels depending on the capabilities of the learner in relation to the
environmental context (Gibson 1986 (1979)). Here, the pattern of movements performed
to achieve a task is not viewed as being learned per se, but reflects the way the learner has
interpreted the task constraints and solved them according to his/her capabilities to reach
the goal of the action. According to Reed (1989: 15), learning operates 'not so much to
stamp in patterns of movement, but rather to encourage the functional organization of
action systems. This principle is constant throughout life: the achievement of an action is
not the agent's coming to possess an immutable program, but rather the development of a
skill. This means the ability to use perceptual information so as to coordinate movements
and postures in a flexible manner that serves to accomplish a desired task.'
How can we define a complex motor skill and the level of dexterity?
Before dealing with the knapping skill, let us give a general definition of complex motor
skills. A skill refers to the capacity to reach a goal by using the affordances of the
environment. It is the result of some learning process which enables the level of dexterity
to increase. A skill is often associated with precision, regularity, optimization, swiftness
and so on. Concerning a skill, Connolly and Dalgleish (1989) distinguish the intentional
aspect of the action, that is the goal, and the operational aspect, that is the means.
Consequently, any study of action must focus on both the result of the action and the way it
is performed.
To describe the process of performing an action, we shall refer to the three levels of
action put forward by Richard (1990). The first level refers to the overall organization of
the task, i.e. how sub-goals are sequenced to perform the task at hand. The third level
describes the elementary action, that is any action that cannot be split into parts. In the
case of motor skills, it refers to elementary functional movement. The second level
expresses the way elementary actions are joined together in sub-goals. Movement studies
are not always clear about the level they are dealing with. Most of them focus on
elementary movement and, to our knowledge, very few look at how these elementary
movements are aggregated to execute the goal or sub-goals of an action, except for
periodic movements such as walking or interlimb rhythmic movements. A notable
exception is given by Beek and van Santvoord in their study of juggling (1992).
Socio-economic context
In Khambat, the bead industry is in the hands of the workshops which centralize the whole
manufacturing process and sell the product either directly or through traders (for mor
details see Roux and Pelegrin 1989; Roux 1990a; Kenoyer et al. 1991). The orders are
distributed among the workshops according to the quality of the products: one must
distinguish between the workshops which produce superior quality objects from the one
which produce inferior quality (75 per cent of cases). The latter have developed over th
last fifteen years with the rapid increase of an international market for fancy jewellery.
They employ knappers whose training lasted for two to three years. In the workshops
producing superior quality beads, knappers followed an apprenticeship which lasted
between seven and ten years.
Figure 1 Indirect percussion

by rebound.
Description of the technique
The knapping technique is an 'indirect percussion by rebound' (Pelegrin 1994). The

knapper uses two tools jointly (Fig. 1):
? a sharp-pointed iron bar about fifty centimeters long and two centimeters thick, stuck
obliquely into the ground in front of the knapper;
* a buffalo-horn hammer mounted on a thin wooden stick.
To detach a flake, the knapper holds the piece to be knapped between the fingers of his
hand and applies the edge of the piece against the pointed tip of the iron bar. The hammer
held in the other hand strikes the piece to detach a flake from the point of contact with the
iron bar. Knapping a bead follows two stages. An initial roughing out leads to a rough
piece which displays its main geometric characteristics. The finishing of the knapping leads
to a preform, knapped piece which will then be ground, drilled, polished and glossed. The
knapper changes the iron bar (more pointed for the preform) and the hammer (lighter for
the preform) between these two stages.
Method of knapping
To knap a roughout and to obtain a preform, craftsmen follow sequences of action which
vary according to the shapes of the beads (Roux and Pelegrin 1989). A sequence of action
corresponds to the basic strategy used in Khambhat to obtain a good quality bead of a
particular shape. According to our terminology, these sequences form the succession of
the sub-goals required for the achievement of the goal, here a particular shape of bead. For
1 2
Figure 2
knappin
is paral
e calibra
transve
* end pr
e crest f
* axial r
* reduct
* end fi
Each op
bimanu
against
percussi
time of
accordin
detachin
detachm
Experim
The mot
close as
of para
criteria
generali
capacity
activity
varies i
study on
of the r
and the movements.
The experiment was based on the introduction of new situations for the craftsmen. They
had to transfer their knowledge to a new raw material and to a shape unknown, or at least
unusual to them. The new raw material chosen was glass. Three reasons justified this
choice: as far as knapping is concerned, the mechanical properties of the glass (conchoidal
fracture) are the same as those of stone (here chalcedony); glass is less hard than
chalcedony, presenting therefore a basic difference from the raw material commonly
knapped; in addition, glass provides an homogeneous raw material and the possibility of
getting roughouts of the same size for all the subjects (glass parallelepipeds had been made
in France and sent to India).
The hypothesis was the following: the capacity of the subjects to transfer their knapping
knowledge to a new raw material and a new shape indexes the level of dexterity; the study
of the skills in two groups whose length of apprenticeship differs from three to seven years
will give us information on the learning process. We present here the results concerning
the knapping of long bitruncated ellipse-shaped beads made of stone and of glass. Two
aspects of the action are analysed: overall organization of the knapping in sub-goals and
the elementary movement of fluting.
Subjects
Subjects were chosen in two categories of workshops. Group 1 was formed by six
craftsmen from the higher quality workshops. This group included a craftsman who was
considered as the best knapper by the Indian government (giving him grants to run a
training center). The second group included six craftsmen from the lower quality
production workshops.
The experimental field study: material and apparatus
The stone rough-outs (see Plate 1) had been prepared in advance. They were made out of
chalcedony, the raw material commonly knapped in Khambhat. They had all been made
by the same craftsman in order to get, as far as possible, the same dimensions. The glass
roughouts were orange, a color close to carnelian, the most widely knapped variety of
chalcedony, in order to minimize surface variations of the situations that may be of
importance in the transfer process (Cauzinille-Marmech 1990).
Two types of recording device were used to record the motor activity of the subjects:
1 a video camera, with a sampling rate of 50 frames per second, situated in the axis of the
movement, recording the whole knapping activity so as to analyse the action plan;
2 a uniaxial accelerometer stuck on the non-used curved end of the hammer head. The
accelerometer, which had been designed specially for this experimentation, had t
following characteristics: range + or - 250 g; natural frequency 3000 hz; accuracy +
- 0.2 m/s2. It was connected to a portable computer Toshiba 600 via an ADC (analog
to digital converter (sampling frequency, 200hz; 12 bits resolution). It gives t
acceleration of the hammer along the progression axis, that is according to the hammer
reference axis. The recording programs were made by the third author.
Plate 1 Glass and stone rough-

outs prepared in advance for the
experimentation. Each roughout
Procedure
The experimental session took place in a workshop which was quite c alm as only one
craftsman producing high quality beads was working there. Each subject c ame to the
workshop for the whole day, as the experiment lasted about six to seven hours. Everyone
had eighty beads to knap, forty in stone, forty irn gllass. Four differ en t shap es had to be
knapped in the two raw materials: two slightly bitruncated ellipse-shaped beads of
different length, one spheric bead and one bitruncated ellipse-shaped bead with a
quadrangular section.
After getting used to the new raw material and the experimental setting, each sub ject
was asked to kn ap t he diff erent be ad s in the same gi ven orderu fi rst the glass veads, second
the stone ones. They made ten beads of each ty pe . All the knappings were recorded by
video and accelerometer. The finished product (the bead) was kept as well. However, the
first two beads ofmeach type were eligminated from the study as we onsider that they beads ight
ref lec t t he necessary familiarization with the task.
Dat a r edu ction
The analysis is based on three types of data: the finished products (the beads)i the strategy
used by the craftsman, that is the organization of the sequences of sub-goals to reach the
goal and the structure of the elementary movement.
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Figure 3 Example of the outline of a bead obtained after digitalization of the video ima
shape is calculated from one face dimension onwards. The black surface corresponds to
material if compared to the ideal shape, the grey surface to too much raw material.
a) The characteristics of the beads: all the beads were filmed with a video c
eight different angles to perform a systematic analysis of their contour. For thi
one image of each view has been digitized. A program for pattern recognition, w
the third author, allows for automatic analysis of each contour. The analysis is b
comparison between an ideal shape and the knapped product. The ideal shape
for each piece on the basis of the dimensions (width and length) of one contour (
Two types of parameters have been chosen: parameters indexing the overa
the bead in terms of quantity of raw material (average surface area of the eight
average surface area of roughnesses and hollows computed by comparison b
ideal shape and the actual one) and absolute dimensions (average length and
one parameter indexing sphericity (ratio of the four crest side width to the four
side width).
b) The strategy: the strategy followed for the knapping of each bead was analysed using
a time series procedure. The succession of actions was noted as well as their duration. It
was analysed with the computer program 'Kronos' as a time-series. It gives the duration of
each sub-goal as well as the organization of their succession for each bead.
c) The elementary movement: the trace of the accelerometer gives the acceleration of
the hammer during the whole percussion movement up to the impact (see Fig. 4). From
this curve we computed the duration of the movement (T) and the variation in acceleration
during the movement of crest fluting (AA).
Results
The result of the action: the beads
Averages of absolute dimensions, total surface area, roughnesses and hollow surface areas
(indexed on the basis of the ideal shape) of the long stone and glass ellipse-shaped beads
from groups 1 and 2 are given, in square millimeters, in Table 1. The index of sphericity is
E I I
0 0
0,
-25- A
percussion point percussion point

-50- _A V
0,5 1 duration (s)
Figure 4 Data from the accelerometer for

a crest by a subject from group 1 and fr
percussion point; AA is the maximal diff
given in Table 2. An index of 1 with

results, on the whole, show that subje
than subjects from group 2 as marked
stone production, group 1 produces bi
to saving raw material while obtaini
much less inter-variability than subje
by the variations of the roughouts in
production, subjects from group 2
shaped roughout, which explains wh
as big as the ones from group 1, on th
high ratio 'roughness surface area/tot
the parallepiped. Group 1 achieves a
beads while saving raw material. Int
group 2 than within group 1.
It is necessary to note here that, i
between the two groups. More detailed
differences between the two group
naked eye (see plate 2). Moreover, an
craftsman as a single model per bead i
Plate 2 Top: samples of glass and stone production by one craftsman from group 1. Below: samples
of glass and stone production by one craftsman from group 2.
the finished products according to the representations knappers have of the form and of
the quality required.
The action plan
a) The overall strategy A comparison of the strategies followed by each knapper for
making the different beads under study shows the following points:
* Calibration, or else shaping and regularization of the crests for successful fluting, is not
carried out by subjects from group 2, except notably for one subject (Sunam, Table 3)
who has recently followed a training course in order to knap good quality beads;
* Apart from calibration, all the craftsmen, either from group 1 or 2, used the basic
strategy, i.e. the basic sequence of sub-goals to obtain a cylindrical bead (Fig. 5).
* Subjects from group 2 are able, with respect to the basic strategy, not to make mistakes.
If the observed strategy reflects the planning of the craftsman, then, for some cases,
group 1 and 2 do not distinguish themselves at the level of the plan of action, except for
calibration. This is especially true for the glass production.
* Unlike most of the subjects from group 2, subjects from group 1 vary their strategies
more according to the different constraints of the raw material. Group 2 present more
stereotyped strategies and sometimes unjustified strategies which then appear in-
coherent.
GROUP 1 GROUP 2
m o m o
STONE
Length 68.53 (1.65) 61.92 (8.52)

Width 24.63 (1.51) 24.99 (2.38)
Surface area 8170.66 (1256.42) 6475.09 (1455.90)
Surf. asperities 468.89 (127.51) 429.01 (245.26)
Surf. hollows 228.69 (59.81) 226.43 (160.88)
Surf.asp/surf. area. 0.06 (0.02) 0.06 (0.03)
GLASS
Length 66.97 (1.31) 66.01 (3.58)

Width 22.52 (0.70) 24.00 (0.73)
Surface area 7977.88 (1052.80) 7826.29 (1558.74)
Surf. asperities 695.72 (174.95) 999.64 (365.82)
Surf. hollows 128.62 (42.82) 108.28 (35.48)
Surf.asp/surf. area. 0.09 (0.02) 0.12 (0.03)
Table 1 Averages of bead dimensions given in millimeters (converted from

raw material.
GROUP 1 GROUP 2
m a m o
STONE 0.942 (0.029) 0.895 (0.050)
GLASS 0.919 (0.029) 0.860 (0.032)
Table 2 Averages of bead index of sphericity by group and raw materia

eight side width of a bead.
b) Whole knapping duration The whole knapping duration in g

that in group 2 (Table 3), which confirms results from the previou
difference reflects the absence of calibration in group 2. As
considering the knapping duration, calibration not included, on
and2 spend approximately the same time per bead. Moreover, both
more time knapping glass beads than stone ones, although th
calibrate, for a very short time, some stone beads. In addition, gro
on the calibration of glass beads than on the stone ones, glass roug
whole knapping of the four crests, unlike the stone beads whe
with pre-existing platforms.
GROUP 1 GROUP 2
total without cal total without cal
m a ma mo m a
STONE
ABDUL LATIF 6.09 (0.57) 2.59 (0.49) ASHOK 3.33 (2.16) 3.33 (2.16)
HASSAM 3.57 (0.57) 2.03 (0.25) DEEPAK 1.30 (0.37) 1.25 (0.28)
HUSSEIN 5.26 (1.39) 2.52 (0.45) HASHMUK 2.51 (0.39) 2.51 (0.39)
INAYAT 4.41 (1.17) 2.49 (0.42) NAVIN 3.48 (0.47) 3.48 (0.47)
RASHIK 6.43 (1.20) 5.40 (1.27) SABHIR 2.45 (0.45) 2.45 (0.45)
RAMAN 5.56 (0.43) 4.23 (1.16) SUNAM 2.42 (0.48) 2.29 (0.36)
GROUP1 5.28 (1.28) 3.27 (1.31) GROUP2 2.51 (1.18) 2.48 (1.18)
GLASS
ABDUL LATIF 5.49 (0.39) 2.50 (0.29) ASHOK 5.47 (0.43)

HASSAM 6.02 (0.29) 2.42 (0.34) DEEPAK 1.32 (0.16)
HUSSEIN 5.14 (0.32) 2.39 (0.33) HASHMUK 2.59 (0.47) idem
INAYAT 4.59 (0.27) 1.56 (0.16) NAVIN 4.05 (1.13)
RASHIK 7.19 (1.22) 4.00 (1.07) SABHIR 4.19 (0.56)
RAMAN 8.53 (2.40) 7.50 (2.30) SUNAM 2.18 (0.10)
GROUP 1 6.23 (1.50) 3.39 (2.16) GROUP 2 3.30 (1.35) idem
Table 3 Whole knapping duration and knapping duration minu

and type of raw material.
c) Sub-goals knapping duration There are two major diff

whatever the material, glass or stone (Fig. 6). a) The num
higher in group 2 than in group 1, where it almost does not
taken to reduce the crest by transversal flakes is higher i
other sub-goals, if calibration is not included, present very s
If we now compare the strategy used for stone and for
concerning time to reduce crests. Group 2 spends more ti
glass ones. It is almost absent from glass knapping, whereas
crests which have not been removed. In group 1, time for re
the knapping of glass beads, since glass fluting enables craft
at once.
The elementary movement
a) Duration of the movement (Table 4) The duration of the movement is on

higher than 230 ms and lower than 290 ms. There is no statistical differences betw
two groups, nor between glass and stone knapping.
b) Acceleration (Table 5) Values of acceleration reveal important differences
the two groups and the two raw-materials.
* All subjects differentiate glass knapping from stone knapping, showin

adaptation to the raw material. For glass knapping the acceleration is always
J) /// /
c Endl End2 Hassam - Group 1 - Stone bead n?10 -
0 /i~,i~ ,<,<~,<~8 .... - -
> undecidable' ....... ' , 1',
S ////crestl ///' iii\i
crest2- ...
crest3-
crest4'
ca/5 //' ,' "'""',","

prep ^5iiiII f - X//// ..'"''"'"".!.
fl--
0 axial/r ' ....... . I'

-wn~ ~ cr //// .....
endfi .....
,c ,/'////// i!s\\/\\ i! _ _ __ _
Im 2m 3m 4m 5m
Endl End2 Hassam- Group 1 - Glass bead n6 -
> undecidable- &/X lll

crestl ....."i..l
crest2
.> crest3' ..,',-,,!i~!
,) crest4' 4 !t-ii11111^
ca ..
prep ../.^.
fl+-
axial/r'
cr -
endfi -
Im 2m 3m 4m 5m
action unfolding (min
Figure 5 Examples of the strategy followed for knapping a stone bead and a glass bead by one
subject from group 1 and one subject from group 2. The graph gives the succession of sub-goals
according to knapping time.
than for stone knapping (t tests are statistically significant for all the subjects from both
groups).
* A comparison between the two groups reveals that subjects from group 1 have quite
homogeneous results, except for one subject (Rashik) whose data are closer to those of
group 2. Interestingly, the quality of the production of that subject is much lower than
I!ibration, prep : end preparation, fl-: failed fluting, fl+: successful fluting, axial / r: axial removal, rc : reduction of the crest by transv. flakes, endfi : end finishing
that produced by the rest of the group. In addition, it is worthwhile noting that, in both
groups, the standard deviation of acceleration is quite small. This suggests that subjects
of both groups have found an 'equilibrium region' which corresponds to a 'stable' motor
state; that is, their motor strategy is well controlled and optimal for the task at hand,
which differs between the two groups (making different qualities of bead). By reference
to the knapping of Inayat (the 'best' craftsman in Khambhat), subjects of group 2 display
too little acceleration, except for one subject whose acceleration is too strong (Deepak).
A comparison between subjects from the two groups reveals statistically significant
differences.
endfi
endfi \
prep
, prep
cr -
- f -
cr-
axial / r '1fl-
axial / r
fl +
Group 1 - Stone Group 2 - Stone
endfi \ endfi,
, prep
, prep
cr-- or -
- fl-
axial / r axial/ r
fI-
fl +
Group 1 - Glass Group 2 - Glass
axial/ r: xial removal
rc : reduction of the crest by transv. flakes
endfi : end finishing
Figure 6 Average relative duration of each sub-goal at the time of knapping eight stone and glass
beads by three subjects from each group. The sub-goal calibration has been omitted so as to make the
data comparable between the two groups.
Discussion
What do these results tell us about complex skill learning and dexterity? In this discussion
we shall emphasize the necessity to distinguish the different levels of skill organizati
GROUP 1 GROUP 2
t(ms) o t(ms) a
STONE
AbdulLatif 246 (17) Ashok 234 (16)

Hassam 228 (12) Deepak 215 (20)
Hussein 226 (17) Hashmuk 289 (19)
Inayat 247 (12) Navin 259 (15)
Raman 230 (26) Sabhir 253 (17)
Rashik 361 (41) Sunam 222 (19)
GLASS
AbdulLatif 249 (13) Ashok 215 (17)

Hassam 234 (15) Deepak 230 (20)
Hussein 223 (12) Hashmuk 293 (32)
Inayat 252 (13) Navin 254 (8)
Raman 235 (23) Sabhir 241 (12)
Rashik 348 (30) Sunam 241 (11)
Table 4 Averages of the duration of the elementary movemen

material.
clearly so as to give some insight into the learning process of such skills. An analysis of the
finished products shows dramatic differences, indicating clear differences in dexterity
between the two groups. The problem is then to determine which of the level(s) concerned
could explain such differences in the result of the action.
From the analysis of the overall strategy (or action plan), it appears that the subjects
from group 2 are able to organize their action plan in the same way as subjects of group 1
(see Figs 4 and 5), even though they do not go through sub-goals like calibration and can
display apparently 'unorganized' strategies for knapping stone (Roux 1994).
Results concerning the elementary action reveal very important differences between the
two groups. If we take Inayat as the reference, the results of crest fluting by craftsmen from
group 2 suggest that they do not display the right acceleration, theirs being either too
strong or too weak. This could explain the higher rate of failure in fluting. In addition, the
greater proportion of roughnesses that characterize the beads produced by subjects of
group 2 suggests that they had difficulties in producing small and fine flakes, probably due
to a lack of precise tuning of the forces displayed during the elementary movement.
We may assume here that the strategies observed depend to a large extent on the control
of the elementary movement. This control is combined with an adequate assessment of the
situation which includes factors like the position of the stone against the iron bar and the
morphology of the platform. The higher control of the elementary movement leads to a
minimal overall task such as is the case for the more dexterous craftsmen (subjects of group
1). On the contrary, failures resulting from inadequate control of the elementary
movement as well as from inadequate assessment of the situation, lead to a more complex
continuous decision-making processes when one searches to reorganize the course of
action in order to obtain a high quality bead. Less skilled craftsmen know about the
GROUP1 GROUP 2
Acceleration
m (m/s2) a m (m/s2) a
STONE
Abdul Latif 68.4 (8.4) Ashok 55.2 (5.4)
Hassam 77.8 (7.9) Deepak 95.5 (15.6)
Hussein 75.4 (14.2) Hashmuk 59.2 (9.6)
Inayat 66.4 (7.8) Navin 41.4 (5.6)

Raman 61.4 (9.1) Sabhir 54.8 (7.6)
Rashik 58.2 (10.5) Sunam 72.2 (5.9)
GLASS
Abdul Latif 57.1 (4.3) Ashok 37.7 (3.3)
Hassam 47.8 (4.7) Deepak 69 (11.6)

Hussein 63.9 (11) Hashmuk 40.9 (5.3)
Inayat 57.8 (6) Navin 25.6 (2.2)

Raman 53.7 (4.3) Sabhir 40.8 (5.6)
Rashik 27.5 (5.1) Sunam 48.8 (3.3)
Table 5 Maximum amplitude of acceleration of the elementary m

raw material.
necessary succession of the main sub-goals, but they do not know about achieving, by
controlled strokes, local sub-goals necessary for successful removing of long flakes.
The adaptation of the knapping strategy according to the state of the roughout, or else to
the nature of the removals (turned out well or badly), shows that the purpose of the plan of
action is certainly not to dictate the course of action as a program which is set up prior to
the action. If this were the case, it would be impossible at each instant to explore the task
space and adapt the next action to the result of the previous one.
To conclude, we hypothesize that, once a subject knows the necessary succession of
main sub-goals needed to knap a bead of a given shape, the more important thing is to
learn to generate the right forces to detach an adequate flake depending on the particular
sub-goal at hand, which itself depends on the local configuration of the piece. This
necessitates the comprehension of the 'affordances' of the task (including tools, raw
material and action of the tool on the raw material), and the capabilities to use those
affordances (Gibson 1986 (1979)). What must be learnt is not the movement per se which is
quite simple, but the optimal adaptation to the environment.
From which one understands that, according to the best craftsmen, subjects from group
2, who have knapped stone for fifteen years, should go through an apprenticeship of two to
three years before being able to knap high quality beads. The empirical data on the
acceleration displayed during fluting appears to favour such a viewpoint. We may
hypothesize that apprenticeship corresponds to the search for an equilibrium region
(stable behavior assessed here through a small standard deviation). Along this line, to be
moved up from group 2 to group 1 necessitates going through a new search strategy leading
to a new stable state (Newell et al. 1989). The whole process of 'reconstructing' the
elementary movement is not known but it could well necessitate quite a long time: it
probably does not consist only in an improvement of an existing skill, but in a
'de-structuring, re-structuring' of the elementary movement. This elementary movement
will enable craftsmen to detach the flakes necessary to achieve the different main and local
sub-goals related to the making of high quality beads. Along this line, one understands that
an apprenticeship of seven years is necessary for mastering the skills involved in knapping
long carnelian beads whose length can reach over 10 cm (chasai, Fig. 7): throughout these
seven years, the apprentice learns not only the different knapping methods (main plans of
action), but also how to adapt the strokes to the different local sub-goals which vary
according to raw material, shapes, dimensions and quality of beads. The long carnelian
beads are all the more difficult to knap because, on one hand, the detachment of controlled
elongated flakes, necessary for obtaining big beads, clearly requires greater skill than the
detachment of short flakes; on the other hand, the removal of large flakes requires the
arranging of series in a larger number of organized sequences than the removal of small
flakes. This arrangement corresponds to the deployment of a more elaborate know-how,
which is more critical in evaluation of the situation and more stringent in decision making;
finally, successive heat treatments make the chasai very fragile and render every stroke
very delicate (Roux and Pelegrin 1989).
Archaeological application
The stone beads presented by mature Harappan sites (around 2500-2200 BC) can be
classified into two groups on the basis of dimensions and quantity per site. The first group
brings together the majority of beads. It consists of beads whose length is less than 5 cm.
long. Shape and raw material are varied (Kenoyer 1986, 1991). They are found in great
quantity on most Harappan sites. The second group is made up of long beads and includes
mainly the so-called 'long barrel-cylinder carnelian beads'. They can easily be compared to
the chasai made in Khambhat (Fig. 7). Their length can reach 12 cm., they are made out of
square section roughouts and they have undergone successive heat treatments (Mackay
1937, 1943; Vidale 1986). They have been mainly found at Chanhudaro, Harappa, Lothal
and Mohenjodaro (Chakrabarti 1982; Mackay 1943; Marshall 1931; Rao 1979; Vidale
1989). At the moment, only Chanhudaro presents, without any doubt, evidences of
manufacturing (presence of roughouts and preforms) (Mackay 1943). Mohenjodaro has
yielded a 42-barrel-cylinder-bead necklace (Marshall 1931) and represents the site with the
higher number of these beads. If we refer to the published data, all of the long
barrel-cylinder carnelian beads found on Harappan sites do not represent more than a few
hundred and, if we consider that we have found only a hundred of the totality, it appears
-B- (B
0 1 2 3
Figure 7 Top: Harappa

exported to Nagaland.
that, whatever the tim

each year. If we form
10,000 beads produced
one bead a day.
Now, the results of
barrel-cylinder carneli
the ones required for
not yet been demonstr
Harappan times (Pele
study can be applied t
skills of a very simil
reference, around seve
beads. Repeated pract
follows that the produ
low, was most probab
more than one or tw
excavated from specific deposits. Two deposits are nowadays known, one in Kutch, the
other in south Gujarat, Ratanpur. In Ratanpur, the bigger carnelian pebbles, necessary
for manufacturing long beads, are located in secondary alluvial terraces at a depth which
can reach 20 m. When considered in terms of quantity, skills involved in their making and
conditions of quarrying, long barrel-cylinder carnelian beads thus appear rare and heavy
with strong technical investment. They can be interpreted, therefore, as highly valuable.
Now, there is no 'technical' reason for limited production: deposits of big carnelian
pebbles are not yet exhausted; teaching the specific skills involved in making long-barrel
beads could have reached more knappers. As a matter of fact, it looks as if these beads
were produced and saved, on purpose, for a very limited number and category of 'people'
present in some cities only. Let us note that the long barrel-cylinder carnelian beads and
related skills developed with the rise of the Harappan civilization. At the same time,
techniques demanding complex skills (in terms of duration of apprenticeship) like the
potter's wheel were diffusing all over the Harappan cities. We see here a major break in the
realm of techniques marked out by the adoption and development of new skills, which
took a long time to learn, either over a very large area (pottery) or a limited one (long
barrel-cylinder beads) depending on the function of the objects. On this basis, we suggest
that such a change might be linked with a fundamental change in pre-Harappan society,
the emergence of a cohesive strength (political and/or religious) at the regional and
inter-regional level which justifies the general investment in the long apprenticeship of new
skills whose goal is beyond technical or economic profit. 'People' responsible for the
appearance of long carnelian beads might have played an important part in the
construction of this cohesive strength, which remains to be defined, in the future, through
a detailed techno-economical study of the different types of site.
Conclusions
In this paper, we have analyzed skills involved in stone-bead knapping. This analysis
suggests that the action plan depends to a large extent on the control of elementary
movement. The less the control, the more difficult it is to organize an adequate succession
of action. Apprenticeship in the elementary movement takes time and could explain the
long duration of apprenticeship followed by experts. When applied to archaeological data,
these results enable us to interpret Harappan barrel-cylinder carnelian beads as highly
valuable, made by a few craftsmen who developed specialized skills in comparison to the
ones developed by the other beadmakers (nevertheless to be considered as techno-
economically specialized: Roux 1990b), so as to respond to a new limited demand.
To study the skills involved in stone-bead knapping and to analyze them in terms of
difficulty of apprenticeship, we developed what we call 'experimental field' studies. This
perspective is becoming possible owing to the technological advances that allow for
portable technological devices based on laboratory techniques. It raises new questions
about how fundamental mechanisms studied in a laboratory setting are used in functional
complex motor-skills learning, giving good evidence that it is time now to go outside the
laboratory and to study real life skills. It also raises new questions about the methodologi-
cal approach of apprenticeship in anthropological studies, providing good evidence that it
is time to go beyond observation and empirical experience by taking advantage of the

methodologies worked out by psychologists.
From a general point of view, study of the skills developed by a group should enable us
on-the one hand to have a better understanding of the observable technological choices, on
the other hand to assess problems posed by technical changes (innovation or borrowing).
When technological study is combined with quantitative data, a techno-economic picture
of the groups starts to emerge which gives us insights into the functioning of these groups
and the way this was modified through centuries.
Acknowledgements
We would like warmly to thank the craftsmen who accepted an unusual working situation;
the Akikwala family who put their workshop at our disposal; Jacques Pelegrin and
Catherine Perles for their constructive comments on an earlier version of this paper;
Michele Ballinger for her drawings.
This research was supported by a grant 'Sciences de la Cognition' from the Ministry of
National Education, and by a grant from the French Institute of Pondicherry. The
computer program 'Kronos' was written by Alain Kerguelen (EPHE, Paris).
Valentine Roux
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique

Meudon
Blandine Bril
Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales
Paris
Gilles Dietrich
Institut National des Sports et d'Education Physique
Paris
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Skills and learning difficulties

involved in stone knapping: the

V. Roux, B. Bril and G. Dietrich

Stone knapping; skills; apprenticeship; beads; Indus Valley.

World Archaeology Vol. 27 (1): 63-87 Symbolic Aspects of Early Technologies

Place of skills in technological studies

Theoretical frameworks in the domain of motor learning

Figure 1 Indirect percussion

Description of the technique

The knapping technique is an 'indirect percussion by rebound' (Pelegrin 1994). The

The experimental field study: material and apparatus

Plate 1 Glass and stone rough-

Dat a r edu ction

I ..... .........:::: :::

?... : ,.. . . . . :.:. :.

The result of the action: the beads

percussion point percussion point

0,5 1 duration (s)

Figure 4 Data from the accelerometer for

given in Table 2. An index of 1 with

The action plan

Length 68.53 (1.65) 61.92 (8.52)

Length 66.97 (1.31) 66.01 (3.58)

Table 1 Averages of bead dimensions given in millimeters (converted from

STONE 0.942 (0.029) 0.895 (0.050)

GLASS 0.919 (0.029) 0.860 (0.032)

Table 2 Averages of bead index of sphericity by group and raw materia

b) Whole knapping duration The whole knapping duration in g

ABDUL LATIF 5.49 (0.39) 2.50 (0.29) ASHOK 5.47 (0.43)

GROUP 1 6.23 (1.50) 3.39 (2.16) GROUP 2 3.30 (1.35) idem

Table 3 Whole knapping duration and knapping duration minu

c) Sub-goals knapping duration There are two major diff

The elementary movement

a) Duration of the movement (Table 4) The duration of the movement is on

* All subjects differentiate glass knapping from stone knapping, showin

ca/5 //' ,' "'""',","

0 axial/r ' ....... . I'

Endl End2 Hassam- Group 1 - Glass bead n6 -

> undecidable- &/X lll

action unfolding (min

Group 1 - Stone Group 2 - Stone

Group 1 - Glass Group 2 - Glass

axial/ r: xial removal

rc : reduction of the crest by transv. flakes

endfi : end finishing

AbdulLatif 246 (17) Ashok 234 (16)

AbdulLatif 249 (13) Ashok 215 (17)

Table 4 Averages of the duration of the elementary movemen

Abdul Latif 68.4 (8.4) Ashok 55.2 (5.4)

Hassam 77.8 (7.9) Deepak 95.5 (15.6)

Hussein 75.4 (14.2) Hashmuk 59.2 (9.6)

Inayat 66.4 (7.8) Navin 41.4 (5.6)

Rashik 58.2 (10.5) Sunam 72.2 (5.9)

Abdul Latif 57.1 (4.3) Ashok 37.7 (3.3)

Hassam 47.8 (4.7) Deepak 69 (11.6)

Inayat 57.8 (6) Navin 25.6 (2.2)

Rashik 27.5 (5.1) Sunam 48.8 (3.3)

Table 5 Maximum amplitude of acceleration of the elementary m

Figure 7 Top: Harappa

that, whatever the tim

is time to go beyond observation and empirical experience by taking advantage of the

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique

Bril, B. 1984. L'analyse du geste technique: quelles m6thodes? Techniques et Culture, 3: 81