A Survey From 1G to 5G Including the Advent of

6G: Architectures, Multiple Access Techniques, and

Emerging Technologies
A. F. M. Shahen Shah
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul-34220, Turkey.
shahen.shah@hotmail.com

Abstract— There is an evolution in cellular communication 1G 2G 3G 4G 5G 6G

due to the high demand for better quality of service, data rates,
capacity, and lower latency. To satisfy these expectations,
2022 IEEE 12th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (CCWC) | 978-1-6654-8303-2/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/CCWC54503.2022.9720781

cellular network design is being drastically improved. This

paper provides a survey of cellular network architectures,
multiple access techniques, and emerging technologies from first
More than
generation (1G) to fifth generation (5G). The paper also includes 100-1000 Mbps
1-10 Gbps 10 Gbps

a glimpse at what the forthcoming sixth generation (6G) might 2.4 Kbps
64 Kbps 2 Mbps
High Data Rate
Internet of Things
Massive Broadband
New Spectrum
Energy Efficiency
anticipate. The architecture of the cellular network from 1G to Voice call
SMS
Digital signals
Internet
Web Applications
Mobile Applications
Internet of Applications
Smart City
VR / AR
Artificial Intelligence
Blockchain
Analog signals
5G is presented. Some of the important emerging technologies Larger service Smartphones

1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s

that enable the architecture to be improved and fulfill user
needs are discussed. These emerging technologies include
massive MIMO, software-defined networking, mm-Wave, etc.
Moreover, multiple access techniques used from 1G to 5G are
studied. Comparison among different generations of cellular
communication is presented. There are challenges and open
issues for 6G which are described.
Keywords—5G, 6G, cellular network architectures, emerging
technologies, massive MIMO, mm-Wave, multiple access
techniques, software-defined networking
I. INTRODUCTION
The development of cellular communication is needed to
support the increased number of users, mobility, higher
coverage, data rate, spectral efficiency, etc [1]. In the 1980s,
1G was launched to provide voice call which was analog
signals. In the 1990s, 2G started to provide voice services with
digital signals. 2G also supports short message service (SMS).
From 2.5G, email and web-browsing started. In the 2000s, 3G
initiated video telephony, mobile TV, and video conference.
The advent of smartphones and mobile broadband is taken
place. Circuit switching is used in 1G and 2G technologies,
whereas both circuit and packet switching is used in 2.5G and
3G. In the 2010s, 4G facilitates high data rate applications, e.g.
HD TV, cloud computing, video gaming, etc. In the 2020s, 5G
is started to deploy which enables Internet of things (IoT) [2],
smart city, massive broadband, virtual reality (VR) [3],
augmented reality (AR) [4], device to device communication,
vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) [5] etc. Only packet
switching is used in 4G and 5G. There is a need for speed from
1G to 5G. 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G support 2.4 kbps, 64 kbps,
2000 kbps, 100 Mbps, and more than 1 Gbps, respectively.
The speed of 6G is predicted to be minimum 10 Gbps to 1
Tbps peak data rates. The evolution of cellular communication
is presented in Fig. 1.
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time
division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple
access (CDMA), and orthogonal frequency division multiple
access (OFDMA) are some of the multiple access methods
that have evolved from 1G to 5G [6]. FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA, and OFDMA are utilized in 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G,
respectively. All of these multiple access techniques are
orthogonal multiple access (OMA). Although it was expected
that non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) [7] will be used
Fig. 1. The evolution of cellular communication [6].
in 5G, it also uses OFDMA. Multiple access technique is
different from 1G to 5G which is plays a major role in
supporting number of users. To fulfil users demand for
different services and higher speed, the evolution is going on.
There are some technologies which enable the development.
5G brings a new era in communication field. There are some
emerging technologies such as massive multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO) [8], software-defined networking
[9], mm-Wave [10], etc. which enable 5G. To make
development in cellular communication understanding these
technologies is important. The idea or imagination of new
technologies for next generation cellular communication
should be build up.
In this paper, a survey of cellular network architectures
from 1G to 5G is presented. Multiple access techniques used
from 1G to 5G are discussed. To satisfy users demand, there
is a technology behind in each generation which are discussed.
Specially, emerging technologies for 5G is provided. The
challenges are discussed and future research guidelines are
mentioned. This study will aid in the understanding of
network architectures, multiple access techniques, services,
upcoming technologies, and other topics covering from 1G to
5G, which will be useful in determining future research areas.
The study also gives a preview of what the upcoming 6G may
bring. Moreover, challenges and further scopes are presented.
The rest of the article is arranged as follows: Section II
illustrates evolution of cellular network architecture. Section
III describes emerging technologies for 5G. In Section IV,
multiple access techniques are presented. Section V provides
challenges and open issues for 6G. Finally, the paper wraps up
in Section VI.
II. EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
A. 1G
This first-generation is referred to as 1G and is known as
advanced mobile phone services (AMPS). In a 1G mobile
cellular system was built to accommodate voice
communications for mobile users. When a user moves
towards another base station (or cell), a voice call might "hand
off". The analog frequency modulation (FM) technique was

978-1-6654-8303-2/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE

1117
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.

BTS
BTS
BTS
PSTN MTSO
BTS
BTS
Fig. 2. 1G network architecture block diagram.
used. The spectrum was segmented at 30 kHz frequencies,
which were referred to as channels. For the length of the call,
a single user used the whole channel. A frequency reuse
approach was created to provide a large coverage area. Other
users were permitted to utilize the same frequency channels at
the identical time as long as the distance between them was
sufficient to produce little interference. Co-channel
interference, also known as inter-cell interference, is the name
given to this kind of interference. A new technology known as
narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS) was launched in an attempt to
boost overall system capacity. Channel spacing was lowered
to 10 kHz in this case. Fig. 2 illustrates a typical 1G cellular
network design.
A hexagonal form is used to represent a cell. The cells may
be split into smaller cells, often known as sectors, to enhance
capacity. The base transceiver stations (BTS) as well as the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) are connected via
the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). It also
manages handoffs, call routing, registration, and
authentication, among other things. This was a circuit
switched (CS) [11] network. To offer voice services, the
network needed licensed spectrum, which operators acquired
from the appropriate regulatory organizations. In 1G, there
were three cellular standards: AMPS in the US, Nordic mobile
telephone (NMT) in the Nordic nations, and Total access
communication system in the UK.
B. 2G
This second-generation (2G) mobile cellular networks
were developed to increase the capacity of voice users while
also providing integrated data services. Digital modulation
replaced analog modulation in technology. This change to
digital permitted improved voice communications via the use
of voice coders (vocoders), data services, originally through
SMS, security encryption, and enhanced system capacity.
These were all CS-based networks that evolved over time to
include extensions (e.g., from 2G to 2.5G to 2.75G) that
permitted interface to packet switched (PS)-based networks
[12]. As customers' appetites grew, 2G was forced to evolve
in little stages, such as 2.5G (GPRS) [13] and 2.75 (EDGE)
[14]. Both were designed to boost user data rates above the
basic global system for mobile communications (GSM)
capacity and to provide packet services capability. Fig. 3
shows a block schematic of the GSM network architecture.
OSS
VLR
Core Network
MSC GMSC
Voice
BTS
BTS BSC HLR AUC
BTS
BSS Data
SGSN GGSN
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the 2G GSM network architecture.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Core Network
Voice
MSC & VLR GMSC PSTN
NodeB
BTS NodeB RNC HLR & AUC
NodeB
BTS UTRAN Data
SGSN GGSN PDN
Fig. 4. Block diagram of 3G WCDMA network architecture.
The base station subsystem (BSS) is consists of two
components: base transceiver stations (BTSs) and the base
station controller (BSC). The complete GSM network is
controlled and monitored by the operation and support
subsystem (OSS). Registration, authentication, call routing,
call location, and other services are provided by the mobile
switching center (MSC). A database of subscriber information
called the Home/Visitor Location Register (HLR/VLR). To
route calls to the right MSC, HLR provides subscriber data to
the gateway mobile switching center (GMSC). For managing
mobility and packet routing, a serving GPRS support node
(SGSN) is used. The network connectivity between GPRS
network as well as outer packet-switched networks are
organized by the Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN). GSM
in Europe, IS-54 (also known as IS-136) in the United States,
and IS-95 (also known as CDMA-One) in the United States
and Korea were the three cellular protocols used in 2G.
C. 3G
The third-generation (3G) digital cellular technology was
designed to expand system subscriber capacity and meet the
growing demand for data rates. This 3G allowed consumers to
access the internet while still receiving phone and data
services. It was also the spark for the introduction of video
apps on cellular users' handsets. From the beginning, both CS
and PS services were provided. The multiple access (MA)
technology changed from TDMA and CDMA to CDMA as
the standard. GSM/IS-136 developed into Wideband CDMA
(WCDMA), and CDMA-One became CDMA2000. Multiple
subscribers are segregated by pseudo-random noise (PN)
codes and broadcast simultaneously across the entire
bandwidth available in CDMA. Fig. 4 depicts the 3G
WCDMA network architecture.
The radio network controller (RNC) substituted the BSC
functions, whereas the NodeB replaced the BTS functions.
Universal mobile telephone system (UMTS) is another name
for WCDMA. NodeB and RNC groups make up the UMTS
terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN). The WCDMA
cellular system developed into high-speed packet access
(HSPA), which had both downlink (HSDPA) and uplink
(HSUPA) elements. HSPA was developed in response to the
demand for a more efficient method of delivering packet
services. HSPA pioneered the shared channel idea as well as
adaptive modulation and coding (AMC), which enabled
hybrid automated repeat requests (HARQ). WCDMA
(commonly known as UMTS) and CDMA2000 were the two
cellular protocols used in 3G.
PSTN
D. 4G
The fourth-generation (4G) digital cellular technology was
designed to keep up with the system's growing capacity and
data rate hunger. Data rates have to be significantly increased
PDN
in order to support mobile internet and video applications.
Long term evolution (LTE), often known as 4G, is a
technology that exclusively enables PS-based networking.
1118
 Control Plane EPC
MME HSS
eNodeB
Voice
eNodeB
& gNodeB
eNodeB S-GW P-GW
Data
EUTRAN
Data Plane PCRF
Fig. 5. Block diagram of the 4G LTE network architecture.
Licensed, unlicensed, and shared spectrum options are
included in LTE with the goal of improving data speeds for
users, latency, system capacity, and the overall user
experience. OFDMA (through inverse fast Fourier transform
(iFFT) and FFT operations) was selected to effectively handle
FDMA multiple access, which split the spectrum into sub-
channels with spacing of 15 kHz. MIMO is used in 4G. Fig. 5
shows a block schematic of the 4G LTE network architecture.
A single worldwide cellular standard exists for 4G. The
core network (CN) functions were replaced by the evolved
packet core (EPC), and the NodeB functions were replaced by
the eNodeB. eNodeB and EPC groups make up the evolved
UTRAN (EUTRAN). Both control plane and user plane
signals are used in the EUTRAN to EPC connection. This was
the start of a project to divide the user and control planes so
that varied evolution rates and network deployment
scenarios/options could be accommodated. From UMTS and
GSM, the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) element is taken. It
is a central database that contains data about all network
subscribers. The packet data network gateway (P-GW) is a
gateway that connects packet data networks (PDN) to the
outside world. An access point name (APN) is used to identify
each packet data network. Data from the base station is routed
via the serving gateway (S-GW) to the PDN gateway. With
UMTS and GSM, the PDN gateway serves in the same
capacity as GGSN and SGSN. The mobility management
entity (MME) uses signaling messages and the HSS to govern
the mobile's high-level functioning. As a part of the P-GW's
policy control enforcement function (PCEF), the policy
control and charging rules function (PCRF) makes policy
control decisions and regulates charging features that are
flow-based. The control plane is used by the nodes to
communicate with one another and exchange signaling
messages. The UE's data session is controlled by the signaling
messages. The nodes may use the signaling messages to start,
stop, or change the UE's data session. While the nodes are on
the user plane, the user data transmitted and received between
the UE and the PDN is exchanged.
VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution) [15] is a high-
speed cellular communication protocol developed by LTE.
The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture framework
underpins VoLTE, with specialized characteristics for the
control and media planes of voice service. Circuit switched
fallback (CSFB) [16] is a technique that allows GSM or
another circuit-switched network to supply voice and SMS
services to LTE devices. Because LTE is a packet-based all-
IP network, it cannot enable circuit-switched calls, CSFB is
required. When an LTE device makes or receives a voice call
or SMS, it "falls back" to the 3G or 2G network to finish the
conversation or send the SMS text message.
E. 5G
This 5G cellular technology outperforms LTE in terms of
features and performance. In comparison to today's 4G
cellular networks, 5G is expected to have a substantially
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
NG-RAN 5GC
Control
gNodeB Plane UDM PCF
gNodeB
gNodeB DU CU
DU gNodeB AF
AMF SMF
PDN gNodeB DU
CU Voice
DU
UPF &
PDN
Data Data
Plane
Fig. 6. 5G NR network architecture block diagram.
higher device density per square kilometer, a much lower
latency, and much higher system capacity. Increased system
capacity, enormous number of connections, higher user data
rate, reduced end-to-end latency, flexible bandwidth
deployments, diverse mix of services, network flexibility, and
transition to more energy-efficient communications are all
driving reasons for 5G. Certain new technologies is proposed
and developed for 5G in order to meet these needs. Software-
defined networking, massive MIMO, mm-Wave, NOMA,
cloud radio access network (cloud-RAN) [17], mobile edge
computing, M2M communications, ultra-dense networks,
wireless caching, as well as full-duplex communication are
just a few of these technologies. Fig. 6 shows a block
schematic of the 5G cellular network architecture.
The "next generation NodeB" or "gNB" is the name given
to the base station (BS) in a 5G new radio (NR) network. The
NG-RAN is made up of two groups: distributed unit (DU) and
centralized unit (CU). gNodeB has substituted eNodeB. 5G
core (5GC) has replaced EPC. The access and mobility
management function (AMF) is liable for mobility
management, ciphering and integrity protection,
authentication, and authorisation, among other things. The
session management function (SMF) is accountable for the
allocation of UE IP address and maintenance, as well as UPF
selection and control, roaming, and other tasks. Subscription
management, registration, user data, and mobility
management are all handled by unified data management
(UDM). The policy control function (PCF) is liable for
enforcing policy rules for CP functions, among other things.
The user plane function (UPF) handles the external connecting
point to the data network, as well as UP QoS management. For
policy control and other purposes, the application function
(AF) deals with the policy framework. The cell-less network
is predicted for 6G to provide seamless mobility support
without the overhead of handovers. In 6G, 3D network
architecture will be used to give three-dimensional coverage,
augmenting terrestrial infrastructures with non-terrestrial
platforms (e.g., balloons, drones, and satellites).
III. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR 5G
5G enables many new applications which become true due
to some emerging technologies. In this section, these new
technologies will be discussed.
A. Massive MIMO
MIMO is a radio antenna technology which deploys
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
increase the quality, throughput, and capacity of the radio link.
Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO) increases network capacity
by sending multiple streams to many users concurrently over
the identical time as well as frequency resource. MIMO is
used in many modern wireless and RF technologies, including
Wi-Fi and LTE. 3GPP, the global organization responsible for
the definition of wireless standards, first specified MIMO for
LTE in 2008, in its Release 8. This initial variant used two
1119
 transmitters and two receivers, 2x2 MIMO, and subsequent
increases in processing power have enabled the use of more
simultaneous data streams in wireless networks with current
4G LTE networks using 4×4 MIMO.
Massive MIMO is a term that refers to the enormous
number of antenna components employed in antenna signal
processing. To be termed huge, the number of antennas must
be larger than 64. The process of large numbers is used in
massive MIMO to ensure that when signals from multiple
antennas are merged in the air, channel and hardware flaws
(such as noise, fading, and hardware) are averaged out. With
several antennas, there are two choices on how to utilize them:
The first step is to produce array gain by focusing energy in
desirable signal directions while nulling energy in undesired
signal directions (forming a beam). Then, by delivering
distinct data streams on each antenna, spatial multiplexing
gain may be achieved. To boost the total user or system data
rate, either strategy may be employed. Fig. 7 shows both
alternatives.
The achievable spectral efficiency in a cell can be given as
[18]
D 1
SE  N K (1  ) log 2 (1  ), [bit/s/Hz/cell]
S I
where SE denotes spectral efficiency. The base stations (BS)
communicates with NK single-antenna user equipments (UEs)
at the time. S is the transmission symbols per frame, with D
being pilot transmission symbols. I is the interference term.
Massive MIMO is based upon the three key concepts of
spatial diversity [19], spatial multiplexing, and beamforming
[20]. The various reflected signals will reach at the receiving
antenna with differing time delays, levels of attenuation and
direction of travel due to different obstacles resulting in
multiple signal paths. When multiple receive antennas are
deployed, each antenna receives a slightly different version of
the signal, which can be combined mathematically to improve
the quality of the transmitted signal. This technique is known
as spatial diversity since the receiver antennas are spatially
separated from each other. Spatial diversity is also achieved
by transmitting the radio signal over multiple antennae, with
each antenna, in some cases, sending modified versions of the
signal. Whilst spatial diversity increases the reliability of the
radio link, spatial multiplexing increases the capacity of the
radio link by using the multiple transition paths as additional
channels for carrying data. Spatial multiplexing allows
multiple, unique, streams of data to be sent between the
transmitter and receiver, significantly increasing throughput
and also enabling multiple network users to be supported by a
single transmitter, hence the term MU-MIMO.
Rather of broadcasting to a large region as seen in Fig. 8,
beamforming employs modern antenna technology to
concentrate a wireless signal in a specified direction.
Beamforming is another important wireless method that
works in tandem with Massive MIMO to boost network
capacity and performance. Rather of broadcasting to a large
region, beamforming employs sophisticated antenna
technology to concentrate a wireless signal in a precise
direction. This method lowers interference between beams
pointed in various directions, allowing bigger antenna arrays
to be deployed. A Massive MIMO system's enormous number
of antennas allows 3D beamforming, which produces both
horizontal as well as vertical beams toward subscribers,
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Fig. 7. Spatial multiplexing (left) and single/multi-user
beamforming (right) are two examples of massive MIMO.
Fig. 8. Beamforming focuses a wireless signal in a specific
direction.
improving data speeds (and capacity) for all subscribers –
especially helpful in high-rise metropolitan environments.
(1) Massive MIMO could be enhanced to ultra-massive MIMO
(UM MIMO) for 6G.
B. Software-defined networking
Software-defined networking (SDN) is a networking
technology that aims to make networks more adaptable and
responsive. SDN was initially characterized as a network
design, construction, and management technique that splits
the control and forwarding planes, allowing network control
to be directly programmable as well as the underlying
infrastructure should be distant for applications and network
services. SDN is a new architecture that was created to make
networks more adaptable and cost-effective. By adopting a
different approach to network design, SDN enables for
dynamic network reconfiguration. Both the control and data
planes are included in a typical network device such as a router
or switch. Traffic is really transported via the data plane of the
network, whereas the control plane decides the direction that
traffic will follow across the network. Because the control and
data planes are separated, external configuration of network
equipment is possible via the use of vendor-independent
management software, potentially transforming the network
from closed to open. SDN also aids in network management
centralization for many organizations inside a cellular
network. The term "directly programmable" refers to the
decoupling of network control and data plane, allowing
network information to be stored in software-based SDN
controllers. The word "open" refers to an industry-wide
agreement on an open standard for controlling different
vendors' equipment. Agile allows operators to dynamically
configure, operate, and optimize their cellular networks
depending on varying traffic conditions and deployment
factors.
The network is divided into three levels by SDN:
application, control, and data. The SDN applications are
hosted in the application layer, which communicates with the
SDN-enabled controller through a standardized application
programming interface (API) called the northbound interface.
Developers may develop network configuration apps without
having to care about the intricacies of the underlying network.
Network applications, cloud orchestration, and business apps
1120
 Fig. 9. The 5G mmWave spectrum.
are all examples of SDN applications. In the control layer,
SDN separates the control plane from the data plane. The SDN
controller is a control layer component that interprets
application layer needs and manages SDN data channels. The
SDN controller creates and displays a logical map of the
network for SDN applications at the application layer to make
efficient decisions. The infrastructure layer refers to the
network hardware (base stations, core network, switches,
routers, and so on) that implements SDN data pathways and
forwards traffic. To allow programming from SDN
controllers, the infrastructure layer must offer open standards-
based programmatic access to infrastructure.
The weighted sum of the packet latencies may be used to
define average delay in the SDN architecture. If Lathit is the
packet hits the access of the flow table, and Latmiss is the packet
misses the flow entry. The packet received at the SDN switch
has a probability of ε of finding the flow entry in the flow
table. Therefore, the average latency (l) can be given as [21]
l   Lathit  (1   ) Lat miss . [s]
The average throughput (th) can be given as [21]
th   (1  Pl )(  (1   )(1  Pc )), [packets/s]
where λ is the mean arrival rate. Pl and Pc indicate the blocking
probability for the low-priority queue and the blocking
probability of the controller queue, respectively.
C. mm-Wave
The word mmWave refers to a portion of the radio
frequency spectrum with a very small wavelength that is
between 24GHz and 100GHz. Because this part of the
spectrum is mostly untapped, mmWave technology intends to
significantly expand the amount of bandwidth accessible.
Lower frequencies, which are generally between 800 and
3,000MHz, are more highly crowded with TV and radio
transmissions, as well as modern 4G LTE networks. Another
advantage of this small wavelength is that it may carry data
even quicker, despite the reduced transmission distance. High-
frequency bands cover a smaller area but can send a lot more
data than low-frequency bands, which cover a bigger area but
send less data. The high-frequency bands over 24 GHz were
chosen because they have the ability to handle enormous
bandwidths and high data rates, making them excellent for
expanding wireless network capacity. Because of the tiny
wavelengths that can be measured in millimeters, these high-
frequency bands are commonly referred to as "mmWave."
Although the mmWave bands range all the way up to 300
GHz, 5G is planned to utilise the bands between 24 GHz to
100 GHz. Bandwidths of up to 2 GHz can be supported by
mmWave bands up to 100 GHz without the requirement to
combine bands for better data throughput. Fig. 9 depicts the
5G mmWave spectrum.
The cell sizes and densities of mmWave will be smaller
and greater. mmWave 5G networks are very fast, but they are
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Fig. 10. An outline of different multiple access systems: (a)
FDMA, (b) TDMA, (c) CDMA, and (d) OFDMA [24].
also quite limited in range. A subscriber is needed to be within
a block of a 5G tower to utilize mmWave technology, which
isn't possible in suburban and rural locations. Doors, windows,
trees, and walls obstruct and conceal mmWave signal, further
restricting its potential range, and since it needs so many
towers for coverage, it is costly for carriers to install.
mmWave technology isn't practicable in rural and suburban
regions due to a lack of range, where Sub-6GHz networks is
used. Sub-6GHz 5G [22] is quicker than 4G, but it doesn't
(2) provide the same blistering speeds as mmWave. It is far more
economical for carriers to deploy since it has a greater range
and can penetrate things better. The mid- and low-frequency
(3) bands under 6GHz are referred to as sub-6GHz. LTE speeds
may slow in congested regions due to the amount of devices
connecting, but mmWave technology can manage a higher
number of connections without experiencing major
performance decreases. As a result, mmWave may be put up
in congested regions where network congestion is an issue,
such as during sports events, concerts, airports, and other large
gatherings, as well as in metropolitan areas. Massive MIMO
antennas are used in 5G mmWave. The smaller cell sizes of
5G mmWave enable for not just great throughput but also
efficient spectrum usage, since frequencies may be reused
over short distances. Outdoor cell sizes are expected to range
from 100 to 200 meters, while inside high-density installations
might be as tiny as 10 meters. Line-of-sight (LOS) and non-
line-of-sight (NLOS) signal propagation, as well as antenna
design, play a big role in 5G mmWave performance.
The path loss for mmWave link can be given as [23]
   10 L log(r )   L if linkisLOS
Lmm (r )   [dB] (4)
   10 N log(r )   N otherwise,
where Lmm (r) denotes path loss for mmWave link at a distance
r [m]. αL and αN are the path loss exponent for LOS and NLOS,
respectively. χL and χN are zero mean log normal variables for
LOS and NLOS mmWave links, respectively. Terahertz
(THz) band communication might replace mmWave for 6G
which provides high data rates over short distances. THz band
is between 0.1−10 THz.
IV. MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
The mobile radio access technologies (RATs) are
presented in this section, along with their evolutionary
1121
 TABLE I. DIFFERENT GENERATIONS OF CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
Cellular Standards Applications Multiple Access Physical Duplex Switching
Generations Techniques Resources Methods Techniques
1G AMPS, NMT, Voice call with analog signals FDMA Frequency FDD CS
TACS
2G GSM, IS-54, Voice services with digital TDMA Time slots FDD CS,
IS-95 signals, SMS. From 2.5G, 2.5G – CS & PS
email and web-browsing.
3G WCDMA, Mobile TV, video telephony, CDMA Time slots/ FDD/ CS & PS
CDMA2000 and video conference PN codes TDD

4G LTE High data rate applications, OFDMA Time/ FDD/ PS

e.g. HD TV, cloud Frequency TDD
computing, video gaming, etc.
5G NR IoT, massive broadband, OFDMA Time/ FDD/ PS
smart city, VR, AR Frequency TDD

benefits and advantages. FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and
OFDMA are examples of multiple access methods [24]. All of
the aforementioned multiple access strategies may be thought
of as a kind of "orthogonal", in which users' access does not
interfere with each other as they share the wireless channel.
They are constrained by the quantity of resources available,
which forces them to be orthogonal. CDMA is an exception to
this rule, since the wireless device's transmission to the BS is
intrinsically non-orthogonal. The frequency is separated into
channels in FDMA so that different users may use it. In
FDMA, it's difficult to allocate numerous carriers to the
identical channel. Narrowband channels (smaller than the
wireless channel's coherence bandwidth) are preferred. To
limit spectral emissions into neighboring frequency bands,
guard bands in the frequency domain are required. A limited
amount of orthogonal resources are available. Time is split
into time slots in TDMA to enable several users to connect to
the cellular system. Compensation for inter-symbol
interference (equalization) is required. Guard bands are used
in the time domain to accommodate for UL transmission time
delay changes. To avoid destroying the OMA concept, time
slots must be synchronized across all usage. A limited amount
of orthogonal resources are available. Subscribers are divided
by PN codes in CDMA, and they all transmit concurrently
across the full frequency channel. Spreading codes are used to
use the whole bandwidth at the same time. A limited amount
of orthogonal resources are available. Subscribers are
assigned to distinct frequency channels at altered time slots in
OFDMA. Various sub-carriers are assigned to diverse users
(at various time slots). A limited amount of orthogonal
resources are available. Fig. 10 shows a visual representation
of several multiple access strategies that are related in three
domains: power, time, and frequency.
The error probability (Pe) is the rate of errors arises in the
received signal. For OFDMA, Pe of M-ary PSK can be given
as [25]
1  3Eav 
Pe  2(1  )erfc  ,
M  2( M  1) N 0 
where N0 is the density in AWGN, Eav is the value of average
transmitted symbol energy in M-ary QAM.
OFDMA is still employed in the 5G digital cellular
system, where the sub-carrier spacing and time slot lengths are
flexible and adaptable to meet a broad range of needs and use
cases. In 5G, NOMA is also planned to be used. Orthogonal
resource allocation is employed among users in an OMA
system, such as TDMA and FDMA, to prevent intra-cell
(inter-user) interference. The quantity of orthogonal resources
available limits the number of subscribers that may be
functioned. NOMA allows for and makes advantage of intra-
cell interference in user resource allocation. To reduce this
interference, approaches for example success interference
cancelation (SIC) or multi-user detection (MUD) are utilized.
NOMA stands for non-orthogonal MA, which allows several
users to share a single resource and thereby improves
subscriber and system throughput. It may take place in the
power domain, the code domain, or any other domain. In a
single-cell network, power domain NOMA takes use of
channel strength disparities between users and achieves the
capacity. Two subscribers may share the identical spectral
band in NOMA-based systems, with each subscriber having a
distinct power assigned to it. NOMA accomplishes
multiplexing based on distinct power levels in this case. Low-
complexity multi-user detection algorithms are often used in
code domain NOMA systems. Code domain NOMA is
exemplified by sparse code multiple access (SCMA), low-
density spreading (LDS)-CDMA, and interleave division
multiple access (IDMA). NOMA accomplishes multiplexing
using various codes in this case. Next generation multiple
access (NGMA) could be proposed for 6G that can adapt to
changing conditions (orthogonal or non-orthogonal, random
or scheduled). An overview of different generations of cellular
communication is presented in Table I.
V. CHALLENGES AND OPEN ISSUES FOR 6G
Challenges and open issues for 6G can be summarized as.
1. Though THz communication [26] can increase the capacity,
it may limit only for short-range communications because the
spectrum is prone to obstructions and significant absorption
losses. The deployment of several spectra in the network to
enable additional transmission flexibility is an important
research direction.
(5) 2. Using the visible spectrum, visible light communication
(VLC) has the ability to deliver the Tbps data rate which can
be a potential technology. A network capable of combining
RF and optical communications is another promising area for
future study.
3. Artificial intelligence (AI) can be used in 6G for channel
modeling, effective and fast signal processing, radio resource
management, efficient resource utilization, network fault
management, network optimization, and to ensure accurate

1122
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 Quality of Service (QoS), etc [27]. Another open issue is high-
quality dataset from mobile networks. A large and high-
quality dataset is critical for AI algorithms to perform well.
Without enough data, performance of AI may be affected by
under-fitting.
4. 6G is expected to connect networks in space, air, ground,
and water. As a result, adaptable schemes and dynamic
protocols that adapt to their surroundings are required to
provide smooth communication and network interoperability.
5. Another area of research is to develop a new dynamic
multiple access technology that can adapt to changing
conditions (orthogonal or non-orthogonal, random or
scheduled).
6. Both channel characterization and real-time channel
estimation are challenging in multi-band UM MIMO. The
primary reason for this is that distinct transmission windows
might display markedly different propagation properties, not
just in respects of path loss and transmission bandwidth, but
also in respect of coherence bandwidth and delay spread.
7. In order to provide broad coverage and high mobility, 6G
will integrate many networks, including terrestrial and
satellite ones. A significant latency, apparent Doppler shift,
and inter-satellite connectivity make satellite-to-ground
communications difficult to implement.
8. Traditional encryption has grown unsafe as big data and AI
technologies have advanced. Consequently, new privacy-
protecting techniques are needed. A type of distributed ledge
is blockchain which can be used.
VI. CONCLUSION
This study presents an overview of cellular network
designs, multiple access techniques, and emerging
technologies from 1G to 5G. Many applications arrived with
the evolution due to new technologies. Change in multiple
access techniques is noticeable. 1G AMPS used FDMA, 2G
GSM used TDMA, 3G WCDMA/ UMTS used CDMA, 4G
LTE and 5G NR use OFDMA. MIMO is used as a new
technology in 4G whereas massive MIMO with mm wave is
used in 5G. With new multiple access technique and
technologies, serving more users with faster speed become
possible. For 6G or next generation wireless communication
technology, THz band communication might replace
mmWave, massive MIMO could be enhanced to UM MIMO,
NGMA could be proposed. Challenges and open issues for 6G
are provided.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Dogra, R. K. Jha and S. Jain, "A Survey on Beyond 5G Network With
the Advent of 6G: Architecture and Emerging Technologies," in IEEE
Access, vol. 9, pp. 67512-67547, 2021.
[2] L. Chettri and R. Bera, "A Comprehensive Survey on Internet of Things
(IoT) Toward 5G Wireless Systems," in IEEE Internet of Things Journal,
vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 16-32, Jan. 2020.
[3] F. Guo, F. R. Yu, H. Zhang, H. Ji, V. C. M. Leung and X. Li, "An
Adaptive Wireless Virtual Reality Framework in Future Wireless
Networks: A Distributed Learning Approach," in IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, vol. 69, no. 8, pp. 8514-8528, Aug. 2020.
[4] X. Qiao, P. Ren, G. Nan, L. Liu, S. Dustdar and J. Chen, "Mobile web
augmented reality in 5G and beyond: Challenges, opportunities, and
future directions," in IEEE China Communications, vol. 16, no. 9, pp.
141-154, Sept. 2019.
[5] A. F. M. Shahen Shah, M. A. Karabulut, H. Ilhan and U. Tureli,
“Performance optimization of cluster-based MAC protocol for
VANETs,” in IEEE Access, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 167731 - 167738, 2020.
[6] A. F. M. Shahen Shah, A. N. Qasim, M. A. Karabulut, H. Ilhan and M.
B. Islam, “Survey and Performance Evaluation of Multiple Access
Authorized licensed use limited to: Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Downloaded on December 08,2023 at 14:07:57 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Schemes for Next-Generation Wireless Communication Systems,” in
IEEE Access, vol. 9, no.1, pp. 113428-113442, 2021.
[7] I. Budhiraja et al., "A Systematic Review on NOMA Variants for 5G and
Beyond," in IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 85573-85644, 2021.
[8] M. Sakai et al., "Experimental Field Trials on MU-MIMO
Transmissions for High SHF Wide-Band Massive MIMO in 5G," in
IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 19, no. 4, pp.
2196-2207, April 2020.
[9] C. N. Tadros, M. R. M. Rizk and B. M. Mokhtar, "Software Defined
Network-Based Management for Enhanced 5G Network Services," in
IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 53997-54008, 2020.
[10] R. Hussain, "Shared-Aperture Slot-Based Sub-6-GHz and mm-Wave
IoT Antenna for 5G Applications," in IEEE Internet of Things Journal,
vol. 8, no. 13, pp. 10807-10814, 1 July1, 2021.
[11] V. Abramov, S. Li, M. Wang, E. W. M. Wong and M. Zukerman,
"Computation of Blocking Probability for Large Circuit Switched
Networks," in IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 16, no. 11, pp. 1892-
1895, November 2012.
[12] W. Van Heddeghem et al., "Power consumption evaluation of circuit-
switched versus packet-switched optical backbone networks," in IEEE
Online Conference on Green Communications, 2013, pp. 56-63.
[13] S. Ni and S. -. Haggman, "GPRS performance estimation in GSM circuit
switched services and GPRS shared resource systems," in IEEE Wireless
Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), 1999, pp. 1417-
1421 vol.3.
[14] A. Furuskar, S. Mazur, F. Muller and H. Olofsson, "EDGE: enhanced
data rates for GSM and TDMA/136 evolution," in IEEE Personal
Communications, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 56-66, June 1999.
[15] A. Elnashar, M. A. El-Saidny and M. Mahmoud, "Practical
Performance Analyses of Circuit-Switched Fallback and Voice Over
LTE," in IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 66, no. 2,
pp. 1748-1759, Feb. 2017.
[16] R. Liou, Y. Lin, Y. C. Sung, P. Liu and C. Wietfeld, "Performance of
CS Fallback for Long Term Evolution Mobile Network," in IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 3977-3984,
Oct. 2014.
[17] L. Ferdouse, S. Erkucuk, A. Anpalagan and I. Woungang, "Energy
Efficient SCMA Supported Downlink Cloud-RANs for 5G Networks,"
in IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 1416-1430, 2020.
[18] E. Björnson, E. G. Larsson and M. Debbah, "Massive MIMO for
Maximal Spectral Efficiency: How Many Users and Pilots Should Be
Allocated?," in IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol.
15, no. 2, pp. 1293-1308, Feb. 2016.
[19] F. Arabian, G. P. Nordin and M. Rice, "On the Ungerboeck and Forney
Observation Models for Spatial Combining and Their Application to 5G
Millimeter-Wave Bands," in IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 22214-22231,
2021.
[20] C. Guo, L. Tian, Z. H. Jiang and W. Hong, "A Self-Calibration Method
for 5G Full-Digital TDD Beamforming Systems Using an Embedded
Transmission Line," in IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, vol. 69, no. 5, pp. 2648-2659, May 2021.
[21] W. Miao, G. Min, Y. Wu, H. Wang, and J. Hu, "Performance Modelling
and Analysis of Software-Defined Networking under Bursty Multimedia
Traffic," in ACM Trans. Multimedia Comput. Commun. Appl, vol. 12,
no.5s, pp. 1-19, 2016.
[22] S. M. Asif, M. R. Anbiyaei, K. L. Ford, T. O’Farrell and R. J. Langley,
"Low-Profile Independently- and Concurrently-Tunable Quad-Band
Antenna for Single Chain Sub-6GHz 5G New Radio Applications," in
IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 183770-183782, 2019.
[23] M. S. Omar, M. A. Anjum, S. A. Hassan, H. Pervaiz and Q. Niv,
"Performance analysis of hybrid 5G cellular networks exploiting
mmWave capabilities in suburban areas," in IEEE International
Conference on Communications (ICC), 2016, pp. 1-6.
[24] J. Boccuzzi, “Introduction to Cellular Mobile Communications,” In: M.
Vaezi, Z. Ding, H. Poor (eds): Multiple Access Techniques for 5G
Wireless Networks and Beyond, Springer, Cham, 2019, pp. 3-37.
[25] S. S. Prasad, C. K. Shukla and R. F. Chisab, "Performance analysis of
OFDMA in LTE," in IEEE International Conference on Computing,
Communication and Networking Technologies, 2012, pp. 1-7.
[26] B. Ji et al., "Several Key Technologies for 6G: Challenges and
Opportunities," in IEEE Communications Standards Magazine, vol. 5,
no. 2, pp. 44-51, June 2021.
[27] R. Shafin, L. Liu, V. Chandrasekhar, H. Chen, J. Reed and J. C. Zhang,
"Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Cellular Networks: A Critical Path to
Beyond-5G and 6G," in IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 27, no. 2,
pp. 212-217, April 2020.
1123