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Science in Archaeology: A Review
Author(s): Patrick E. McGovern, Thomas L. Sever, J. Wilson Myers, Eleanor Emlen

Myers, Bruce Bevan, Naomi F. Miller, S. Bottema, Hitomi Hongo, Richard H. Meadow,
Peter Ian Kuniholm, S. G. E. Bowman, M. N. Leese, R. E. M. Hedges, Frederick R.
Matson, Ian C. Freestone, Sarah J. Vaughan, Julian Henderson, Pamela B. Vandiver,
Charles S. Tumosa, Curt W. Beck, Patricia Smith, A. M. Child, A. M. Pollard, Ingolf
Thuesen and Catherine Sease
Source: American Journal of Archaeology , Jan., 1995, Vol. 99, No. 1 (Jan., 1995), pp.
79-142
Published by: Archaeological Institute of America
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/506880
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Science in Archaeology: A Review
PATRICK E. McGOVERN
The inaugural appearance of yet anotherometry""news-had no precise definition (it has yet to be
letter" of recent archaeological discoveries, reflect-
made an entry in Webster's or the Oxford unabridged
ing AJA's historic and ongoing commitment to such and that it was too narrowly focused on
dictionary),
reviews, is both auspicious and somewhat daunting.'
the physical sciences and connoted too great a con-
Late 20th-century science-here viewed in cern its more
for precise measurements ("-metry"). Archae-
narrow sense as the natural sciences-is now mak-
ologists might justifiably claim that their measure-
ing its share of discoveries in Old World archaeol-
ments, if not so precise, are at least better suited to
ogy, a field that some consider a rather esoteric cultural
pur- interpretation and broader issues of why
suit, divorced from the modern world. A review of things developed the way they did, how these devel-
this kind might then simply be seen as a long-overdueopments are expressed in the modern world, and
response to our headlong plunge into a technolog-whether any predictive value can be attached to such
ical present and future. Computers and other "black findings.
boxes" are no longer just the province of a few sci- The phrase "archaeological science" has fared
entific wizards, but are now part of everyone's life, somewhat better, but raises the hackles of both
including the archaeologist's, whether we like it or archaeologists (archaeology itself being viewed by
not and whether it produces worthwhile results in many as a social science) and natural scientists, who
our research or not. Since there is no turning back, do not view this as a well-developed discipline. Since
we all need advice on how best to cope with this revo- "Science and Archaeology" is a similarly infelicitous
lution and perhaps even come to enjoy it a little more.juxtaposition, I have settled on "Science in Archaeol-
Such a review can be as daunting to its author as ogy" as the title for this review. This phrase implies
to its readers. How does one launch an endeavor that
that science of whatever variety (social, biological,
has few if any precedents,2 and which even its prac- physical, etc.) has found its way into archaeology, and
titioners cannot decide among themselves what toit is for us to decide whether it is producing worth-
call? A roundtable discussion on "Future Directions while results.
in Archaeometry,"3 held in conjunction with the This review is not intended, however, to cover every
1981 Archaeometry symposium at Brookhaven Na- scientific approach or application in archaeology,
tional Laboratory, highlighted the fact that "archae-
but rather, to present a selected range of viewpoints
I Publication of this review has been made possible ofin some of the latest developments is the "Archaeometric
part by a generous subvention from the Frederick R. Clearinghouse"
and inJFA. C.W. Beck, who assiduously saw this
Margaret B. Matson Fund, established specifically to en-review through 26 installments, retired last year, and the
courage publication of technological studies in AJA. Fred S.
editorial reins have now been passed to J. Henderson of
Kleiner and Frederick R. Matson are to be especially Sheffield University. More specialized newsletters are also
thanked for first proposing the idea of such a reviewpublished
to on a regular basis-e.g., La Tinaja, which deals
me, and then helping to make it a reality by their sugges-
with archaeoceramics and is edited by J.E. Corbin (Box
tions, moral support, and, in the case of Fred Matson, con-
13047, SFA Station, Nacogdoches, Texas 75962-3047), and
tributing an essay of his own on ceramic ecology. Traceythe series of reviews on archaeometallurgy in theJournal
Cullen also provided very thoughtful and practical advice
ofMetals, edited by V.C. Pigott (MASCA, University Museum,
on goals and possible contributors. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
For a brief history of archaeological newsletters in AJA,
19104). Rather than duplicate what can already be found
see ES. Kleiner, "Archaeology in Asia Minor/Anatolia, 1955-
in these and other more eclectic newsletters, this overview
1993," AJA 98 (1994) 1-3. attempts to take stock of the "field" and develop guidelines
2 In the United States, the Society for Archaeologicalfor effective research and discussion among archaeologists
Sciences publishes the SAS Bulletin, which is a very useful
and natural scientists.
"newsletter" that provides up-to-date information on ad- 3J.S. Olin ed., Future Directions in Archaeometry: A Round
vances in the field, meetings, publications, and funding
Table (Washington, D.C. 1982).
opportunities. A series of textbooks on the archaeological
4 L. van Zeist, "Archaeometry: The Perspective of an Ad-
sciences is also currently being prepared by membersministrator,"
of in R.L. Bishop and EW. Lange eds., The Ceramic
this society in collaboration with Plenum Press, New York.
Legacy of Anna O. Shepard (Niwot, Colo. 1991) 346-57.
Another newsletter that has kept archaeologists abreast
79
American Journal of Archaeology 99 (1995) 79-142

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
80 PATRICK E. McGOVERN [AJA 99
and examples of how is natural science
difficult to obtain, because such researchfunctio
is too
an archaeological
framework.
"interdisciplinary"- it Future reviews
does not fit squarely into any
ing that this one is well
established discipline. With the all-too-common expa
received, will cut-
areas not covered here
backs inand, it is science
budgets generally, hoped, will
in archaeology
more fruitful theoretical perspectives on
will probably continue, for the foreseeable future, h
to integrate science with archaeology.
to be carried out by widely scattered individuals and
The terminologicalthedebate is
occasional research largely
group, a sy
approaching the sub-
of how poorly defined
ject from various scientific or archaeological perspec- th
and amorphous
is at present, as well tives.
as Science
disillusionment
in archaeology truly suffers fromwith
C.P.
or approaches that Snow's
promised moreIt may
"two culture" split personality.8 thanseem t
livered. If an academic discipline constit
exciting to explore a borderline discipline (where
autonomous body of knowledge,
serendipitous with
discoveries so often occur9) and be- re
practitioners, places come
where research
a polyglot interpreter is
of sorts,10 yet carri
the would-
and appropriate journals, publications,
be practitioner must be prepared to be misunder-prof
groups, and conferences to
stood and certainly disseminate
underfunded. t
ings,5 then the "archaeological sciences"
To be fair, the sheer dimensions are
of possible inter-
poorly developed. National, museum,
actions between archaeology and
and the natural sci-
laboratories6 do exist in
ences, the
ranging United
from the States,
subatomic to the astrophys-
and elsewhere, providing a context
ical level, preclude for
any simple definitions spec
and hence
plications of science ato
more archaeology,
systematic approach. Some may but the
choose to
ities primarily play a support
divide role, either
up the field by physicochemical techniques f
their efforts on individual collections and in-house
(whether neutron activation analysis, mass spec-
projects or providing a commercial service to archae- trometry, or optical microscopy)," others may opt
ologists (especially dating and geophysical prospect- for a materials science approach (ceramics, metal-
ing). Academic programs, which might serve to foster lurgy, etc.),12 while still others will argue for a gen-
research and develop a tradition of scholarship, are eral problem approach (such as establishing trade
virtually nonexistent.7 Public and private funding networks, reconstructing palaeodiets, or elucidating
5 See ER. Matson, "Archaeological Ceramics and the demonstrate the desirability and need of coupling archaeol-
Physical Sciences: Problem Definitions and Results," in J.S. ogy and natural sciences. SeeJ. Riederer ("Teaching Archae-
Olin and A.D. Franklin eds., Archaeological Ceramics (Wash- ometry as a Basis of Archaeometric Research") and S.E.
ington, D.C. 1982) 19-28; U. Franklin, "The Science of An-Warren ("The Education of the Archaeological Scientist")
cient Materials: A New Scholarly Field," Canadian Mining in Olin (supra n. 3) 34-35 and 36-38, respectively, and the
and Metallurgy Bulletin 70 (1977) 207-10. discussion session 34-46; also see J.A. Sabloff, "Toward a
6 Olin (supra n. 3) 109-45 (section on the "Roles of Mu- Future Archaeological Ceramic Science: Brief Observations
seum, University, Government, and Industrial Labora- from a Conference," in Bishop and Lange (supra n. 4)
tories") and van Zeist (supra n. 4). A recent British Museum 394-99.
publication, S. Bowman ed., Science and the Past (Toronto 8 C.P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolutio
1991), provides an excellent overview of interdisciplinary(New York 1963).
research in the Department of Scientific Research of the 9 R.M. Roberts, Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science
British Museum that will be readily comprehensible to(New York 1989).
the nonspecialist. I C.S. Smith, "Measurement and History," in Olin
7New and Old World archaeology, incorporating nat- (supra n. 3) 49-51.
ural scientific training to some extent, are taught in the 11 Textbooks of archaeometry, exemplified by M.S. Tite's
same academic department (Archaeology) at Boston Uni- Methods ofPhysical Examination in Archaeology (London 1972),
versity. Several programs are also attached to materialshave generally followed this format.
science and/or anthropology departments in the United 12 This approach has much to commend it, since the
States (e.g., the Massachusetts Institute of Technology andmaterials sciences are now a recognized academic discipline
the University of Arizona) and Canada (University of involving interdisciplinary scientific research. The detailed
Toronto). In England and Germany, separate departments study of technological features of artifacts or art objects,
of archaeological sciences (e.g., the University of Bradford as well as the elucidation of corrosion and other processes
and the Institute of Archaeology at the University ofof physical and chemical change, have obvious applications
London) exist or have integrated natural scientific studiesin museum curatorship, art history, and archaeology gen-
effectively into their archaeological curricula. Conserva- erally. Collaboration with and financial backing from pri-
tion programs (e.g., at the Institute of Fine Arts in Newvate industries is a natural extension of this academic
York or the Institute of Archaeology at the University ofliaison.
London), although having more pragmatic goals, clearly

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
1995] SCIENCE IN ARCHAEOLOGY: A REVIEW
cognitive processes of ancient humans).13

Archaeologists alsoEach
aspire toap-generalized and de-
proach has its advantages and disadvantages, and
tailed reconstructions in time and space, as well as
may seem relatively more interesting
establishingor boring
cause and effect to relationships, based on
the archaeologist or natural scientist,14 but all share
an analysis of its restricted data base. Unfortunately,
the premise that information madebecause ofavailable
the disciplinary only schizophrenia already
by the natural sciences can be used to shed light
mentioned, most archaeologists on are not trained in
issues ranging from the most fundamental-
how to extract natural for ex-
scientific information from
ample, dating an archaeologicaltheir
sitesites and the artifacts thatto
or artifact- they recover. Lack-
the most ambitious and potentially important,
ing a basic knowledge of the viz.,
natural sciences, archae-
the origins and development of humans
ologists and their
are at a disadvantage in properly recover-
cultures.
ing and interpreting materials from sites that have
It is not difficult to understand why science should
certainly been altered by geological and biological
play an important role in archaeology. The general processes and of which now mostly inorganic ma-
principles and empirical procedures of stratigraphic terials remain. Some archaeologists, recognizing the
excavation and record-keeping, as well as site surveydeficiency in their training, have the good sense to
and landscape archaeology, themselves embody the enlist the help of natural scientists in a multidisci-
empirical observation and systematization that char-plinary effort, which is the hallmark of most mod-
acterize science. Unlike chemistry and physics (the ern scientific projects. Unless the natural scientist's
"hard sciences"), experiments in archaeology can-
role is to be no more than "window-dressing;' how-
not be repeated, but, like geology or astronomy, ar- ever, there has to be a very serious attempt by all
chaeology is concerned with evidence of past events involved, archaeologist and natural scientist alike,
(during the relatively short span of earth history over
to articulate the goals of the project in their respec-
the past several million years) and the interpretationtive "languages" and develop an effective research
of that evidence within a more general theoretical design for answering some significant cultural ques-
context. In the historical natural sciences, a limitedtions.15 Placing specialist studies with little if any re-
range of materials is subjected to a battery of analyses
lationship to the archaeological interpretations at
(material, imaging, and statistical), and interpreta-the end of an excavation report illustrates how not
tions are based on general scientific "laws" (uniformi-
to do interdisciplinary research. Equally reprehen-
tarianism, the structure and mutation rates of DNA
sible is a scientific study ofunprovenienced, possibly
strands, the speed of light, and so forth). Even withfake, archaeological material parading masses of data
their sophisticated tools (like the Hubble space tele-
that may have been generated by the most sophis-
scope), there is room for disagreement on how theticated analytical tools available but which are ar-
data should be interpreted. As just one example, not
chaeologically meaningless.16
all scientists agree that the dinosaurs were warm-The communication gap between natural scien-
blooded, social creatures, or that they became extinct
tists and archaeologists is exacerbated by the human
when an asteroid collided with the earth.
dimension, which cannot be easily factored into an
3 Such studies are interdisciplinary almost by defini- and Mesopotamia-but where is the evidence for these
tion. For example, a recent conference on "The Origins developments, and how is it to be recovered from excava-
and Ancient History of Wine" (in press, under the same tions and scientifically verified? By attempting to tailor
title, and edited by P.E. McGovern, S.J. Fleming, and S.H. our survey, excavation, and analytical strategies to specific
Katz) brought together specialists in palaeoethnobotany, research objectives, the advantages of collaborative re-
archaeology, genetics, enology, art, food science, chemis- search, despite the specialization and fragmentation of
try, textual analysis, and history. Besides reviewing and de- modern knowledge, will become apparent.
bating the available evidence for viticulture and vinicul-
14 E Widemann, "Why Is Archaeometry So Boring for
ture, participants were encouraged to look at this beverage, Archaeologists?" in Olin (supra n. 3) 29-36.
which played an important role in the diet, economy, social 15 Supra n. 13. Also see S.P. De Atley and R.L. Bishop,
structure, and religion of ancient societies, from a variety "Toward an Integrated Interface for Archaeology and
of perspectives and develop innovative approaches to Archaeometry," and De Atley, "Potter's Craft or Analyst's
answer culturally significant questions. Asjust one example, Tool: A Century of Ceramic Technology Studies in the
many centuries of experimentation in plant domestication American Southwest," in Bishop and Lange (supra n. 4)
and crossbreeding, wine making itself, and in pottery tech- 205-23 and 358-80, respectively.
nology (to produce relatively airtight, stoppered vessels 16J.A. Moore and A.S. Keene eds., Archaeological Ham-
of dense fabrics) were presumably required to reach the mers and Theories (New York 1983).
level of expertise that is evident by ca. 3000 B.C. in Egypt

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
interpretative schema
Lacking most of and which
the material ma
evidence that once
ogy a very existed, especially the
"soft"
science. organics that comprised
Archaeological
appear humans themselves, their personal
to be an extension of belongings
the and nat
simply needing to buildings,
be food, etc.,2' archaeological interpreta-
subjected to thor
and chemical investigation
tions are perforce extremelyforweak. A deficiency
their of si
data, however,instances,
be elucidated. In some should not be taken as an excuse this
for m
The microstructure of
fuzzy thinking. The a ceramic
consequences of an interpreta- or
artifact may reveal
tion based how
on the availableit was
data should made
be deduced;
cautious use of ethnographic
if borne out, the hypothesis gains in analogy
credibility.22
facets of the organization
Tests that demand a tangibleof outcome,the ind
such as a cer-
tainly, the radiocarbon reservoir
tain microstructure in a metal or a specific in
artifactth
atmosphere was little affected
distribution, by sup-
can provide extremely powerful hum
tion before the industrial revolution, so that one can port for a hypothesis, because archaeological evi-
have confidence in dates based on this technique dence is unintentional and contemporaneous (with
(assuming adequate tree-ring calibration, elimination the rare exception, e.g., conspicuous consumption
of contaminants, and statistical evaluation). On the in a burial). Thus, it was not "planted" to achieve some
other hand, what may appear to be the result of nat- ulterior purpose in the distant future nor to rewrite
ural processes (e.g., pollen rain, a soil lens, or pati- history after the fact.
nation on glass) might also have been affected by Archaeological interpretations will never achieve
human activity, and cannot be explained solely by the same level of confidence as those in the natural
physicochemical factors. sciences- there are far too many interacting and un-
Archaeologists understandably seek cultural inter- knowable factors to assess-but by making testing
pretations that even the natural scientist should be procedures explicit, archaeologists and natural sci-
willing to admit are at a higher level of abstraction' entists can share a common ground and language
than, for example, the reconstruction of an ancient of scientific inquiry. Fuzzy archaeological thinking,
regional environment or the significance of some of course, may continue to thrive, because its effects
group of artifacts for the history of science. Anthro- are not as immediately obvious as in the natural sci-
pologists, as social scientists, may seek to make gen- ences where, for example, bridges fall and rockets
eralized statements about social and economic struc- explode if a theory or its application is incorrect.
tures, religious ideology, or cross-cultural interactions
Moreover, for some people, rhetoric and politically
that are derived from their archaeological datacorrect paradigms, serving to preserve disciplinary
bases.'9 Historians may attempt to interrelate power
ar- structures and financial support, are more per-
chaeological findings to information-whether psy-suasive than probabilistic statements. Well-thought-
chological, social, or environmental- gleaned from
out and tested ideas, which have profound implica-
contemporaneous and noncontemporaneous docu- tions for how we define ourselves and our cultures,
ments that have been subjected to critical study.20
often are lost in the process.
Art historians in evaluating specific objects may em-Clearly, a middle way needs to be found-what
phasize aesthetic canons ofjudgment. Each kindinofthe parlance of anthropological archaeology is
interpretation has its place, with the proviso that they
called middle-range research23- to bridge the prac-
should be inferred from as careful and thoroughtical an and theoretical divide between natural scien-
appraisal of the field and laboratory data as possible.
tists and archaeologists. The essays that follow are
1 W.D. Kingery, "Possible Inferences from Ceramic Arti- (Garden City 1959).
facts," in Olin and Franklin (supra n. 5) 37-45. 21 W.R. Biers and P.E. McGovern eds., Organic Contents
18 Smith (supra n. 10). of Ancient Vessels: Materials Analysis and Archaeological Inves-
E.g., supra ns. 13 and 15; also see P.E. McGovern, tigation (MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeol-
"Ceramics and Craft Interaction: A Theoretical Framework," ogy 7, Philadelphia 1990) passim.
in P.E. McGovern ed., Cross-Craft and Cross-Cultural Interactions 22 Kingery (supra n. 17).
in Ceramics (Ceramics and Civilization 4, Westerville, Ohio 3J.A. Sabloff, L.R. Binford, and P.A. McAnany, "Under-
1989) 1-11. standing the Archaeological Record," Antiquity 61 (1987)
21 E.g., M. Bloch, The Historian's Craft (New York 1953); 203-209.
and H. Meyerhoff ed., The Philosophy of History in Our Time

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
1995] SCIENCE IN ARCHAEOLOGY: A REVIEW 83
offered in that spirit. For The

the first
following essaysinstallment of thi
take the reader from locat-
newsletter, contributors were asked
ing and situating sitesto summarize
within for
an environmental set-
the educated layman past
ting accomplishments, as well
(Remote Sensing, Aerial Photography, Geophys-
as failings that can be equally revealing,
ical Prospecting, in Palynology,
Archaeobotany, their fields
and
By focusing on examples of past
Archaeozoology) orthem
to dating recent interdis
(Dendrochronol-
ciplinary successes, together
ogy, Radiocarbonwith practical
Dating Calibration, Accelerator advi
on how to collect samples forDating),
Radiocarbon analysis, apply
analyzing a range of materi- corre
tion factors, and so forth, it is
als recovered fromhoped
them (Ceramicthat
Ecology, the
Ceramic read
will be able to extrapolate andCeramic
Petrography, begin to
Petrology and apply simi-
Petrography in
lar approaches to his/her own
the Aegean, research.
Vitreous Materials, Xeroradiographic
To reiterate, this newsletter is Physical
Imaging, Amber, necessarily selective
Anthropology, Ancient Im-
in its coverage of a vast,munochemistry,
poorly and developed "field'
Palaeogenetics), and, finally, an
many gaps still remain. If greater
preserving attention
the finds for than
future scientists and hu- usu
is paid to the biological, manity
chemical, and earth
in general (Archaeological science
Conservation).
that is because less is known about these interdisci-
plinary endeavors that are generally at the "cutting MUSEUM APPLIED SCIENCE CENTER FOR
edge" of current research. Each contributor, by stand- ARCHAEOLOGY (MASCA)

ing at the interface of two or more disciplines, epito- UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM OF
mizes, as it were, how much archaeology has to ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
gain by emphasizing its essential, interdisciplinary PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 19104

character. MCGOVERN@VAX.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU
Remote Sensing
THOMAS L. SEVER
New windows on the past are being opened

through the use of remote sensing technology.24
Remote sensing is based upon the fact that all ma-
terials emit energy along the electromagnetic spec-
trum. Archaeologically relevant information, most
of which cannot be seen with the naked eye, can be
recorded by detectors along this spectrum and pro-
cessed for view on a computer. Sensors are mounted
on satellites, space shuttles, airplanes, and balloons,
dragged on the ground, or simply manipulated by
hand.
Beginning at the turn of the century, archaeology

was one of the first disciplines to employ remote
sensing. Using black-and-white aerial photography,
archaeologists recorded ancient features that could
not be seen or understood from ground level. Dur-
ing World War I, for example, British archaeologists
described aerial photographic "features of long-
obliterated structures in the terrain, soil formations,
24 C.A. Behrens and T. Sever, Applications of Space-Age 25 T.S. Schorr, "Aerial Ethnography in Regional Studies:
Technology in Anthropology (Bay St. Louis, Miss. 1991); TM.
A Reconnaissance of Adaptive Change in the Cauca Valley
Lillesand and R. Keifer, Remote Sensing and Image Interpre-
of Colombia," in E.Z. Vogt ed., Aerial Photography in Anthro-
tation (New York 1987). pological Field Research (Cambridge, Mass. 1974) 163.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
any better than any other
between part
New Mexico for
and Costa Rica, detectin
both the desert
ological since features,
the
roads and material
jungle paths, compri
invisible to the human eye
feature, atmospheric conditions,
from the and
air and ground level, were detected due the
the year result in different energy
to minute differences in heat retention. outputs
Although the first Landsat satellites recor
formation at only 80-m resolution,
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) current
and domestic satellite systems can record in
GPS technology is revolutionizing archaeology and
tion ranging from 30-m down to 1-m resolut
enhancing the effectiveness of remote sensing re-
using French SPOT satellite imagery).26 N
search because it enables ground positions to be de-
vances in airborne remote sensing instrume
termined to centimeter accuracy.32 The GPS system
allow multispectral acquisition at resolution
consists of 24 satellites orbiting 11,000 miles above
foot or less. Remote sensing analysis used t
the earth. GPS signals can be received directly with
huge mainframe computers and expensive s
a hand-held receiver. Besides being extremely use-
today, data can be processed on a person
ful in remote, poorly mapped regions, GPS locates
puter using inexpensive and readily underst
software. archaeological features that have been detected
in remote-sensing imagery but are invisible on
As one example of the new high-tech view from
the ground.
space, the possible remains of the ancient city of Ubar
were recently located through faint traces of cara-
CONCLUSION
van trails. Researchers could see various parts of these
trails on Landsat, SPOT satellite, and shuttle imag- Although archaeologists pioneered the use
ing radar data. By excavating at a spot where these mote sensing, most mainstream archaeologis
trails converged, archaeologists uncovered an eight- late 1970s and '80s were reluctant to invest in the
sided fortress surrounded by smaller sites used by technology. By then remote sensing had evolved into
caravans.27
an expensive enterprise, requiring knowledge of op-
Satellite data have been used in western Greece tical physics, advanced computer analysis, and multi-
variate statistics-disciplines generally outside the
to locate a variety of physical features, including stone
quarries, coal mines, oak and silver fir forests, and purview and funding of archaeological research pro-
clay beds used for pottery-making. This informationgrams. Today, however, the technology is becoming
provided greater insight into ancient fortifications,
increasingly affordable and understandable. It is a
hydraulic systems, and settlement patterns.28 On the nondestructive technology that protects our human
other side of the globe, satellite data are currentlylegacy by allowing archaeologists to map entire
revealing unmapped Mayan pyramids and roadwaysregions and prioritize areas for excavation while
in the Peten region of northern Guatemala.29 simultaneously preserving cultural resources for
Remote-sensing instruments can be flown in Lear
future research.
jets or Cessna aircraft to provide greater resolu-

tion. Aircraft data at 5-m resolution were able to de- NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
tect ancient Anasazi roads in Chaco Canyon, New ADMINISTRATION
Mexico.3o The same six-band thermal instrument EARTH SCIENCES PROGRAM OFFICE, JA 20
was also flown at 5-m resolution over the jungles of JOHN C. STENNIS SPACE CENTER
northern Costa Rica to detect the oldest confirmed BAY ST. LOUIS, MISSISSIPPI 39529
footpaths.3' Despite the environmental differences TSEVER@WPOGATE.SSC.NASA.GOV
2 Lillesand and Keifer (supra n. 24); B. Richason 30

ed.,
T. Sever, Tracing Prehistoric Human Impact upon the Envi-
Remote Sensing of the Environment (Dubuque 1983). ronment (Ann Arbor 1990) 116-258.
27 W.E Allman, "Finding Lost Worlds," US. News and 31 P. Sheets and T. Sever, "Prehistoric Footpaths in Costa
World Report (13 September 1993). Rica: Transportation and Communication in a Tropical
2 EA. Cooper, M.E. Bauer, and B.C. Cullen, "Satellite
Rainforest," in C.D. Trombold ed., Ancient Road Networks
Spectral Data and Archaeological Reconnaissance in and
West-
Settlement Hierarchies in the New World (Cambridge 1991)
ern Greece," in Behrens and Sever (supra n. 24) 63-79.
53-65.
29 F. Miller, T Sever, and D. Lee, "Applications of Ecolog-
32 D. Wells, Guide to GPS Positioning (Fredericton, New
ical Concepts and Remote Sensing Technologies in Archae-Brunswick 1987); A. Leick, GPS Satellite Surveying (New York
ological Site Reconnaissance," in Behrens and Sever (supra
1990); N. Ackroyd and R. Lorimer, Global Navigation:A GPS
n. 24) 121-36. User's Guide (London 1990).

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Low-Altitude Photography
J. WILSON MYERS AND ELEANOR EMLEN MYERS
BEGINNINGS
to be pulled down and reloaded for each
exposure - a tiring process that used up the
The first systematic use of a tethered photographic
balloon to record an ongoing excavationprecious time in the morning when the angle o
was made
sun was right and the air quiet. In fact, a Meg
in 1931 at Megiddo, site of biblical Armageddon,
colleague
by Philip Guy (fig. 1).3 Operating out of the later told us that the balloon did not h
Orien-
tal Institute at the University of Chicago, field direc- wind, and Guy quietly abandone
well in the
tor Guy used a single-shot 8 x 10" cut-film method
cameraas impractical at the season's end w
sudden de-
and a spherical hydrogen balloon to assemble gust crashed his camera.
We learned firsthand about balloon site record-
tailed mosaics at successive stratigraphic levels. This
ingsee
bird's-eye view, he reported, allowed him to in Greece
con- in 1973 while working with Michael
Jameson
tinuities and patterns that went unobserved on the at his excavation of the underwater sanc-
tuary
ground. Guy used these vertical photographs, whichof Apollo at Halieis, where Julian Whittlesey
brought
included points of his surveyed grid, to eliminate his spherical balloon.34 Invited to help him,
we
much measuring on the ground and make lighter became interested ourselves in the process, see-
ing that
work of the drawings. But his single-shot camera had much time was saved with a modern radio-
controlled motor-driven camera. Our own 20 years
of aerial archaeology in the Mediterranean started
then and has since taken us to over 150 sites and
area surveys in Italy, Sicily, mainland Greece, Crete,

Yugoslavia, Israel, Turkey, and most recently Jordan.
Though much of the coverage has been scattered,
carried out at the request of individual excavators,
it has also been possible to fund work on a regional
basis, producing a site atlas for reference and com-
parative study.35
APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES
For exploration, salvage work, comparing

sive levels of excavation, and preservation o
information for future study, vertical pho
provide an expeditious unique perspective
tuting a permanent record. In the raking light
morning, even the slightest contours, as tr
their highlights and shadows, stand out in
lief. One is able to spot relationships not ea
at ground level. Over a level site, vertical aer
graphs are the dimensional equivalent of
plan.
The obvious advantage of a balloon or blimp over
Fig. 1. The pioneer photographic balloon used byis P.L.O.
a plane that it can come low to capture details,
Guy at the Megiddo excavation in 1931. It lifted
such asa asingle-
single house or a mosaic floor. Helicopters
shot view camera whose shutter was released electrically
can fly lower than planes, but the powerful down-
by a wire cable running to the right-hand reel and con-
nected with a box of batteries below. (Courtesy of
wash their rotors can damage fragile remains and
Oriental
Institute, University of Chicago) disturb the water over submerged sites.
33 P.L.O. Guy, "Balloon Photography and Archaeologi- American 231:4 (1974) 110-19.
cal Excavation," Antiquity 6 (1932) 148-55. 35J.W Myers, E.E. Myers, and G. Cadogan eds., The Aerial
34 See Whittlesey's aerial photograph in M.H.Jameson, Atlas of Ancient Crete (Berkeley 1992).
"The Excavation of a Drowned Greek Temple," Scientific

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
size of the film, the proper altitude is derived from

a ratio (fig. 4): focal length is to film size as altitude
is to the size of target. For shots below 200 m, two
tethers are generally used, angled down from op-
posite sides of the gimbal to keep both cords and
backpacks just outside the photograph. Thus, the
frame of the photograph is closely fitted to the shape
of the target. Simple calculations made on a work-
ing plan are used to decide exactly where each reel
must be positioned and how much tether line let out.
Above 200 m, two tethers would be difficult to control
Fig. 2. A modern 10-m pressurized blimp. Twi
and might tangle in a tricky breeze. With a single
driven cameras are held vertically in a precision
tether, the control.
and operated by FM radio altitude of the camera is judged by patches
of colored yarn tied to the tether line at calibrated
EQUIPMENT AND METHODS intervals. For the higher shots, the necessary fram-
ing is done by cropping in the darkroom. With wide-
Through much experimenting, we have gradually
angle lenses, 60 mm for the Hasselblad and 28 mm
settled on methods and equipment that are most suit-
for the smaller camera, the focusing distance can
able. Problems with a spherical balloon had suggested
safely be set on infinity.
that a blimp might be easier to handle in the wind.
Accessory equipment has also proven useful in
Working with design engineers at Raven Industries
the field: a surveyor's tape and prismatic compass
of Sioux Falls, South Dakota, we had a blimp made
for making a working plan of unrecorded sites; a
that meets our requirements (fig. 2). It is 10 m long,
small turbine anemometer to help us decide whether
with four fins that keep its streamlined shape headed
a slight breeze is increasing and might cancel a
into a breeze, offering less drag area than a spheri-
planned inflation; heavy canvas ground cloths on
cal counterpart. Inflated with 35 m3 of hydrogen or
which to unroll and inflate the easily punctured
helium, the blimp lifts 8 lb of cameras to 800 m-
balloon fabric; a set of walkie-talkie radios, allowing
the altitude from which a square kilometer can be
crew members at widely separated tether positions
photographed. Above 800 m, air photographs from
to communicate with each other and with the oper-
a plane would be more efficient.
ator controlling the camera; a portable light table
Equipped with an elastic dilation panel, the
blimp expands without bursting as it rises into
thinner air, and contracts again, holding its aero-
dynamic shape, when lowered. A still larger blimp,
though more stable in the wind, would require heavy
winching equipment and restrict movement. The
hand-held system allows us to move quickly through
shifting positions at a large site, while some remote
sites can only be reached on foot.
Twin cameras allow us to make both black-and-
white negatives and colored slides at the same in-

stant. The medium format Hasselblad ELM/500 pro-
duces 55 mm negatives, best for journal publication
(fig. 3), while the 35 mm camera, a Canon AE-1 or
a Nikon 2020, makes slides. The cameras are mounted
in a precision gimbal - like that which holds the com-
pass level on a heeling ship-thus stabilizing them
vertically and eliminating the distortions in scale that
appear in oblique views. The tethers of %'" braided
polyester cord are carried on light backpack reels
designed for taking up the slack as crew members
haul down the balloon.
The altitude at which the cameras are positioned

Fig. 3. A Hasselblad medium-format vertical photograph
is determined by the dimensions of the target
of on
the little theater in the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Messene,
Greece.
the ground. Given the focal length of the lens and

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
CAMERA HEIGHT = SUBJECT SIZE X FOCAL LENGTH
FILM SIZE
only if the ground crew can run toward a
blimp fast enough to slacken tether and al
rise again. Even then, the balloon can be pu
gradually only when the wind lulls a bit. I
CAMERA to avoid these panic situations by hauling
FILM FOCAL LENGTH soon as one feels an increasing pull on th
Delays in the photographic schedule are best
avoided by learning early what permissions a coun-
try requires from civil air or military authorities or
CAMERA LENS '.
what advance notice to authorities would be prudent
and courteous. Sources of hydrogen or helium should
be located and arrangements made early for prompt
commercial delivery.
OTHER BALLOON SYSTEMS

CAMERA
HEIGHT
We have regularly responded to requests f
formation from others who would like to start their
own balloon systems and increasingly hear of suc-

cessful recording. Good examples of balloon photog-
raphy appear regularly in AJA.36 A very simple and
inexpensive 35 mm system, with a servo-motor to
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SUBJECT incline the camera, but limited in altitude to 100
m, is described by Dieter Noli.37 G.D. Summers re-
ports flights of a tethered blimp as high as 850 m
GROUND LEVEL
to record a site in Turkey.38 Andrew Heafitz has de-
veloped an ingenious radio-controlled servo-system
Fig. 4. With vertical photography, the size of the subject
that can incline and rotate the balloon camera in
on the ground determines the proper height of the camera.
any direction. A video camera, mounted together
One need only know the focal length of the camera lens
and the size of the film.
with a still-camera that monitors the coverage, trans-
mits the image to the ground, allowing the operator
for studying the day's negatives with magnifiers; and,
to see exactly what the still-camera will record.39
where remote sites are not easily located on maps, There is little doubt that archaeologists of the fu-
a miniature global positioning device to measure
ture will use increasingly sophisticated methods to
and record latitude, longitude, and altitude. record and examine sites in minute detail at low al-
titude. The whole range of remote-sensing equip-

CAUTIONARY NOTES AND PROBLEMS
ment, operating in the infrared to radar ranges and
We described above Guy's problems with thefor
now used wind
sophisticated regional surveys by plane
at Megiddo. Even with an aerodynamic blimp,may
or satellite, oneone day be miniaturized for low-
must be careful. Because it may take 20 altitude
minutes suspension
to over archaeological sites. Much
haul down the equipment from 800 m,subsurface
it is impor- investigation might then be conducted
tant not to have the blimp caught aloft without the traditional digging that has been de-
in a rising
wind. At a certain wind velocity, even scribed
a blimp with
willcautionary irony as the systematic
destruction
begin to veer off to the side, its fins less and lessof evidence.
able
to head into the wind, and finally broach, turning
broadside to the wind and heading straightRR 1
for the
ground, all lift lost to the weight of the Box
cameras
227 and
the horizontal force of drag. Recovery here is possible
TAMWORTH, NEW HAMPSHIRE O3886
36 See AJA 92 (1988) 124; 93 (1989) 130; 95 (1991) 22; 96

Yarahli," AnatSt 42 (1992) 180-81.
(1992) 140-45. 19 A. Heafitz, Appendix 3: "Balloon Photography," in J.E.
37D. Noli, "Low Altitude Aerial Photography from a Coleman, "Excavations at Halai, 1990-1991," Hesperia 61
Tethered Balloon," JFA 6 (1985) 497-501. (1992) 287-88.
38G.D. Summers, "An Aerial Survey of Qevre Kale,

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Geophysical Prospec
BRUCE BEVAN
ground.
A successful geophysical survey will allow Conductivity surveys are difficult to carr
a pre-
diction of the location of sites or the location of fea- out near cities and in areas with metal trash in the
tures within sites. This should help to minimize the

soil, but wooded or rocky areas do not cause major
difficulties.
cost of excavation and enable a wide variety of fea-
tures to be examined. Ground-penetrating radar is the most elaborate
While remote sensing usually does not allow of the
the commonly used geophysical instruments, and
detection of a feature deeper than about 1 m, will
geo-detect a wider variety of features than the other
instruments.43 Radar generates an approximate
physical exploration can detect a feature at any depth,
although its maximum dimension must typically ex-
cross-sectional image of the earth; while these images
ceed its depth. are similar to sonar records, the radar emits a radio
rather than a sound pulse. Radar is generally not
THE INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR LIMITATIONS
suitable for sites where the soil is saline or quite
One of the first instruments to be applied clayey; it to
alsoar-
cannot be used if there are many large
chaeological geophysics was the magnetometer.40 boulders or much Abrush on the surface.
magnetometer measures slight changes inFor thespecial
earth's applications, seismic and gravity in-
magnetic field; a commonly used instrument struments hascana also be employed. Seismic equipment
sensor mounted on a vertical staff and connected
measures the speed of sound in the soil, while a grav-
with a wire to a small console where the measure-
ity meter measures the density of materials that are
ments are displayed. Point-by-point measurements,
underground. Surveys with these two instruments,
spaced 1-2 m apart, create a magnetic map of the
however, are quite slow.
area of interest. The magnetometer is excellent for
CAPABILITIES FOR LOCATING DIFFERENT FEATURES
locating iron artifacts as well as fired earth in the
form of brick, rooftiles, kilns, or furnaces. Surveys
The ancient ground surface may be buried belo
with a magnetometer are generally more rapid than of modern soil. The depth of this deposit c
a layer
those with other geophysical instruments, and beare
estimated with a resistivity, ground-penetrati
also more easily done in brushy, wooded, or rocky
radar, or seismic survey. The entrances to rock sh
areas. They are less suitable for urban areasters,
and caves, mines, and quarries may be hidden
regions with igneous rock. soil, and can sometimes be detected with any of
geophysical
Resistivity surveys are relatively easy to carry out. instruments. Tunnels or chambers th
Wires connect a small resistivity meter to fourareelec-
air-filled cavities can be readily detected w
trodes driven into the earth; the meter indicates how
ground-penetrating radar and, in special circu
stances, with a gravity survey.
readily electrical current flows through the soil.41.
Resistivity surveys are ideal for locating concentra- The former channels of rivers, buried roads, or
tions of stone in the soil (e.g., walls) and also for map-
filled-in ditches can be mapped with any of th
ping filled-in pits and trenches. Because of the elec-
geophysical instruments. Because of the large s
trodes and wires, resistivity surveys are difficult of thesetofeatures, aerial or satellite reconnaissance
carry out in rocky or brushy areas. may be most suitable.
Conductivity surveys are performed with instru- Tells and tumuli often have stratigraphy that is
ments that operate somewhat like very sensitive toometal
complex for geophysical surveys to resolve. While
detectors.42 They will locate the same types of fea-
structures in the upper few meters can be mapped
tures that a resistivity survey will, but conductivity
as at any other site, small and deep features cannot
surveys are faster since no contact is made with the
be detected. General mound stratigraphy, however,
4 A. Clark, Seeing beneath the Soil (London 1990). Geophysical Remote-Sensing Data," AmerAnt 56 (1991)
41 G. Shapiro, "A Soil Resistivity Survey of 16th-Century 701-20.
Puerto Real, Haiti,"JFA 11 (1984) 101-10. 43 R.A. Batey, "Subsurface Interface Radar at Sepphoris,
42 W.A. Martin,JE. Bruseth, and RJ. Huggins, "Assessing Israel, 1985,"JFA 14 (1987) 1-80.
Feature Function and Spatial Patterning of Artifacts with

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 5. Elizabeth Raipn recording cesium magnetometer me

Egyptian colleague and assistants carrying the cesium magne
THE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS OF

particularly on the sides of the mound, can be ap-
ELIZABETH K. RALPH
proximated, and resistivity surveys are generally the
most appropriate technique. The stratigraphy of
burial mounds is usually simpler Elizabeth
and, K. if
Ralph,
the who passed away in 1993
burial
chamber is at least as large asa its
pioneer in the
depth application of geophysical su
underground,
it might be detected. ing to archaeology and an inspiration to this w
Her excellent
Building remnants can be detected successground
under in locating buried featu
or under water. If a buriedmany
wall is surrounded
archaeological by
sites in the Mediterranea
rubble from the wall, it will gion is particularly
generally appropriate to detail
be impossible
review,
to isolate the intact wall with since she received
geophysical the AIAs Pomerance
explora-
tion. Brick walls or concentrations of rooftiles will in 1986 for her contributions to archaeol
usually be easier to delineate than stone walls. Mud- science and her work is frequently referred to i
brick or adobe walls may be detectable in sandy soil During the period from 1962 to 1976, Ralph
and limestone walls may be detectable in clayey soil. geophysical surveys at over 49 sites in 13 cou
If kilns, furnaces, or iron objects are sought, a mag- Her principal and favorite geophysical instru
netic survey is recommended. In some cases, con- was the magnetometer (fig. 5), and her applic
centrations of pottery or other fired ceramic mate- of the cesium magnetometer showed how spe
rials can be located. precision could be combined for a successf
Isolated artifacts will generally be difficult tovey.44
lo- Her sheer output- about 750,000 m
measurements that were plotted and cont
cate with any geophysical survey. A large object such
as a statue can be detected if it is close to the sur- by hand-has never been equaled. She also c
face; it would be easier to detect if carved in igneous out many surveys with resistivity meters
stone rather than marble or some other nonmagneticseismograph.
stone. The largest single survey that Ralph undertook
was at the
Conductivity surveys can locate artifacts made ofsite of ancient Sybaris, in Italy, where the
Greeks
any metal. For example, lead pipes can be traced established a colony renowned for its
with
this technique. "sybaritic" lifestyle. Over the period from 1962 to
44 E.K. Ralph, "Comparison of Proton and Rubidium try 7 (1964) 20-27.

Magnetometer for Archaeological Prospecting," Archaeome-

152.118.24.31fff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
Sexcavation
boundary
Fig. 6. Plan (left) of excavated room (B) in large building at Tall-i Malyan, Iran. The room, which was filled with burnt mud-
brick wall material, was detected as the magnetic high near the top middle of the magnetic contour map (right), with intervals
at 5 nanotesla. The magnetic measurements on which the contour map is based were spaced 2 m apart, and the cesium
magnetometer's sensor was at a height of about 0.7 m above the ground. (Plan of building, courtesy WM. Sumner)
1967, she worked on site in Italy for a total of about bricks had not been fired, the alluvial clay from the
two years. She made between 300,000 and 400,000 Nile River is quite magnetic and the bricks made
magnetic measurements, which enabled the Archaic from it were detectable in the nonmagnetic sand.48
rooftiles of Sybaris to be located at a depth of 4 m At the ancient Elamite capital of Tall-i Malyan,
beneath the alluvium that had accumulated over Iran,49 Ralph's magnetic survey was remarkably suc-
2,500 years.45 cessful in locating significant archaeological remains
Because of the huge area of search, the great depth in every area that was followed up by test soundings
of the structures, and the presence of shallower and (fig. 6). Unfortunately, the Iranian revolution inter-
more recent Roman structures, the survey at Sybaris vened to prevent further work at this site.
was extremely difficult. The mapping of ancient Elis, Although carried out 20-30 years ago, Ralph's geo-
a contemporaneous site in Greece, was easier and physical surveys have never been surpassed in terms
required fewer measurements (only 100,000!).46 of their success or quality. Recent improvements in
Ralph was able to show the plan of this city, for the magnetometers enable surveys to be completed more
brick and reused rooftiles used to construct the walls
quickly, but no significant increase in the accuracy
here were clearly delineated. While the written mea-of the measurements has been possible. Conductiv-
surements look like a mass of dots, the contour linesity meters and ground-penetrating radar have been
of the magnetic maps trace the lines of underground developed since Ralph did her surveys, and with these
walls. instruments, geophysical surveys can be carried out
Ralph did magnetic surveys at many other sites. at a wider range of archaeological sites.
In the former Yugoslavia in 1969, burnt Neolithic
house floors were located.47 At Malkata, Amenhotep GEOSIGHT
III's palace in western Thebes, she located mudbrick P.O. BOX 135
structures buried in the sand (fig. 5). While these PITMAN, NEW JERSEY 08071
45 See EG. Rainey, "The Location of Archaic Greek (1970) 10-17.

Sybaris," AJA 73 (1969) 260-73; and O. Bullitt, Search for48 E.K. Ralph, "Magnetometer Survey at Malkata, Egypt,"
Sybaris (Philadelphia 1969). MASCA Newsletter 9:2 (1973) 3-5.
46 E.K. Ralph, "Archaeological Prospecting," Expedition 49 WM. Sumner, "Tall-i Malyan," Iran 12 (1972) 155-80;
11:2 (1969) 14-21.
E. Carter and M.W. Stolper, "Middle Elamite Malyan,"
47 See A. McPherron and E.K. Ralph, "Magnetometer Expedition 18:2 (1976) 33-42.
Location of Neolithic Houses in Yugoslavia," Expedition 12:2

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Archaeobotany: Macroremain
NAOMI F. MILLER
Palaeoethnobotany (or the shorter term, archaeo-

manually, by screening, and by flotation (fig. 7). Flota-
tion enables the archaeologist to concentrate macro-
botany) is the study of the "direct interrelationships
between humans and plants for whatever purpose
remains dispersed in the site matrix, usually by dis-
as manifested in the archaeological record."50 No
solving a soil sample in water.52
matter what the time period or geographical No single
area,category of remains provides a full pic-
plants played an important role in human ture of ancient plant use. When one considers the
culture.
total amount
As primary data about the natural environment, of plant material intentionally brought
land-
to ain
use practices, diet, architecture, and trade siteexotic
by ancient people (for food, fuel, fodder,
construction,
plant materials, plant remains also reflect many as-tools, and other artifacts), plus mate-
rial unintentionally
pects of society, including social practices, such incorporated in the archaeo-
botanical
as eating, the organization of labor, and status record, one realizes that it is ordinarily
differentiation. the discards and residues of plant use that get de-
The three major categories of archaeobotanical
posited initially, a subset of which is eventually pre-
served (usually through carbonization, but some-
materials are macroremains, pollen, and phyto-
times under dry or waterlogged conditions).53 Texts,
liths.5' Macroremains are relatively large items that
generally comprise the bulk of plant remains re- too, are an important source of information that de-
scribe many aspects of the relationships between
covered from archaeological sites. They include seeds
people
and seed-like plant structures, fruits, wood, leaves, and plants (e.g., agricultural treatises, receipts,
tubers, etc. Typically, macroremains are recovered recipes, and medical prescriptions). Yet such sources
are often too limited or too general to provide more
than a narrow window onto agricultural practices,
the effects of land clearance, fuel-gathering, and ir-
rigation, and all the other ways in which plants were
integrated into the daily lives of ancient peoples.
Thus, especially for the later periods, the informa-
tion gleaned from texts complements, but does not
supplant, that gained from detailed archaeobotan-
ical studies.
Although archaeologists have been saving plant

remains from archaeological sites since the mid-19th
century, the systematic sampling of archaeological
sediments by means of flotation is a relatively recent
development. Prior to the pioneering work of Hans
Helbaek54 atJarmo in Iraq, and later at Ali Kosh in
southwestern Iran, botanists were brought in to iden-
tify obvious concentrations of plant remains, usu-
ally crops. It was not until the late 1960s that flota-
tion techniques were brought to the attention of
Fig. 7. Flotation system used to recover ancient plant
remains at Gordion, Turkey, in 1988 archaeologists in the Old and New Worlds, and
53:1 (1990) 55-60.

5o R.I. Ford, "Paleoethnobotany in American Archaeol-
54 H. Helbaek, "The Palaeoethnobotany of the Near
ogy," in M.B. Schiffer ed., Advances in Archaeological Method
and Theory 2 (New York 1979) 285-336. East and Europe," in R.J. Braidwood and B. Howe, Prehistoric
51 Palynology is discussed in the next section of this Investigations in Iraqi Kurdistan (Chicago 1960) 99-118; and
review. Helbaek, "Plant-Collecting, Dry-Farming, and Irrigation
52Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures (San Diego Agriculture in Prehistoric Deh Luran," in E Hole et al.,
1989) by D.M. Pearsall is a comprehensive, practical intro- Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Deh Luran Plain (Ann
duction to palaeoethnobotany. Arbor 1969) 383-426.
53 C.W. Haldane, "Shipwrecked Plant Remains," BiblArch

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
through the 1970s, Reconstructing

flotation was
Ancient Vegetation not
and Human rou
Influence
ticed. Most of archaeobotanical work concentrated Over the past 3,000 years, human activities have
on the origins of agriculture, the major problemhad
as a more profound influence on the vegetation
defined in the United States by anthropologically
of the Sakarya valley than climate.59 Land clearance
trained archaeologists and in Europe by prehisto-
for fuel and agriculture, the grazing of domesticated
rians. Now, in the 1990s, the aceramic Neolithic is animals, and, in the Phrygian period, construction
increasingly well understood, but comprehensive seem to have had the cumulative but gradual effect
syntheses of the later Neolithic and beyond have yet of reducing whatever natural tree cover there was.
to be written. Even the early civilizations of the third Gordion lies at the edge of the central Anatolian
millennium B.C., which have been given a fair amount steppe, where remnants of oak and juniper woodland
of archaeobotanical attention, are poorly known. and pine forest still exist. Based on the modern dis-
Later historical periods have been particularly ne- tribution of trees, we infer that the impressive juniper
glected, probably because of undue reliance on writ- and pine timbers found in Phrygian burial mounds
ten records.55
and the settlement probably originated in woodland
Several reviews of research in the Near East and20-50 km away.
Europe summarize decades of work on plant remains To trace the history of ancient vegetation in more
from sites dating between Palaeolithic and medievaldetail, less dramatic evidence from occupation de-
times.56 A detailed example from recent work at bris must be gathered and analyzed. This plant ma-
Gordion, a site that culturally straddled the classical
terial, nearly all of which is carbonized, comes pri-
world and the ancient Near East, illustrates the kinds
marily from the remains of fuel (wood, brush, and
of questions one can ask of archaeobotanical data. dung) and consists of wood charcoal and charred
seeds. Many species are found that are unknown from
RECENT RESEARCH AT GORDION
the tombs or from the constructional and food re-
Gordion, located on the Sakarya River in central
mains of the burnt buildings. Since fuel is rarely trans-
Turkey, was the capital of ancient Phrygia. Excava-
ported from far away, fuel remains enable one to
tions early in this century and more recent research
monitor the vegetation growing relatively close to
directed by Rodney S. Young between 1950 and 1973At Gordion, the analysis showed a de-
a settlement.
were completed before the systematic search for
cline plant relative to oak. The virtual absence
in juniper
remains became standard practice. Plant
of remains
juniperfuel in contemporary Phrygian deposits
recovered by Young's team were primarilysuggests construc-
that juniper timber had already become a
tion material and food remains from the massive fairly rare material, reserved for or limited to use
Early Phrygian destruction level, the log structures
in the royal tombs. Trees that characteristically re-
at the base of the "Midas Mound" (Tumulus MM), place the climax vegetation of oak, juniper, or pine,
other burial mounds, and tomb furniture, also fromalong with components of riparian forest, show a
the Early Phrygian period (ca. 700 B.C.).57 Renewedgradual increase between the Late Bronze Age and
excavations in 1988 and 1989 and archaeobotanical
the medieval period, though they never surpass 20%
study have begun to fill out the picture of ancient by weight of the assemblage.
plant and land-use practices at Gordion between the Brush and dung fuel are potential sources of seeds
Late Bronze Age and medieval times.58 in the archaeobotanical record, and the charred seed
55For a review of recent archaeobotanical research, see materiaux en bois du tombeau royal de Gordion)," Istanbul
N.E Miller, "The Near East," in W. van Zeist, K.-E. Behre, Universitesi Orman FakiiltesiDergisi 18, series A (1968) 37-54;
and K. Wasylikowa eds., Progress in Old World Palaeoethno- B. Aytug, "Le mobilier funeraire du roi Midas I," PACT 22
botany (Rotterdam 1991) 133-60. (1988) 357-68.
56 For a topically and geographically organized work 58 M.M. Voigt, "Excavations at Gordion 1988-89: The
that includes exhaustive discussions of the European Yassihoyilk Stratigraphic Sequence," in D. French and
archaeobotanical record, see van Zeist et al. (supra n. 55). A. (ilingiroglu eds., Proceedings of the 3rd International
Domestication of Plants in the Old World (Oxford 1988) by Anatolian Iron Age Symposium, 1990 (Oxford, in press); G.K.
D. Zohary and M. Hopf provides a botanically oriented Sams and M.M. Voigt, "Work at Gordion in 1988," XI. Kazz
plant-by-plant discussion, and Man's Role in the Shaping of SonuClarz Toplantzs 1 (Ankara 1990) 77-105; and Sams and
the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape (Rotterdam 1990) by S. Voigt, "Work at Gordion in 1989," XII. Kazz SonuClarz
Bottema, G. Entjes-Nieborg, and W van Zeist is particularly Toplantusi 1 (Ankara 1990) 455-70.
informative on developments around the Mediterranean. 59 Cf. S. Bottema and H. Woldring, "Anthropogenic In-
57E.g., H. Kayacik and B. Aytug, "Gordion Kral dicators in the Pollen Record of the Eastern Mediterra-
Mezari'nin Aga? Malzemesi fizerinde Ormancilik y6nfinden nean," in Bottema et al. (supra n. 56) 231.
Aragtirmalar (Recherches au point du vue forestier sur les

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
assemblage is a useful indicator of these
or riverside alternative
vegetation- may be indicated by the ap
fuel sources; an increase in the ratio of seeds to char- parent increase in the proportion of sedge seeds,
coal suggests a decline in the use (i.e., availability) which is consistent with the evidence of increased
of tree wood. At Gordion, there is no dramatic shift use of riparian vegetation. As trees by the river were
in this ratio, which suggests that fuel use practices cut, a sunny riverbank habitat would have opened up.
were relatively stable, despite some long-term dis- Stability characterizes Gordion crop choice. Small
turbance in the tree cover. shifts in the proportion of einkorn wheat relative
to six-row barley and bread wheat are therefore par-
Reconstructing Ancient Agricultural Practices ticularly intriguing. Einkorn was one of the earliest
The seeds provide more than just evidence ofdomesticated
fuel plants, but by 2000 B.C. it had dropped
use. In the absence of cess deposits, seeds from out
burnt
of favor as an important cereal in the Near
domestic structures provide the strongest evidence
East.60 In southern Europe, the presumed homeland
that a crop plant was grown for food, though of
fiber
the Phrygians, it seems to have retained its value
and fodder can usually not be ruled out. well into the Iron Age.61 Thus, the apparent slight
Six-row barley and bread wheat dominate the increase
crop in einkorn coincidental with construction
seed assemblage in all periods. Einkorn wheat andisceramic
a shifts, suggestive of the Phrygian cul-
minor cereal, and rice occurs in only one medieval
ture, may be further evidence of the arrival of these
deposit. Lentils and bitter vetch comprise the bulk
newcomers from Europe.62
of the pulses. A burnt early Iron Age house had what
CONCLUSION
appears to be baskets of barley, wheat, and bitter vetch
on the floor. A small jar of tiny flax seeds foundDespite
in several decades of research, the
the destruction level of Terrace Building 2A might
tential of archaeobotany for the investigat
be seed stock for the fiber plant, but the same room
cient culture is yet to be realized. For bot
yielded small jars of other food crops, wheat, barley,
toric and historical periods, plant rema
and lentils, so the flax might have been human usfood.
to assess human impact on the environm
Grapes (a few seeds) were also found as weredirect,nut- site-specific evidence of agricultura
shells, perhaps from wild-growing almonds. nary activities, they can enrich our under
Plant remains may point to changes in irrigationof how people lived. Archaeobotanical r
practices, as indicated by crop choice, seed size/shape,
Gordion is meant to show both skeptics and
and characteristic weeds. At Gordion, despite the
verted how bits and fragments of charred
unpredictable climate, very little "progress" is visible
help create a picture of the lives of ancien
in the archaeobotanical record. For example, barley
and the landscape they shaped and inha
is more drought-tolerant than wheat, yet the propor-
tion of these two crop plants remains constant
MUSEUM APPLIED SCIENCE CENTER FOR
through time. Irrigated grains tend to be plumperARCHAEOLOGY (MASCA)

than unirrigated ones of the same species;UNIVERSITY
at OF PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM OF
Gordion, size and shape of both wheat and barley

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
are remarkably stable throughout the occupation.

PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 19104
The expansion of a moist habitat- irrigation ditches
NMILLERO@SAS.UPENN.EDU
Ancient Palynology
S. BOTTEMA
The study of micro- and macrofossils (including

wood of the University of Chicago in the early 19
agricultural products such as carbonized He
hard
sought to integrate archaeology and the natur
grains- see the preceding section on Archaeobotany)
sciences in his work on early prehistoric sites in I
in the Near East was stimulated by RobertJ.and
Braid-
Turkey. The botanical investigations of this pr
60o Miller (supra n. 55) 146-48.

nomics, and Ceramic Continuity at Gordion in the
61 H. Kroll, "Sidosteuropa," in van Zeist et al. (supra
Second and First Millennia B.C..' in W.E. Kingery ed., So
n. 55) 167, 174-75.
and Cultural Contexts of New Ceramic Technologies (Ceram
62 Voigt (supra n. 58); R.C. Henrickson, "Politics,
and Eco-
Civilization 6, Westerville, Ohio 1993) 89-176.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
swamps incorporate e
which can be well pres
Yet, these pollen need
ities of ancient peoples
campments can be loc
of water. Samples from
on the other hand, hav
are dominated by Ligul
ing composites, which
percentage of the tot
the accumulation of debris in a Near Eastern tell
is often the result of the disintegration and leveling

of mudbrick houses. Such mudbrick is made from
clay that has its own history, i.e., it may contain pollen
that derives from a time preceding the structure in
which it was used and which therefore cannot be
used to reconstruct the contemporaneous palaeo-

Fig. 8. Pollen grain of Morina
environment.
persica of the teas
measuring ca. 100 g in length (90 x magnifica
prominent protuberancesPollen samples
on from
the water sediments
sides fromusually
able the
pollen tubes grow. From a general
Bronzevegetational
Age development
tin min of a
Turkey, excavated under
gion to the direction
be reconstructed. The bestof Aslih
sequences oc
this Morina grain is the only
where one
rainfall recovered
exceeds by
300 mm per year. Thit
in 30 years of palynological investigation.
hyet appears to be the minimum for the form
of pollen-bearing sediments. An exception is a p
ect were carried outcore
by froma the
Groningen Univer
salt flats of Bouara on the Syrian-
led by Willem van Zeist, and were subsequ
border,64 where precipitation amounts to o
tended to many otherabout regions
150 mm. The Bouaraof salt
the flatsNear
form pa
An important aim theof
Khaburancient
valley, a region palynolog
that was densely in
search is to reconstruct the palaeoenviro
ited during Assyrian times.65 The Assyrians, w
early humans, which includes
dry-farmed the
and irrigated human
the fields i
elsewhere in
the environment. To obtain
Khabur, evidently the used optimal inf
the Bouara exclusively
from pollen samples, the
salt-winning. nature of typica
fossils needs to be understood.
The collection of pollen samples is Thousands
done by man- o
grains (fig. 8) are precipitated on
ually coring the sediments. The samples are iden- each sq
of ground per year. tified
Unless they
in the laboratory, using are
a light microscope, gen- preserv
anaerobic conditions (e.g., under
erally under 400 x magnification. water), po
very rapidly disappear. The various pollen
not equally sensitive to degradation, some
PALAEOENVIRONMENTS IN PRE- AND
more resistant than others. The identifi
POSTGLACIAL TIMES
different pollen types also varies; while so
Near Eastern
retain their characteristic pollen sequences
features or profile
even af
fig. are
radation, other pollen 9) show a marked contrast to
impossible in palaeoen
iden
under weakly oxidative conditions.
mental development from the glacial period (
Other factors alsocene)
needto postglacial
to be (Holocene)
considered
times, i.e., p
post-10,000 B.P. For
palynological investigation. (uncalibrated radiocarbon ye
example, t
dated by radiocarbon
ually accumulating sediments of or lakes,
by correlation with
peat
rezente Umwelt
63 See W. van Zeist and S. Bottema, Late Quaternary Vege- von Tall Seh Hamad und Daten zur Umwe
struction
tation History of the Near East (Beihefte zum Tiibinger der assyrischen Stadt Dur-katlimmu (Ber
Atlas
des Vorderen Orients A18, Tilbingen 1991).105-16.
65See Kiihne
64W.H.E. Gremmen and S. Bottema, "Palynological In-(supra n. 64).
vestigations in the Syrian Gazira," in H. Kiihne ed., Die

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
l 3 a-
dated p
ca0 uu elevatio
or Yen
O- -E E !| as well
ji a 10 and
102030 th
40,5
381 of a st
matical
36 .
velopin
3S -
of step
tree p
The pr
32-?- I _
3)4
ern Isr
324--
establi
around 11,500 B.P. A climatic belt of rain that en-
couraged tree growth apparently moved farther
30
29
north and east, leaving Israel much drier after this
77
time.66 The moist zone arrived in the Pisidian Lake
23-I __
district of southwestern Anatolia around 9000 B.P.
25!
In eastern Turkey, the Van district shows some in-
crease in deciduous oaks at about 7000 B.P. In north-
western Iran, optimal conditions for tree growth were

established around 5500 B.P. The forest development
of the Pontic part of Turkey is very similar to that
of northern Greece and large areas of Europe. If such
vegetational patterns are translated into climatic
terms, two main systems can be observed: a general
European pattern that is uniform over a large area,
and a shifting system that moves from the southern
part of the Near East to the north and northeast.
-_--__________-------
The latter moisture belt might have been caused by
the gradual retreat of the large ice cap in northern
101 00 0 0 2 Europe. This retreat, which started in the west and
south, is likely to have caused a shift in the polar
front that contributed to a moving moisture belt in
the Near East.
Fig. 9. EARLY
Percent
AGRICULTURE
5.5-m long cor
about The pollen record also informs
6000 B.P us about the
occupation pha
pact of ancient man on the vegetation of a re
and nuts availa
as well as the kinds of agriculture that were in
percentages of
each during the Holocene period. In what kind
sample, C o
along scape did ancient agriculture
the top develop, and whs
the diagram ar
the consequences for the environment? Pollen
ing Olea (olive),
sis provides answers to such questions if so
Vitis (grape); i
indicator types (pollen that can be ascribed
to right. Non-
man activity), which derive her
(composite either from crop
are shown to t
the bottom sca
frequent arbo
66 U. Baruch and S. Bottema, "Palynological Evi
cumulative
for Climatic Changes in the Levant per ca. 17,000-9,00
lines separate
in O. Bar-Yosef and F.R. Valla eds., The Natufian Cu
ject to the Levant
similar
(International Monographs in Prehistory,
the palynologi
ological Series 1, Ann Arbor 1991) 11-20.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
mary types)
weeds or from
(secondary
4000 B.P., the first types),
effects of the degradation of for-
ent. The pollen available
ests, whichprofiles generally
were burned for pasture and grazing land, s
these types increase are slowly
evident over large during Neolit
areas of the Near East. This
(near the beginning of the
development Holocene
intensifies around 3200 B.P.period)
Along the
times agriculture is known
Mediterranean coast,to have
the typical been
xerophytic vegeta-pr
as evidenced especially by
tion replaces carbonized
the former deciduous oak forest. In cere
of wheat and/or
barley that
western Anatolia, are based
arboriculture known
on walnut, to
early domesticates, but indicator
sweet chestnut, pollen
manna-ash, grape, are
and olive appears.
This circumstance often arises
At the same time, the plane tree when poll
spreads all over cen-
of the wild ancestors of our domestic cereals cannot tral and western Anatolia.67
be distinguished from those of a group of wild
grasses. In addition, wheat and barley often dissemi-CONCLUSIONS
nate little pollen into the air, because the pollen of
An important focus of future palyno
these self-fertilizers remain in their glumes. Bread
search in the Near East will be to define
made from these cereals actually contains far more
pollen than what is recovered from an ancient con- constraints for human settlement, especi
forest-steppe regions. In general, the polle
text exposed to pollen rain.
In sediment pollen profiles with no plants of eco- needs to be integrated with and interpre
nomic importance represented, types related to the of the results from other disciplines (e.g
grazing of animals are often found. Weedy pollen botany) and the available archaeological da
well-based conclusions.
types, which occur in the Near East and Europe (e.g.,
Plantago lanceolata, Sanguisorba minor, and Rumex) are
good indicators. BIOLOGISCH-ARCHAEOLOGISCH INSTITUUT
Another noticeable change in pollen profiles that STATE UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN
can be attributed to human impact on the environ- GRONINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS

ment is a decrease in forest pollen species. Around BOTTEMA@RISC1.RUG.NL
Faunal Analysis with a Focus on Anatolia

HITOMI HONGO AND RICHARD H. MEADOW
INTRODUCTION GOALS
Analysis of animal bones (faunal analysis)Perception

has be- of what faunal analysts do and sh
come increasingly common in Near Eastern archae-
do varies among archaeologists and even am
ology.68 Much of the first research focused on iden-
faunal specialists themselves. At one end of a c
tifying animals exploited by Palaeolithic hunters
tinuumandis faunal analysis as a set of procedu
on the beginnings of animal domestication during
identify and record animal bone remains with a
the Neolithic. Recently, however, increasing numbers
toward documenting the history of human im
of faunal studies have been carried out on on
sites later People who work in this way often
animals.
than the Neolithic. Because analysis of animal bones
themselves "archaeozoologists." At the other en
began as early as the 1930s in Anatolia, that area
analysis and interpretation of faunal remains i
provides a useful source of examples to underline
context of particular archaeological problems w
some of the possibilities and problems aof research
focus on interactions between humans and ani-
that have changed over time. mals within specific social and cultural contexts. In-
67 Bottema and Woldring (supra n. 59) 231-64. "The Origin of Pig Domestication with Particular Refer-
6 This essay is respectfully dedicated to the memory ence to the Near East" (Institute of Archaeology, Univer-
of Berrin Kugatman (Dogan), whose tragic death at thesity College London, 1991) represents a remarkable piece
age of 36 in May 1993 robbed Turkey of a dedicated faunal of research on a difficult topic.
analyst with a bright future. Her Ph.D. dissertation titled

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 10. Faunal analysis at Kaman Kalehoyiuk, Kirgehir, T

b) on the excavation, uncovering a late second-millenniu
vestigators who approach stage

the to help developin
field an effective
this sampling method
fashion
while taking into consideration time,
often call themselves "zooarchaeologists." budget con-
There is
straints,
a parallel continuum in the ways and the overall goals
that of the project.
faunal At what-
analysts
are related to excavation ever
projects. Some
stage an analyst becomes have
involved in tended
a project,
to work as technicians/specialists who that
however, it is important identify bones
he or she be fully in-
and present the results toformed
archaeologists.
about the stratigraphy ofOthers
the site, the try
details
of archaeologicaland
to be an integral part of projects context, and the sampling
employ meth-
a more
holistic approach to analysis and interpretation.69
ods employed.70
In faunal studies, recovery Whattechniques and
can be classed under the archae-
rubrics of"experi-
ological context are crucialmental"(fig. 10).
or "actualistic" Animal
studies bones
form important as-
themselves, unlike potsherdspects of
andfaunal research. artifacts,
other These include preparing
gen-
erally do not contain intrinsic clues
a modern comparative to dating
collection or
to assist in iden-
sociallcultural affiliation tification
(unless they
of the can
archaeological be carrying
fauna, char- out
acterized isotopically). Therefore faunal
studies on modern animal remains
keeping and hunting or
from mixed or disturbed contexts are
fishing practices in best
the local avoided,
area in order to under-
stand possibilities and
because the data may be misleading iflimitations,
they and aretesting the
inter-
efficacy of recovery
preted uncritically. In addition, there techniques. An example of
are various sig-
cul-
tural practices and postdepositional nificant work in these areas has been that of
factors Sebas-
that can
affect the distribution of animal bones across an ar- tian Payne in Anatolia and southeastern Europe. In
chaeological site. Careful recovery incorporating aa study of sampling methods, he demonstrated that
program of sampling and sieving combined with de-bones of medium and small animals can be signifi-
tailed information about archaeological context of cantly underrepresented in a hand-picked faunal as-
semblage when compared to a sieved assemblage.71
the material will help the investigator to evaluate the
biases involved. Ideally, the faunal analyst should beFor the material from Agvan Kale, he developed a
technique for recording tooth wear in sheep and
brought into a project during the research design
69 S.J.M. Davis, The Archaeology of Animals (London 1987)of which there are many, the best for Europe and the Near
provides a good introduction to some of what has been East, however, still being the now out-of-print bilingual Atlas
accomplished in the field as well as a useful bibliography.
ofAnimalBones/Knochenatlas (Amsterdam 1972) by E. Schmid.
For an introduction to the basic techniques for identifying70 R.H. Meadow, "Animal Bones: Problems for the Ar-
mammal bones and teeth, see S. Hillson, Mammal Bones chaeologist together with Some Possible Solutions," Paliori-
and Teeth (London 1992); note, however, the author's warn- ent 6 (1980) 65-77.
ing on the cover of the book that "it should be used in 71 S. Payne, "Partial Recovery and Sample Bias: The Re-
conjunction with a reference collection of bones and teeth sults of Some Sieving Experiments," in E.S. Higgs ed., Papers
and with the help of an experienced zooarchaeologist." in Economic Prehistory (Cambridge 1972) 49-64.
This is true of all published guides to bone identification

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
goats and,
subsequently, studied
at such sites traditionally tooth
has focused on texts, ar- wea
in hundreds
of living
chitecture,Angora
and objects of art andgoats in o
on the establish-
better able to determine age and
ment of chronology, at death
little attention has ofbeen an
resented in the archaeological record.72
paid to questions of subsistence. There is the ten- Fr
data such as these, it is
dency possible
to think to
that we are already well describe
informed
pattern" that reflects
about hunting
the kinds of animals andor their husbandr
uses in early
employed in the past.
historical times, because trade in livestock and ani-
mal products and aspects of animal sacrifice are de-
ANATOLIAN FAUNAL STUDIES
scribed in ancient texts. In reality, however, very little
In Anatolia, modern faunal research can be said is known about practices of animal keeping and con-
to have begun in the late 1960s with the work at sumption, especially the practices of the general pub-
Qay6nfi, Suberde, and Can Hasan.73 At each of these lic as opposed to those of the elites.
Neolithic sites, study of the animal remains was For Anatolia, most studies of animal bones of the
closely coordinated with other aspects of the projects, protohistoric and historical periods have been ar-
and faunal analysts were present on site for at least chaeozoologically oriented. During the 1970s and
part of the excavation. Such work has shown that 1980s, German researchers published data on large
the transition from hunting to husbandry in Anatolia assemblages of animal bones from Bogazk6y, Fikir-
took place between about 7000 and 6000 B.C. in the tepe, Hassek-H6yfik, Korucutepe, Lidar H6yiik,
context of settled agricultural villages. The keeping Norqun-Tepe, and Demircih6yiik.76 They usually
of domestic animals was not immediately accepted presented species lists and skeletal part frequencies,
everywhere, however. At a number of contemporary discussed kill-off patterns for domestic animals and
sites (e.g., Apikli and Cafer H6yik), the faunal re- changes in animal husbandry through time, and used
mains came from wild relatives of the stock that was measurement data to characterize animal size and
already being kept and bred in captivity elsewhere.74 proportions. There was little discussion, however, of
At sites of later periods where faunal remains are variability in the distribution of faunal remains across
dominated by domestic forms, research focus is on a site, with the archaeological period being the prin-
husbandry practices and the nature of animal econ- cipal unit for defining an assemblage. In addition,
omies. Topics include selective breeding, site pro- as excavation and recovery techniques were seldom
visioning, exchange of animal products, and animal mentioned, intersite comparisons required assump-
use by different social groups. Investigators recog- tions of comparability that may not be justified.
nize that ethnicity, social hierarchy, and differences Faunal research is even rarer in later periods, such
in accumulation of wealth can affect the distribution
as the Hellenistic, Roman, and Islamic periods in
and consumption of meat and other animal prod- Anatolia. Although there is an exceptional study
ucts, and they have even employed faunal remains of the "Sacrificial Layer" at Halikarnassos,77 the
to monitor the course of state formation.75
practice of animal husbandry during the Iron
Unfortunately, faunal remains often have been ig- Age and medieval period at the site remains largely
nored at sites of the Bronze Age and later. Research unknown.
72 S. Payne, "Kill-off Patterns in Sheep and Goats: The

Village Site in Southeast Turkey," MASCAJ4 (1987) 191-203;
Mandibles from Agvan Kale," AnatSt 23 (1973) 281-303; and
P. Wattenmaker and G. Stein, "Early Pastoral Production
E. Deniz and S. Payne, "Eruption and Wear in the Mandibu-
in Southeast Anatolia: Faunal Remains from Kurban H6yfik
lar Dentition as a Guide to Ageing Angora Goats,"and in Gritille H6yiik," Anatolica 13 (1986) 90-96; M.A. Zeder,
B. Wilson, C. Grigson, and S. Payne eds., Ageing and Sexing
Feeding Cities: Specialized Animal Economy in the Ancient Near
Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites (Oxford 1982) 155-205.
East (Washington, D.C. 1991).
7 B. Lawrence, "Principal Food Animals at Qay6nfi," in76 Publications listed in A. von den Driesch and J.
L.S. Braidwood and R.J. Braidwood eds., Prehistoric Village
Schiffer, 20Jahre Institutfiir Palaeoanatomie, Domestikations-
Archaeology in South-Eastern Turkey (Oxford 1982) 175-99;forschung und Geschichte der Tiermedizin der Universitdt Miinchen
D. Perkins,Jr., and P. Daly, "A Hunters' Village in Neolithic
1965-1985 (Munich 1985); J. Boessneck, 25Jahre Institut
Turkey," Scientific American 219:5 (1968) 97-106; D.H. French,
fuir Palaeoanatomie, Domestikationsforschung und Geschichte der
"Excavations at Can Hasan III 1969-1970," in E.S. Higgs
Tiermedizin der Universitdt Miinchen 1965-1990 (Munich
ed., Papers in Economic Prehistory (Cambridge 1972) 181-90.
1990).
Unfortunately, only Qay6ni has been published in any
77 E Hjlund, "The Deposit of Sacrificed Animals at the
detail.
Entrance to the Tomb Chamber," and K. Aaris-Sorensen,
7 D. Helmer, La domestication des animaux par les hommes "Zoological Analysis," in The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos
prehistoriques (Paris 1992). 1: The Sacrificial Deposit (Copenhagen 1981) 21-90 and
7 P. Wattenmaker, "The Organization of Production 91-110, respectively.
and Consumption in a Complex Society: A Study of a

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
RESEARCH POTENTIAL
4) Change in size and body proportions of do-
mestic animalsfor
The Middle East has always been a crossroads through time can show whether differ-
peoples and cultures that are sometimes ent breeds of animals were developed or introduced.
documented
Similar
in the texts, but are usually difficult to observations
trace archae- on wild animals can help iden-
ologically. Faunal remains can be an tify human pressure
effective toolon the environment.79
in this respect, because people belonging 5) Frequencies
to all of different body parts and butch-
so-
cial groups, and not just the elites, discard bones; related to ethnic differences
ery techniques can be
and
and how people raise animals, as well asto what
different types of provisioning.
they
eat, can reflect ethnic and social differences. The 6) Intrasite distributions can provide information
following kinds of observations are useful in docu- on social and functional differences. Animals asso-
menting culture-specific practices of animal keeping: ciated with higher status (e.g., horses) or particular
1) The use of domestic animals, for traction or activities (e.g., camels) may only be found at specific
locations.
for their various products (meat, milk, wool, hides),
and their contribution to the pastoral economy can Thus, there is great potential in the study of ani-
be seen in the range of animal species used, their mal bones from archaeological sites of all periods
relative importance, and the kill-off pattern em- to shed light not only on animal exploitation pat
ployed. The presence or absence of certain species terns but on sociallcultural practices that other
(e.g., pigs) can indicate ethnic differences. archaeological materials cannot reveal. It is partic-
2) Season of slaughter can be determined by ex- ularly regrettable that there is general indifferenc
amining incremental structures in the cementum to animal bone studies among many archaeologist
of teeth through the preparation of microscopic working at early historic and medieval sites in the
thin-sections.78 Since animals often appear in asso- Middle East.80 We hope that in the next decade
ciation with gods in season-specific ritual contexts faunal analyses will become more common and
in ancient texts and art, it may be possible in some better integrated into research strategies developed
instances to identify the remains from sacrifices or to investigate the nature of complex societies.81
other periodic events through seasonality studies and
perhaps even identify the sacrificial occasion. ZOOARCHAEOLOGY LABORATORY
3) The presence of foreign species may reflect PEABODY MUSEUM
trade or alliances between geographically distant HARVARD UNIVERSITY
places and even the migration of peoples. The in- 11 DIVINITY AVENUE
troduction of the domestic horse into Anatolia, per- CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02138
haps through the Caucasus, is a good example. MEADOW@HARVARDA.HARVARD.EDU
Dendrochronology
PETER IAN KUNIHOLM
Over 6,000 years of tree-ring chronologies cover-

anthropologists may date finds of wood or ch
ing much of the period back to about 7500theoretically
B.C. have to within one year.
been developed over the past 20 years for the Aegean,
METHOD
Balkans, and Near East. The goal is to construct an
unbroken chronology from the Neolithic to the pres-
Tree-ring sequences from trees that grow
ent against which archaeologists, art historians, and
sonal climate, i.e., with one growth increm
78 D.E. Lieberman and R.H. Meadow, "The

portiveBiology
of all kinds of
of bioarchaeology. We wish to thank
Cementum Increments (with an Archaeological
Dr. Omura andApplica-
the MECCJ for supporting our own par-
tion)," Mammal Review 22 (1992) 57-77. ticipation in the project.
7 The professional standard for bone measurements
81 The professional society for Archaeozoology/Zoo-
is A. von den Driesch, A Guide to the Measurement ofAnimal archaeology is the International Council for Archaeo-
Bones from Archaeological Sites (Peabody Museum Bulletin zoology (ICAZ), which can be contacted c/o Dr. A.T. Clason,
1, Cambridge, Mass. 1976). General Secretary, Biologisch-Archaeologisch Instituut,
0 One exception is the excavations of the Middle East
Poststraat 6,9712 ER Groningen, The Netherlands. Bibliog-
Cultural Center in Japan at Kaman Kaleh6yiik where the raphies are compiled each year and published in the jour-
field director, Sachihiro Omura, has been particularly sup- nal of ICAZ, ArchaeoZoologia (Grenoble, France).

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
year, with the size of that

years growth
with the dependen
possibility that up to 3,000 floati
some climatic stimulus such as cold in the
years will be added in the reasonably po
near futur
gions, drought in the Aegean,
The European oak and and various
pine chronology, a comp
nations of the two stimuli
ite of workin
doneregions in
in Germany and betwe
Northern Irel
be compared thatis these so
increments,
now over 11,000 mo
years long.84 Of particular int
ularly known
"rings," can
est to many AJAbe as dated
readers to the
is the recent c
developm
year in which they were formed.
of a 1,000-year Crossdating,
oak chronology in Poland, which
ing patterns of ring growth
demonstrated from one tree
that panel paintings to
in Western co
and assigning rings to specific
lections, years,
signed by artists such as is possib
Rubens, Rembra
among trees growing etc.,in
werethe
painted same general
on oak boards imported froc
region. Crossdating Gdansk
caninsometimes
the eastern Baltic.85 be achi
spite of human interference to but
Significant work, ring
outside growth
the scope of thisb
ning of stands, resin gathering,
port, fire
is going on elsewhere: dama
some archaeologic
other traumas such as somesevere weather
climatological, effects
and some palaeoclimatol
tion, lightning damage, etc.,
cal. Notable not
progress hasto
beenmention
made in recent ye s
of the wood at the time
in Southof construction
America with the development ofandlong ch
afterward. Both visual and
nologies fromstatistical
Fitzroya cupressoidestechniq
in the vicinity
employed to guarantee the accuracy
the Patagonian glaciers, in Chinaof
withthe
attempts m t
In addition to simple ring-width
link the tree-ring recordanalysis,
with the ChineseX-rarchi
sitometric methods are used
records, towith
in Russia reconstruct pa
the study of tree growth
ronmental conditions.82
the northern Wood
timberline,or charcoal
and in Spain with the st
taken from standing buildings
of medieval monuments. or excavate
archaeological sites can be crossdated with each
DENDROCHRONOLOGY IN THE AEGEAN
and with wood from living trees to extend th
ring chronology beyond My own the
work hasdate of on
been focused the olde
the Aegean for
of the oldest living tree in
the last the
20 years. region.
Progress Dendroc
as of spring 1993 is show
ogy is the only archaeometric
in figure 11. We have technique
about 6,000 years offor chronol
determination of absolute
ogies spreaddates
out over theaccurate
last 9,500 years into t
a region
is either theoretically or by
bounded practically possible.
the Turkish-Georgian frontier in the east
thorough treatment of recent
the mountains progress
of northern Lebanon in the in de
south,
chronological and dendroclimatological
including all of Turkey, Cyprus, Greece,work parts of Bul
wide, see EH. Schweingruber,
garia and the former Tree Rings:
Yugoslavia, and extending Bas to
Applications of Dendrochronology
the instep of the Italian boot at(Boston
Mt. Pollino in 198
DENDROCHRONOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN

Calabria. Whether we can push northward into the
Crimea, northeastward into the Caucasus, and south-
SOUTHWEST AND IN EUROPE
ward into northern Syria and other Near Eastern
Tree-ring studies have been a staple of anthropo-
countries remains to be seen. Mesopotamia and Iran
logical investigation in the American Southwest83
are for the moment inaccessible, but may some day
since the early decades of this century and inyield
Europe
useful information. We expect imported cedar
since World War II. The bristlecone pine chronol-
and juniper from the Lebanon, found in Egypt, to
ogy of the American Southwest now exceedscrossdate
8,500 with Anatolian chronologies.
82 F.H. Schweingruber, H.C. Fritts, O.U. Brfiker, L.G. bon Calibration," Radiocarbon 35 (1993) 201-13. For a re-
Drew, and E. Schir, "The X-Ray Technique as Applied to cent archaeological application, which typifies the uses
Dendroclimatology," Tree-Ring Bulletin 38 (1978) 61-91. of the method, see B. Schmidt, H. K6hren-Jansen, and K.
8 For a recent summary, see J.S. Dean, "Dendrochronol-
Freckmann, Kleine Hausgeschichte der Mosellandschaft (Cologne
ogy," in M.R. Zimmerman and J.L. Angel eds., Dating and 1990).
Age Determination of Biological Materials (London 1986) 85D. Eckstein, T. Wazny,J. Bauch, and P. Klein, "New Evi-
126-65.
dence for the Dendrochronological Dating of Netherland-
84J.R. Pilcher, M.G.L. Baillie, B. Schmidt, and B. Becker,ish Paintings," Nature 320 (1986) 465-66. Also see Klein
"A 7,272-Year Tree-Ring Chronology for Western Europe,"and Wazny, "Dendrochronological Analyses of Paintings
Nature 312 (1984) 150-52; and now Becker, 'An 11,000-Year
of Gdansk Painters of the 15th to the 17th Century,"Dendro-
German Oak and Pine Dendrochronology for Radiocar-
chronologia 9 (1991) 181-91.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Oak m m mN E E
Boxwood m -
1..
0)
SCedar of Lebanon m mm M
ca C. Pine m m mnu m
0
Juniper m m u m m
Conifer
Combined - m m m . J.. m
-7000 -6000 -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 B.C./A.D. 1000 2000
I Aegean Tree-Ring Chronologies as of Spring 1993 Crossdating s
Fig. 11. Schematic representation of current Aegean dendrochronologies by tree s

"Conifer Combined" includes pine, cedar, and juniper.
prehistoric
Absolute chronologies for several genera period, the most notable a
of trees
extend back for a millennium. Our oak
the sequence
last year has been the developmen
ends in A.D. 927. An eighth/ninth-century
700 yearsgap in
of chronologies for the Neol
the oak chronology may be filled by Gatal
timbers from
Hiiyiik.
Amorium that were collected during the summer
PRACTICAL MATTERS
of 1993. A post-Justinianic gap exists just after the
primary timbers from St. Sophia in For
Istanbul were
the dendrochronological method to su
cut. Another gap exists around the time
longof
ringConstan-
sequences are needed. We have m
tine. Indeed, the millennium from roughly 500
junipers with B.C.
as many as 918 annual rings
to A.D. 500 is the most problematic of the last 4,200
Hilyilk charcoal fragments no larger than
years, although the first half may have been
golfball sorted
have as many as 250 rings preserved.
out by the recent construction of a 513-year ring se-
dating material like this is relatively easy. Try
quence from boxwood timbers in datethe samples
Comacchio
with fewer than 100 rings, on th
(Ferrara) shipwreck.86 The sequence, with
hand, is which a not worth doing. Quanti
generally
number of other ring chronologies crossdate,
important. is A
dated
set of 100 samples is vastly pre
to the last decades B.C. by three and to
a half
a set tons
of 10, ofand single samples are to be av
lead ingots stamped with the name AGRIPPA.
except A
in desperation. One cannot tell from i
1,761-year continuous ring sequence from around
evidence whether a single sample has been
2259 B.C. to around 498 B.C. is the longest we
from an have.construction, cut particularly
earlier
Early Bronze Age sequences are still under construc-
purpose to which it was finally put, or is som
tion (see Studia Troica III, Tiibingen 1993).Species
repair. For theare important. Oak, pine, ju
86 E Berti ed., Fortuna Maris: La nave romana di Comacchio

chronology for the Roman Ship at Comacchio (Ferrara),"
(Bologna 1990); P.I. Kuniholm, C.B. Griggs, S.L. forthcoming.
Tarter, H.E.
Kuniholm, and M.I. Pezzo, "A 513-Year Buxus Dendro-

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
fir, boxwood, yew, spruce, and occasionally
estimate che
of the felling
have been crossdated. heartwood
Olive is impossible to
is present, thw
with, ring
as are willow, poplar, and is, at best,
fruit trees.a termin
Large r
in these genera may mean merely that the gard
in the orchards in which they grew was unusua
industrious that year. Cypress
DEPARTMENT OF THEis usually
HISTORY OF ART undata
because the latewood cannot easily be distinguis
AND ARCHAEOLOGY
from an individual annual ring.

G-35 GOLDWIN Finally, the con
SMITH HALL
tion of the sample is important.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY If the bark is
ent, the precise felling ITHACA,
year may
NEW YORK sometimes be
14853-3201
termined. If some sapwood rings are present, on
PETER@DENDRO.MAIL.CORNELL.EDU
Radiocarbon Calibration: Current Issues
S.G.E. BOWMAN AND M.N. LEESE
Radiocarbon dating has made a major contribu-

from the moment the excavation is mooted.
tion to archaeology for more than 40 years. For at can the correct type, size, and number of
then
least the last decade and a half, an immense amount
samples be dated for key contexts having well-
of effort has been invested in providing calibration
understood sample-context-event associations.s8 The
curves, in ensuring and evaluating data quality, and
archaeologist can also assess the funding needed,
in interpreting results. The sheer volume of infor-
the support he or she will receive in the interpre-
mation is bewildering and much of it is seemingly
tation of the radiocarbon chronology, and the qual-
complex, especially as new data are often presented
ity of work produced by a given laboratory.89
without reference to the implications for archae- The need for accurate results (i.e., those with no
ological application. In this review we are concerned
systematic bias) is self-evident, and every laboratory
only with the calibration of radiocarbon dating
ought to be able to provide evidence for its accuracy.
results and particularly with the status of recent
Equally important is the need to estimate realistically
calibration data and the emergent use of Bayesian
the precision (i.e., the random variability) of the re-
statistics.
sults, since an assessment of this, together with the
It must be stressed that calibration is often error
viewed
on and shape of the calibration curve in the
as a final step, requiring thought only afterregion
the radio-
of interest, determines the calendar age
carbon results have been supplied by the laboratory.
range(s). Use of an error multiplier is often suggested
On the contrary, the need for, and effect of, calibra-
because of concern that the quoted error, which may
tion are essential considerations in the besampling
based only on counting statistics, does not fully
strategy. They may even influence the choice of lab-
reflect true variability (assessed by replication ex-
oratory, for example, if high precision proves nec-or intercomparisons between labora-
periments
essary. Discussion among the archaeologist, radio-
tories). As an alternative, the current update of the
carbon scientist, and statistician is needed program
virtually CALIB suggests the incorporation of ad-
7 A readily accessible survey is P.I. Kuniholm and C.L. The Malcolm and Carolyn Wiener Laboratory for
Striker, "Dendrochronological Investigations in the Aegean Aegean and Near Eastern Dendrochronology is supported
and Neighboring Regions, 1983-1986,"JFA 14 (1987) 385-98. by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Na-
More recent summaries are P.I. Kuniholm and M.W. Newton, tional Science Foundation, the Malcolm H. Wiener Foun-
"A 677 Year Long Tree-Ring Chronology for the Middle dation, the National Geographic Society, the Samuel H.
Bronze Age," in Studies in Honor of Tahsin Ozgo (Ankara Kress Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation for
1990) 279-93; P.I. Kuniholm, S.L. Tarter, M.W. Newton, and Anthropological Research, and individual Patrons of the
C.B. Griggs, "Preliminary Report on Dendrochronological Aegean Dendrochronology Project.
Investigations at Porsuk/Ulukilla, Turkey 1987-1989," Syria 88 See, e.g., S. Bowman, Radiocarbon Dating (London
69 (1992) 379-89; and P.I. Kuniholm, "A Date-List for Bronze
1990); S. Bowman and N. Balaam, "Using Radiocarbon,"
and Iron Age Monuments Based on Combined Dendro- Antiquity 64 (1990) 315-18.
chronological and Radiocarbon Evidence," Aspects of Art
89 E.M. Scott, M.S. Baxter, D.D. Harkness, T.C. Aitchison,
and Iconography--Anatolia and Its Neighbors: Studies in Honorand G.T. Cook, "Radiocarbon: Present and Future Perspec-
of Nimet Ozgii (Ankara 1993) 371-73. tives on Quality Assurance," Antiquity 64 (1990) 319-22.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Stuiver & Pearson + Pearson & Stuiver
5000 BC 8000 BC
20 years
1840 AD Pearson et al. 7890 BC
10 10 yearsStuiver
years & Becker
.
6000 BC
Stuiver
1 year , ,- 1510 AD
Vogel & Van der Plicht
1-4 years.4 1930 BC 3900 BC ,
Kromer & Becker

2-10 years (tentative) 4 - - - - - -
7145 BC 9439 BC
1950 1000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
AD Calendar Years BC
Fig. 12. Summary of calibrati

covered and the number of t
superseded previous curves; t
samples. 2) For the period 50
Pearson and Pearson and Stuiv
dendrochronologies: these dat
Beyond 5000 B.C.: a) most m
chronology is tentative (Krom
time intervals; and d) other d
short, time periods. 3) Vogel
from southern hemisphere re
series versus 14C results for corals back to 30,000 B.P.
CALIBRATION DATA
ditional laboratory error terms.91 Somewhat inex-
plicably, however, the values suggested are the errors
on a long superseded calibration curve; thus, we The publication in 1986 of a calibratio
strongly recommend against this procedure. While Radiocarbon (vol. 28:2B) and recommendat
it may seem better to over- rather than underesti- the consensus curves of the Belfast and Seattle lab-
mate precision, in fact, this may not be erring on oratories for the period 2500 B.C.-A.D. 1950 was a
the side of caution. For example, a X2-test91 (a statis- considerable breakthrough. This provided a much-
tical test of "agreement") could give an entirely needed single, and seemingly definitive, calibration
erroneous confirmation of assumed contemporane- curve with the promise of its extension to earlier
ity. Again, only the laboratory itself can give the nec- periods. The picture presented in the 1993 Radio-
essary information on the reliability of its error carbon calibration issue (vol. 35:1), however, appears
estimates and should be requested to do so. considerably more complex. Figure 12 summarizes
11 M. Stuiver and P.J. Reimer, "Extended 14C Data Base which assumes a priori evidence for contemporaneity, is
and Revised CALIB 3.0 14C Age Calibration Program," relevant. "Case II" is unrealistic, as it does not take account
Radiocarbon 35 (1993) 227. of "wiggles" in the calibration curve.
,1 See G.K. Ward and S.R. Wilson, "Procedures for Com- 92 WG. Mook, "Business Meeting: Recommendations/
paring and Combining Radiocarbon Age Determinations: Resolutions Adopted by the Twelfth International Radio-
A Critique," Archaeometry 20 (1978) 19-31. Their "Case I," carbon Conference," Radiocarbon 28 (1986) 799.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UT6 12:34:56 UTC
some of the 1993 curves based on dendrochronol- by probability distributions that fully take account
of both the error term on the radiocarbon result
ogy. At least three of the data sets contain revisions
of previous data, the maximum correction being
and the effect of the wiggles in the curve; the wiggles
about 30 radiocarbon years. Regrettable thoughindicate
the that any one radiocarbon result can corre-
need for these changes may be, they illustratespond
the to more than one calendar age range. Unfor-
tunately the simplest method of calibration, the
extreme care taken by the high-precision laboratories
to check and recheck their experimental procedures
"intercept method,"''96 does not properly represent
and resultant data. Neither the revision of data nor those probabilities that can be calculated only with
the apparent proliferation of calibration curves a computer program. Several such programs are avail-
should be taken as an excuse, as was previously prev- able for dealing with dates individually, most of
alent, not to calibrate. which, explicitly or implicitly, use the Bayesian
In choosing a calibration curve, it is best to match methodology.97 Their underlying model assumes
the age span of the sample to the time interval be- a priori that dates on the calendar scale are equally
tween points on the curve. Curves based on single- probable,98 which seems eminently reasonable in
year samples are limited, but it has been shown that the absence of any information to the contrary. When
calibration of a single-year sample against decadal combined with a radiocarbon result using Bayes's
or bidecadal curves can lead to an underestimate
theorem, this model gives rise to the probability dis-
of the calendar age range.93 For long-life samples,
tributions produced by programs such as CALl5,
having an age span of, e.g., 100 years, a moving av-
CalibETH, and CALIB.99 In contrast, those pro-
erage of the calibration data is needed and some
grams that "divide" radiocarbon probabilities before
computer programs provide this option, but extreme
transferring them to the calendar scale are, in effect,
care obviously needs to be taken in interpreting what a priori that the true radiocarbon values
assuming
archaeological event such long-life samples repre-
rather than the calendar dates are equiprobable.100
sent. The decadal or bidecadal curves, however, are
In the interpretation of groups of radiocarbon
the most suitable for many of the more archaeolog-
results, the simplest approach is to use charts of con-
ically appropriate radiocarbon samples such as fidence
bone bars or probability distributions for the in-
and round-wood. In the absence of a recommended
dividual sample,101 but these provide only a "by eye"
consensus calibration data set, currently available
indication of trends. Ideally, one should be able to
calibration programs use different ones, rangingcombine all of the available data, both radiocarbon
from the 1986 recommended curves94 to a combi- and archaeological, into a single statistical model.
nation of curves95 largely based on those summa-Bayesian methodology is particularly suited to this
rized in figure 12. aim and can deal with, for example, calibration of
CALIBRATION METHODS
a single result combined with an archaeological or
historical terminus (post or ante quem), or calibra-
Like calibration data, methods of calibration are tion of groups of dates with stratigraphic ordering
under review. A consensus is emerging, however, that or phasing.102 The end product consists of, i.a.,
calibrated dates can be faithfully represented only probability distributions similar to those already
S 3 M. Stuiver, "A Note on Single-Year Calibration of the al. (CalibETH) (supra n. 94); Stuiver and Reimer (supra
Radiocarbon Time Scale, AD 1510-1954," Radiocarbon 35 n. 90) 215-30.
(1993) 67-72. 100 In such programs, the probability (p) associated with
94J. van der Plicht and W.G. Mook, "The Groningen a given radiocarbon result is divided by the number (n)
Radiocarbon Calibration Program," Radiocarbon 35 (1993) of calendar dates corresponding to that result before con-
231-37. TR. Nicklaus, G. Bonani, M. Simonius, M. Suter, verting to the calendar scale. By contrast, programs that
and W. W61fli, "CalibETH: An Interactive Computer Pro- do not divide probabilities assign the whole probability
gram for the Calibration of Radiocarbon Dates," Radiocarbon (p) to each of the n calendar dates. For the former programs,
34 (1992) 483-92. the accumulated probabilities on the calendar scale sum
95 Stuiver and Reimer (supra n. 90) 215-30. to unity; for the latter, they must be standardized to do so.
96 E.g., G. Pearson, "How to Cope with Calibration," 101 Examples are given by J. Ambers, S. Bowman, A.
Antiquity 61 (1987) 98-103. Gibson, and I. Kinnes, "Radiocarbon Results for the Brit-
97Pioneered in radiocarbon dating by J.C. Naylor and ish Beakers," Radiocarbon 34 (1992) 916-27.
A.EM. Smith, "An Archaeological Inference Problem,"Jour- 102Several examples illustrating the types of problem
nal oftheAmerican Statistical Association 83:403(1988) 588-95. with which Bayesian methods can deal are described by
SDiscussed by H. Dehling and J. van der Plicht, "Sta- C.E. Buck, J. Kenworthy, C.D. Litton, and A.EM. Smith,
tistical Problems in Calibrating Radiocarbon Dates," Radio- "Combining Archaeological and Radiocarbon Information:
carbon 35 (1993) 239-44. A Bayesian Approach to Calibration," Antiquity 65 (1991)
' Van der Plicht and Mook (CAL15) and Nicklaus et 808-21; also see C.E. Buck, C.D. Litton, and A.EM. Smith,

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
familiar from many calibration programs,

sidered but
and vice versa. For incor-
example, models that in-
porating any additional chronological
corporate hypothesesinformation
about changing activity levels
available. Bayesian methodology
at a site depend on havingaa reasonably
also allows variety large set of
of other inferences to be made (e.g.,independently
samples selected derivation of
and at random
time spans). throughout the period under study. The outcome
What are the practical implications of this type of the radiocarbon measurement, of course, may lead
of approach for the archaeologist? Sets of results to reevaluation of the original model. Thus, for ex-
relating to the same event and shown to be contem- ample, a strategy aimed at dating a single event
porary can, generally speaking, be dealt with using through multiple samples may nevertheless produce
existing calibration programs. Extending the Bayes- non-contemporaneous radiocarbon results. It may
ian approach to dates relating to several events, be valid in specific circumstances to combine the
linked stratigraphically or otherwise, however, re- individual calibrated probability distributions,'03
quires more complex analysis. The mathematical but it is perhaps more likely that the sample-context-
formulation of the problem is not straightforward event association has not been fully understood and
and its solution requires extensive computing re- needs to be reassessed.
sources. At present, the necessary software is not
CONCLUSIONS
widely available, but with recent improvements in
numerical methods, it will probably become more Like any dating technique, the use of r
accessible. The crucial contribution of the archae- requires care in sample selection and mea
ologist to the model-building process is to define Radiocarbon dating, however, has speci
the a priori information that links the samples, such in interpretation, because of the need fo
as the stratigraphic relationships, information from tion. The continually growing body of
historical texts, or, perhaps more controversially, hy- data and the variety of statistical models
potheses about the likely scale of activity and how with the calibration process are daunting
it changes within and between phases. late. These factors, however, underline th
Whether or not calibration is based on Bayesian early and continued collaboration amon
methodology, the broad principles outlined above ologists, radiocarbon scientists, and statisticians.
highlight why the sampling strategy adopted by the Only through such cooperation can the potential
archaeologist is of fundamental importance, requir- of Bayesian analysis be realized, a technique that
ing consideration throughout the calibration and holds considerable promise because of its general-
interpretation process. In assessing possible sampling ity and its ability to incorporate archaeological
strategies prior to submission for dating, simulation data explicitly.
can often be of assistance. By calibrating feasible
results and errors based on educated guesswork, it DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
is possible to judge the likely success of the strategy, BRITISH MUSEUM
and indeed of radiocarbon dating, in resolving the LONDON WCIB 3DG

chronological problem. The sampling strategy will UNITED KINGDOM
determine the chronological models that can be con- EZBMXXX@VMSFE.ULCC.AC.UK
Radiocarbon Dating by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry

R.E.M. HEDGES
The technique of measuring radiocarbon chaeological,

using I estimate that well over 10,000 AM
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) has been in
archaeological dates have been produced. This short
existence for nearly 15 years, and radiocarbonreview
dates attempts to draw some very general trends
have been produced by this method for over a de-
and conclusions from such abundance. I apologiz
cade. Although only about a quarter of these are ar-
in advance for drawing so frequently on the expe-
"Calibration of Radiocarbon Results Pertaining to Related

tributions for "related" samples. While not explicitly stated
Archaeological Events," Journal of Archaeological Science
such 19a procedure seems to be based on the assumptio
(1992) 497-512.
that a single event has been dated by a number of samples
I0 E.g., CALIB and CAL15 (supra ns. 90, 94, and 99) pro-
each of which, while not contemporary, is equally likel
vide an option that simply sums calibrated probability dis-
to represent that event.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
rience of the OxfordADVANTAGES OF GREATER SELECTIVITY

Laboratory,
I know but
best, it has published the most archaeologic
and it is the most specialized
The advantages of the
of much AMS
greater lab
selectivity
in archaeological dating.104
erally fall into two categories: an increase in
chaeological reliability of the date (nos. 1-4), and
THE BASIS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
the generation of new chronological information
THE AMS TECHNIQUE
(nos. 5-6).
To obtain a radiocarbon date, it is necessary and 1) Recheckingdates. If a laboratory date seems ques-
sufficient to measure the relative abundance of the tionable, for whatever reason, sufficient sample is
carbon isotopes 12C, 13C, and 14C in a suitable sam- often available for a second measurement, which
ple. The measurements must have an accuracy ap- might help to confirm that the original measure-
proaching 0.5% to hope to achieve a dating accuracy ment was not in error. Notoriously problematical
of 50 years. The main difficulty is the extremely small dates, e.g., those of the Theran volcanic eruption'06
amount of 14C, which is therefore hard to detect, and the (Pleistocene) "Red Lady of Paviland,"''17 can
and especially so in the quantities necessary to give thus be checked.
the statistical precision required for an accurate date. 2) Improved chemical "pre-treatment." When only
The "conventional" method detects 14C from its own 1 mg of carbon is required for analysis, it is relatively
radioactivity, but since it has a half-life of 5,730 years, easy to find material that can be better chemically
only a tiny fraction of 14C atoms is detected in a characterized and/or be subjected to more stringent
reasonable time, and even samples containing as chemical procedures. Therefore, reasonably well pre-
much as 1 g of carbon are barely sufficient for a mea- served bone has turned out to be the sample mate-
surement. This sets a limit of sample size, and thereby rial of preference, because it contains the chemically
of sample selection and sample chemical treatment well defined protein collagen.10~8 Poorly preserved
procedures. The AMS method detects 14C atoms in- bone, all too frequent on hot and arid sites,'~"9 re-
dependently of whether they radioactively disinte- mains problematic. The question of chemical treat-
grate, measuring about 1% of all 14C atoms and re- ment becomes especially important for dates beyond
quiring samples of only 1 mg of carbon (and often 30,000 years, and only consistent stratigraphic se-
less). quences can demonstrate its effectiveness.
The main outcome is that archaeologists now have 3) Comparison of different fractions. Related to the
far more possibilities as to what samples can be dated. above is the ability to compare different fractions
Therefore, the value of the technique depends very (chemical or otherwise) from the same sample. Differ-
much on how well this choice is exercised. In other ent sources of carbon in sediments can be sorted
respects, the AMS method does not differ greatly out using this approach. Of particular interest has
from the conventional method. The cost is some- been the comparison of the "charcoal" and "humic"
what higher, the measurement error similar (though fractions in charred carbonaceous material."h) Their
the results are more reliable due to better selection), agreement obviously strengthens the reliability of
and the age range much the same (though again, the date obtained. This approach has been used in
older dates are undoubtedly more reliable because several situations, including the rather controversial
samples have been better freed from modern con- issue of contamination in the Theran seed material.
tamination). Both methods are subject to calibra- In many ways, it is one of the most powerful meth-
tion.10" Making samples smaller by 1,000 times, how- ods available for establishing reliability, although,
ever, broadens the scope for many new approaches. of course, the cost of dating is thereby increased.
14 I would like to thank all the members of the Oxford

Bronk, "Radiocarbon Dates from the Oxford AMS System,"
Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit for their enthusiasm and Archaeometry Datelist 9, Archaeometry 31 (1989) 207-34.
support, and in particular Rupert Housley for reading a to R.E.M. Hedges and G.J. van Klinken, "A Review of
draft of this review. The Unit is partially supported by the Current Approaches in the Pre-treatment of Bone for Radio-
Science and Engineering Research Council. Archaeometry carbon Dating by AMS," Radiocarbon 34 (1992) 279-91.
Datelists 1-16 appear in Archaeometry 26-34 (1984-1992). 11' S. Weiner and O. Bar-Yosef, "States of Preservation
111 M. Stuiver, A. Long, and R.S. Kra eds., "Calibration of Bones from Prehistoric Sites in the Near East: A Survey,"
1993," Radiocarbon 35:1 (1993). J]AS 17 (1990) 187-96.
'11 R.A. Housley, R.E.M. Hedges, I.A. Law, and C.R. 11 R.J. Batten, C.R. Bronk, R. Gillespie, J.A.J. Gowlett,
Bronk, "Radiocarbon Dating by AMS of the Destruction R.E.M. Hedges, and C. Perry, "A Review of the Operation
of Akrotiri," in D.A. Hardy and A.C. Renfrew eds., Thera of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit," Radiocarbon
and the Aegean World III (London 1990) 207-15. 28:2A (1986) 177-85.
107R.E.M. Hedges, R.A. Housley, I.A. Law, and C.R.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
A useful spin-off is that

themore is available
only material learned at was
for dating thecarbonize
same time about the processes of example
seeds, is another environmental
of an early agricultur
contamination. site that could be dated by AMS.
4) Selecting more directly relevant material. Small
6) Directly datable samples. Many archaeological
charcoal samples generally enable short-term growth
finds are precious, due to their inherent information
material to be selected, avoiding mistakes due to Often they may still be dated by AMS if a
content.
reuse, or differences between heartwood growth and
small sample can be taken. Another dimension is
felling times. On the other hand, small charcoal frag-
thus added to the chronological framework inferred
ments (or seeds) are fragile and all too mobile, and
for the sample's archaeological context. As one clear
can be used only with great caution to date theexample,
strata direct dating by AMS has shown that many
from which they have been excavated. The human
dating inhumations (in caves, for instance) are in-
of the late Upper Palaeolithic (Tjongerian) site ofand of later date than the cultural remains,
trusive,
Rekem (Belgium), whose sandy deposits contained
which are often stratigraphically indistinguishable.
charcoal fragments loosely associated with fires, In as
general, the more information attached to the
well as microliths (one with attached arrow shaft ad-
sample, the better. For example, dating a snowshoe
hesive), is an interesting case. The charcoal dates
hare all
bone bearing cut-marks not only dates the de-
proved to be stratigraphically incoherent and archae-
positional stratum, but also dates a human presence,
ologically useless, while the adhesive was able to
andsup-
the dating refers both to human cultural prac-
ply a clear and useful date."' In general, larger
tice and also to the ecological and climatic setting.
samples (e.g., bone) are found to be stratigraphically
Typically about 200 mg of bone is sufficient for such
more static. We have found that finely disseminated
a date. Evidence for animal domestication or changes
charcoal, often collected into sedimentary in lenses,
plant morphology due to cultivation may also be
is an especially difficult sample material fromdirectly
which dated through measuring a single charred
to obtain consistent dates. For the dating of sedi-
seed or a pig tooth. Such dates, however, can turn
ments, preserved terrestrial macrofossils are out
of in-
to be later than expected because of problems
creasing importance in establishing the regional and movement and stratigraphic uncertainty.
of sample
ecological context of an archaeological site.112
We have dated two grape pips found on different
5) New or better datings. Since AMS enablesNeolithic
more sites. One was from the excavators' lunch,
samples to be dated, despite smaller sample andsize,
the other is the first occurrence of Vitis vinifera
many sites can be dated, either de novo, or else
in much
Great Britain.
more thoroughly than before. This is arguably One
the of the most important information-bearing
category with the greatest general benefit to archae-
artifactual materials in archaeology is pottery. The
ological dating. In particular, open sites with dating
limitedof pottery is reliable only if it contains definite
stratigraphy, such as the French Upper Palaeolithic
traces of food residues, or if any of the original car-
sites of Pincevent, Etiolles, and Marsangy, have been
bonaceous temper survives and can be extracted."15
able to be dated. One site that has benefitted from
AMS dating has identified the earliest pottery so far
a sustained and intensive AMS dating program foundisin the Americas,"6 and confirmed early Neo-
Abu Hureyra in Syria, which was occupied lithic
during
dates in China.
the Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic periods."13Artifacts
The with virtually no context have also been
dating of the stratigraphy, as well as specificdated.
seeds For example, the Oxford Laboratory has dated
and burnt animal bones, has helped greatly innumerous
piec- bone points and harpoons of uncertain
ing together the evidence for the development of
provenience, in order to establish a general typolog-
early agriculture. Jeitun in Turkestan,114 for ical
whichsequence, particularly through the Mesolithic
"' J.A.J. Gowlett, R.E.M. Hedges, I.A. Law, and C. Perry,

van Klinken, "Radiocarbon Dates from the Oxford AMS
"Radiocarbon Dates from the Oxford AMS System: Archae- System: Archaeometry Datelist 15," Archaeometry 34 (1992)
ometry Datelist 5," Archaeometry 29 (1987) 125-55. 337-57.
"12 T.E. Tornqvist, A.EM. de Jong, WA. Oosterbaan, and115 R.E.M. Hedges, C. Tiemei, and R.A. Housley, "Results
K. van der Gorg, "Accurate Dating of Organic Depositsand byMethods in the Radiocarbon Dating of Pottery," Radio-
AMS 14C Measurement of Macrofossils," Radiocarbon carbon 34 34 (1992) 906-11.
(1992) 566-78.
116 A.C. Roosevelt, R.A. Housley, M. Imazio da Silveira,
113 A.M.T. Moore, "The Impact of Accelerator Dating at S. Maranca, and R. Johnson, "Eighth Millennium Pottery
the Early Village of Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates," Radio- from a Prehistoric Shell Midden in the Brazilian Amazon,"
carbon 34 (1992) 850-58. Science 254 (1991) 1621-24.
"4 R.E.M. Hedges, R.A. Housley, C.R. Bronk, and G.J.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
and Neolithic periodsand of northern

smaller Europe
samples are able to be ana
spectacular is the dating of rock paintings
our understanding of the processes of o
radation and carbon
seldom contain sufficient environmental contamination
or well-chaim-
ized organic materials. Several
proves. French
With deepening understanding,Upper
reliable dat-
lithic cave paintings have
ing beyondbeen 50,000dated
years may fromeventually the
prove
coal content by thepossible.
French AMS
To date, AMS's Laborato
chief contributions have bee
Gif."117 More controversial is the dating of w
to provide much greater reliability in radiocarbon
believed to be blood proteins
dates and to forgefrom Australian
a closer relationship between spe
paintings."8 Here, reliability is again
cifically archaeological information the
and chronolog-
issue, for the ical data.
chemical "pre-treatment" is bein
to perform at, or perhaps beyond, its limits. It
ever, an indication of the direction of future re
OXFORD RADIOCARBON ACCELERATOR UNIT
CONCLUSIONS
RESEARCH LABORATORY FOR ARCHAEOLOGY
The full archaeological potential of radiocarbon

AND THE HISTORY OF ART
dating by AMS depends on a comprehensive

6 KEBLE ROAD grasp
of how its selectivity may best be exploited.

OXFORD OXIOn the
3QJ
technical side, selectivity can be increased
UNITED as smaller
KINGDOM
Ceramic Ecology
FREDERICK R. MATSON
Archaeologists are increasingly includingrawconsid-

materials and technologies that the local potter
has available
eration of ecological aspects in their studies of Near to the functions in his culture of the
Eastern, Mediterranean, and European ceramics,
products he but
fashions."'9 This characterization of
perhaps not as much as in other parts ofthe the world.
field has met with approval, and been recently
In addition to shape and decoration, long reported
discussed in some detail by Rice, who also comments
in detail, pottery can be examined in terms of
on the potential value of a ceramic ecological ap-
mineral and chemical composition, variations in
proach in archaeological research:
methods of production and firing, and, of course,
stratigraphic and regional distributions. Such Thedata,
final step of a ceramic ecological investigation
is relating the accumulated data on the environ-
together with cautiously used knowledge of the prac-
mental and socio-technological factors of pottery mak-
tices of present-day village potters, can at ing
times
to thebebroader role of pottery in a culture. This
of use in better understanding the social, economic,
includes such features as economic organization (local
and political aspects of past cultures. The
and potters
long-distance trade arrangements), kinship struc-
ture, settlement
and the pottery they produced were insignificant in patterns, demographic factors, cere-
monial or ritual activities, and so forth.
the broad cultural perspective, but the almost in-
Pottery manufacture, like any other productive
destructible nature of fired ceramics, and the subtle
technology, represents a point where a cultural
record potsherds and vessels retain when most
system other
interacts directly with the environmental sys-
material remains have long vanished, maketem.... Ceramic ecology can be linked with ceramic
it essen-
technologyin
tial that they be carefully excavated and studied to show pottery production as one of the
many patterned ways of exploiting particular envi-
many ways.
ronments and as one of a variety of economic adjust-
"Ceramic ecology may be considered as one facet ments in a network of productive relations in a so-
of cultural ecology, that which attempts to relate the ciety. Ceramic ecology emphasizes the potter's role
117 H. Valladas, H. Cachier, P. Maurice, E Bernaldo de ing of Human Blood Proteins in Pigments from Late Pleisto-
Quiros,J. Clottes, V.C. Valdes, P. Uzquiano, and M. Arnold, cene Art Sites in Australia," Antiquity 64 (1990) 110-16.
"Direct Radiocarbon Dates for Prehistoric Paintings at the 119 ER. Matson, "Ceramic Ecology: An Approach to the
Altamira," Nature 357 (1992) 68. Study of Early Cultures of the Near East," in ER. Matson
1 T.H. Loy, R. Jones, D.E. Nelson, B. Meehan, J. Vogel, ed., Ceramics and Man (Chicago 1965) 203-17.
J. Southon, and R. Cosgrove, "Accelerator Radiocarbon Dat-

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as an active and controllingExamples

agent in the
of ceramic procedures
ecological concerns dealing
of pottery manufacture (resource selection, forming
with the Near Eastern and Mediterranean regions
techniques, firing strategies) as these are revealed
can be subsumed
through technological analyses of under
both the following
ancient topics,and
to which
modern pottery.120 others might well be added.
ENVIRONMENT
Publications on ceramic ecology are scattered
widely in the literature, and J.N.few Postgateofmakes
them until
specific use of re-the volum
historical records found
cently have dealt with Old World pottery. This may on cuneiform tablets in dis-
be because many archaeologists interested
cussing Mesopotamia from 3000 in the
to 1500 B.C.123sub-
His
ject have an anthropological background
discussions that
help to place potters in their has
ecosystem,
been more directed toward New World studies. The and aid in the more effective initial study of the raw
range of non-Old World studies that appear in the materials that the potters had available and of the
materials cited here should provide a basis for se-markets that they supplied. Similarly, in synthesiz-
lective approaches that can be applied anywhere in ing the archaeological evidence for the early cultures
the world.
of western Iran, Hole and his colleagues relied on
A volume edited by van der Leeuw and Pritchard
a detailed knowledge of the landscape and of the
contains several papers related to Near Easternexcavated pottery and architectural remains; in the
ceramic ecology. In their preface, they state: "The final chapter of the book, G.A.Johnson provides an
conference which resulted in this volume . . . held excellent example of the selective synthesis of field
in 1982 ... was deliberately planned as a sequel to data to delineate a broad picture of change, includ-
an earlier symposium entitled 'Ceramics and Man' ing developments in ceramic production.124 This is
in 1962.... The primary aim of the 1982 conference a far different approach from the disdainful or per-
was to attempt to elicit an assessment of what had haps puckish characterization of abundant potsherds
been achieved in the field of ceramic research since on Near Eastern sites as "fairly durable rubbish,"
1962, both in archaeology and anthropology, and also which was made by a distinguished anthropologist
to suggest new directions for further research."'121 over 50 years ago.
Ceramic ecology has been the topic of at least four
TECHNOLOGICAL STUDIES
symposia at successive annual meetings of the Ameri-
can Anthropological Association from 1986 through Detailed laboratory analyses of ceramics are w
1989, and the papers presented at the first three have come and necessary aspects of archaeological rep
been published.1'22 New World ceramics are high- but their results too seldom are integrated int
lighted in these publications. Technological studies stantive discussions. Several well-illustrated rep
of Old World ceramics in their social contexts, how- on the Scarlet ware of the Early Dynastic p
ever, appear frequently in the five volumes published found at Uch Tepe in the Hamrin Basin of the U
between 1986 and 1990 by the American Ceramic Diyala River in northeastern Iraq show, in addi
Society in the series Ceramics and Civilization, edited to the technological data presented, a knowledg
by WD. Kingery and P.E. McGovern. Ceramic tech- the social or cultural aspects of the problem
nology was the general subject of an entire issue of Results from the several analytical techniques
WorldArchaeology (vol. 21:1,1989). Many of the papers while complementing one another, also pro
in this issue are pertinent for the Old World, spe- unique perspectives on the pottery together wit
cifically Near Eastern ceramic ecological studies.Art cultural and natural landscape in which it was
and Archaeology TechnicalAbstracts, which are now pub- duced. As an example of a very different appr
lished by the Getty Conservation Institute, often in- abundant kiln wasters and finished ceramic ware
clude abstracts of ceramic research in which one or found and carefully documented at Tell Leil
more aspects of an ecological approach appear. northeastern Syria, an important urban center
120 P.M. Rice, Pottery Analysis:A Sourcebook (Chicago 1987) 1989).

IS 513, Oxford
314-17, passage quoted from p. 317. 123J.N. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy
121 S.E. van der Leeuw and A.C. Pritchard eds.,atThe Many
the Dawn of History (London 1991).
Dimensions of Pottery: Ceramics in Archaeology and Anthropol-
124G.A.Johnson, "The Changing Organization of Uruk
ogy (Amsterdam 1984) xv. Administration on the Susiana Plain," in E Hole ed., The
122 C.C. Kolb and L.M. Lackey eds., A Pot for All Reasons:
Archaeology of Western Iran: Settlement and Society from Prehis-
Ceramic Ecology Revisited 1987: The Technologytory
andtoSocio-
the Islamic Conquest (Washington, D.C. 1987) 107-39.
economics of Pottery (BAR-IS 346, Oxford 1988); Kolb ed., Ce-
125 M. Gibson ed., Uch Tepe II: Technical Reports (Chicago
ramic Ecology, 1988: Current Research on Ceramic Materials
1990). (BAR-

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ing the third millennium The ecological aspectsB.C.

of the early phases
On of Neo-the bas
positional analyses and lithic ceramicmeasurements
production in the Aegean world are of
dimensions, together with
briefly considered statistical
in Vitelli's exceptionally thorough st
several indices of standardization, it was shown that, report'3 on the pottery excavated at Franchthi Cave
with careful spatial and chronological controls, "one in southeastern Greece. In her concluding chapters,
can use the standardization hypothesis as an effec- she comments on cooking pots that were probably
tive methodology in reconstructing the productive used for other purposes, specialist potters who pro-
organization of complex societies."'126 duced Urfirnis ware, potters who may have been
shamans, and pots as markers of social change.
CERAMICALLY DEFINED CULTURES
CERAMIC ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY
A sampling of recent publications concerned with
ecological aspects of ceramics indicates, to some ex-thorough survey and discussi
Kramer's
ceramic
tent, the wide range of existing interests. ethnoarchaeology132 focuses on
The 'Ubaid
period in lowland Mesopotamia with its"which
well-known
explicitly consider contemporary
ceramics is the connecting link in timepotters
between inthe
terms of particular problems wi
earliest farming communities and the more com- frequently struggle." Her dis
archaeologists
plex, regionally organized societies of the Uruk
of ceramic production, use, disposal, and cha
period, which were the forerunners of the Sumerian
place Near Eastern pottery studies in a w
city-states. A recently published groupspective,
of papers on
broadening the range of possible a
the 'Ubaid127 relies greatly on the ceramic evidence
ceramic inquiry for the Near East and the M
in discussing trade and incipient state formation.
ranean regions. Longacre's broad-ranging
One diagnostic vessel type of the Uruk tion
period of ispapers
the from an advanced seminar
bevel rim bowl, which occurs in great abundance at
School of American Research in 1985 includ
many sites. There are many suggestions oneconcerning
article that pertains to our present area
the use of these bowls, but few that are convincing.
cussion.133 His authors, all archaeologists, c
Is it possible that the bowls were used tothemselves
lightly bake with identifying social and b
sources of ceramic
bread, which in turn was used in the production ofvariation in societies all over the
beer, a staple food product? Chazan world.
and Lehner
The bibliography in this volume is exception-
make a cogent argument for this hypothesis, sum-
ally thorough.
marizing previous studies and citing pottery paral-
Village potters in Pakistan, and until recently in
lels, especially as illustrated in tombAfghanistan,
drawings continue
in to produce their wares un-
Egypt.128s impeded by modern technical practices. They pro-
The pottery of medieval Nubia has been thor- vide current examples of long-standing techniques
oughly studed by Adams,1'29 who discusses the de- of pottery making. Rye and Evans's detailed report
tailed information he has obtained from both archae- on Pakistani pottery134 is exceptionally well illus-
ological and ethnographic materials. The trade of trated and documented, and includes analytical re-
widely distributed Egyptian waterjars, made for the sults from laboratory studies.
most part at Ballas in Upper Egypt, is one facet of Theoretical considerations, as well as field docu-
a detailed study of pottery manufacture at this mentation, have great merit. The way in which
site. 130
Arnold'35 organizes the ceramic data obtained from
126 M.J. Blackman, GJ. Stein, and P.B. Vandiver, "The Bey III and C.A. Pool eds., Ceramic Production and Distribu-
Standardization Hypothesis and Ceramic Mass Production: tion (Boulder 1992) 25-47.
Technological, Compositional, and Metric Indexes of Craft 131 K.D. Vitelli, Franchthi Neolithic Pottery 1: Classification
Specialization at Tell Leilan, Syria," AmerAnt 58 (1993) 77. and Ceramic Phases 1 and 2 (Bloomington 1993).
127 E.E Henrickson and I. Thuesen eds., Upon This Foun- 132 C. Kramer, "Ceramic Ethnoarchaeology," Annual Re-
dation: The 'Ubaid Reconsidered (Copenhagen 1989). view of Archaeology 14 (1985) 77-102.
128 M. Chazan and M. Lehner, "An Ancient Analogy: Pot 133 C. Kramer, "Ceramics in Two Indian Cities," in WA.
Baked Bread in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia," Palori- Longacre ed., Ceramic Ethnoarchaeology (Tucson 1991) 205-30.
ent 16 (1990) 21-35. 134 O.S. Rye and C. Evans, Traditional Pottery Techniques
129 W.Y. Adams, "The Social and Economic Background of Pakistan: Field and Laboratory Studies (Smithsonian Con-
of Nubian Pottery Manufacture," in W.Y. Adams, Ceramic tributions to Anthropology 21, Washington, D.C. 1976).
Industries of Medieval Nubia (Lexington, Ky. 1986) 34-35. 135 D.E. Arnold, Ceramic Theory and Cultural Process (Cam-
0 P.T. Nicholson and H.L. Patterson, "The Ballas Pot- bridge 1985).
tery Project: Ethnoarchaeology in Upper Egypt," in G.J.

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his own fieldwork in Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru, reconsider from an ecological point of view the pot-
together with that culled from ethnographic and ar- tery that is available in museums and extensively
chaeological reports, leads to generalizations and reported upon in publications. Materials now in
theorizing about the massive literature on ethno- storage or on exhibit might be reexamined. Ques-
graphic ceramics. Arnold is also concerned with what tions could then be posed that supplementary
stimulates or hinders ceramic production. The rela- fieldwork might be able to answer when excavation
tively few Near Eastern entries in his index suggest and site surveying resume on a larger scale.
that there is still much left to be done with Near
Eastern ceramics in this regard. MATSON MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY
As a final note, since archaeological fieldworkCARPENTER

is BUILDING
not possible at present or severely limited in many

THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
parts of the Old World, it may well be the time toUNIVERSITY PARK, PENNSYLVANIA 16802
Ceramic Petrography
IAN C. FREESTONE
The petrography of archaeological ceramics in-

thickness of the section. These are most commonly
volves the description, classification, and interpre-
rock or mineral fragments, ranging up to several milli-
tation of ceramic pastes, or fabrics, using techniques
meters in diameter and occupying a large volumetric
derived from those used in geology to describe rocksof the fabric. Inclusions may occur nat-
percentage
(petrography).'136 The primary research tool is in
urally the
the clay, in which case they are described
petrographic, or polarizing, microscope, and the ce- or "incidental." Alternatively, they may
as "intrinsic"
ramics are examined as thin sections, prepared from
have been added deliberately by the potter to im-
slices or fragments of pottery that are fixed to the
prove glass
working or firing properties, in which case
slides and abraded to a standard thickness (0.03
they aremm).
commonly described as "temper." In addi-
At this thickness, many of the more common tion tomin-
materials derived from rocks, tempers may
erals become translucent, and may be identified
include on a range of biological and man-made mate-
the basis of their characteristic optical properties,
rials such as grog (crushed pottery), chaff, bone, slag,
such as color, refractive index, and cleavageand
(fracture
shell.
pattern). Petrography is invaluable in the study of paste
In ceramic petrography, attention is focused pri- preparation techniques137 and can yield useful in-
marily upon the identification of the nonplastic information on methods of forming138 and firing
clusions that are set in the fine-grained clay matrix, parameters.139 The interest of most archaeologists,
as well as the determination of their textural char- however, is in the utility of the method in the deter-
acteristics such as abundance, shape, and size. The mination of provenience. In this review, provenience
inclusions are typically defined as those inclusions studies are emphasized, together with some guide-
of the paste that may be characterized effectively- lines that are of assistance for designing a successful
in practice, those that are larger than the 0.03 mm project or in evaluating a proposed project design.
36 This essay has benefited from many discussions

Britain: A Case Study," in E.V. Sayre et al. eds., Materials
among members of the Ceramic Petrology Group. The views
Issues in Art and Archaeology (Materials Research Society Sym-
expressed remain my own, however. I thank Sheridan Bow-
posium Proceedings 123, Pittsburgh 1988) 109-15. Also see
man and Andrew Middleton for their comments on the
B. Vincent, "Ceramic Technology in Thailand," Indo-Pacific
draft.
Prehistory Association Bulletin 10 (1991) 341-48.
A recent collection of applications and methodological 138 A. Woods, "An Introductory Note on the Use of Tan-
papers is A. Middleton and I. Freestone, Recent Develop- gential Thin Sections for Distinguishing between Wheel-
ments in Ceramic Petrology (BMOP 81, London 1991). Petrog- Thrown and Coil/Ring-Built Vessels," Bulletin of the Experi-
raphy and other mineralogical approaches to pottery are mental Firing Group 3 (1984/1985) 100-14.
integrated together in a collection of papers edited by l3" Many authors have noted changes in the optical
S. Mary, Sciences de la terre et cdramique archeologiques (Docu- characteristics of minerals in fired pottery. For an account
ments et Travaux, Institut Geologique Albert de Lappar- of such changes, seeJ.C. Echallier and S. MWry, "LE'volution
ent, no. 16, Cergy 1992). mineralogique et physico-chimique des pites calcaires au
137 See, e.g., I.C. Freestone and V. Rigby, "The Introduc- cours de la cuisson: Experimentation en laboratoire et ap-
tion of Roman Ceramic Styles and Techniques into Roman plication archeologique," in MWry (supra n. 136) 87-120.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
PROVENIENCE STUDIES
In the broadest sense, the term "provenience" is

usually understood to involve the subdivision of
ceramic assemblages into production-related groups,
without necessarily locating the sources themselves,
although this remains the ultimate goal. Petrography
may be considered useful on a number of levels. First,
it is invaluable in paste classification, enabling the
identification of wares produced from the same raw
materials in the same technological tradition, e.g.,
grog-tempered ware, sandy ware, etc.140 The discrim-
ination between likely production groups is more
convincingly demonstrated using petrography than
Fig. 13. Pastes containing abundant inclusions of
by macroscopic examination alone, and
sandisare
best
unlikely to be immediately diagnostic of
carried out on a carefully selected sample
Inat ancase
the early
of this pottery from the Iron Age site of
bury
stage in the processing of large bodies of Head (Dorset, southern Britain), however, it h
excavated
pottery. The close relationship between possible to distinguish two important production
the obser-
on the basis of grain size distribution, a distinct
vations in thin section and the appearance of a sherd
has been confirmed by trace element analysis. T
in fracture allows petrographically defined pastewith a field of view 6 mm across, show
tomicrograph,
groups to be used as standards against which
dant the
subangular grains of quartz (pale) in a fine-
fired clay
remaining bulk of the pottery may be sorted matrix (dark).
using
low-power binocular microscopy. Outliers are readily
identified in this way. nature of the coarse fraction of the ceramic p
Second, petrography may be used in paste char-
a limitation, so that even quantitative petrog
acterization. A detailed petrographic description
approaches of this type lack the precision an
may be used to fingerprint a paste, establish a paste
sitivity (hence the discriminating power) of m
group, and compare it with ceramics from a known
elemental techniques such as neutron activ
source.141 Within a relatively homogeneous geolog-
analysis (NAA) and inductively coupled plasm
ical environment, however, the differences between
trometry (ICPS). NAA and ICPS routinely ach
pastes produced at different workshops may be slight
precision of about 2% on 20 or more elements
and not distinguishable qualitatively. Therefore,
are rarelyat-
more than three or four mineral
tempts have been made to improve the precision
present inofa ceramic paste that can be quantifi
petrographic descriptions by estimating suchthea volu-
degree of precision. If paste groups
metric proportions of the minerals present as vol-
be distinguished by qualitative or semi-quant
ume percentages (modal analysis) or by measuring methods, then recourse to trac
petrographic
the grain size distributions of the inclusions
ment (fig. 13).
analysis rather than quantitative petro
These measurements can be time-consuming, but
is the approach most likely to be successful.1
offer the possibility of applying statisticalFinally,
techniques
the potential of petrography as a pre
to establish paste groups and discriminate between
provenience technique has resulted in the
sources. In this way, petrography may be used
spread to
application of the method. The rock an
provenience ceramics in a manner similar to trace
eral inclusions within a paste are a reflection
element analysis.142 Nevertheless, the heterogeneous
geology of the source area of the ceramic. The
140 Supra n. 137. Activation Analysis," in Mery (supra n. 136) 4

141 This type of approach is illustrated in many pub-
Schneider and E. Wirz, "Chemical Approaches to
lished applications; see Middleton and Freestone
ological(supra
Questions: Roman Terracotta Lamps as Do
n. 136) passim. of Economic History," in Mery (supra n. 136) 13
142 For a discussion of some of these approaches,
found the seechemical classification replicated in
I.C. Freestone, "Extending Ceramic Petrology," in Middle-
of their sample subjected to thin-section analysis.
ton and Freestone (supra n. 136) 399-410. atis, R.E.Jones, I.K. Whitbread, A. Kostikas, A. Sim
143 Petrography and elemental analysis have C.frequently
Karakalos, and C.K. Williams, "Punic Amphora
been found to show reasonable agreement when appliedGreece: An Investigation of Their Or
at Corinth,
to the same material. See, e.g., A.P. Middleton, M.R. Cowell, JFA 11 (1984) 205-22, find good ag
Technology,"
and E.W. Black, "Romano-British Relief-Patterned
in a Flue Tiles:
range of characterization techniques.
A Study of Provenance Using Petrography and Neutron

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
it is desirable to understand the constraints that act
upon the petrographic method before embarking

upon a research program.
PETROGRAPHIC RESOLUTION
The success of a project is in general deter

by what may be termed the resolution of the
graphic technique-viz., the degree to wh
petrographies of the ceramics under study al
crimination between production groups or
tial raw material sources.145 The petrograph
lution can vary greatly, depending on a n
Fig. 14. Inclusions of of factorsvolcanic
trachytic that are discussed lava
com- below. An(center,
awareness of
posed of elongate laths of feldspar) inonly
these factors not a first-century
enables the evaluation ofB.C.-
the
first-century A.D. flagon, found in Braughing,
likely success Hertfordshire,
of a proposed research program, but
clearly suggest a nonlocal origin. Associated fragments of
also facilitates good project design. The geograph-
granite and metamorphic schist (not shown) suggest a
source in the ancient volcanic area of the Massif Central, ical limits of a postulated source area also depend
France, rather than Italy, where the three rock types are on a number of these factors and are closely related
not commonly juxtaposed. Field of view = 3 mm. to the petrographic resolution.
1) The geology of the study area. The more variable
it may be possible to predict the geology of the source and diverse, the more likely are production groups
area from the ceramic petrography and, from a to have qualitatively different fabrics. Of course, the
knowledge of the regional geology, predict the lo- geology is likely to be more diverse on an interna-
cation of the source. In some circumstances, only tional scale than a local one, which is reflected in
a single thin section may be needed to make such the success of the technique in identifying inter-
a prediction, and this characteristic distinguishes regional movement in some ceramics, such as Roman
petrography from other provenience techniques that transport amphoras.
depend on statistical matching with reference groups 2) A well-characterized data base. A good background
based upon the analysis of large numbers of samples. knowledge of the petrographies of other ceramic
There are many classic examples of this type of types from the region and period as well as of the
study.144 It is particularly successful when the ce- local geology (backed up by fieldwork and sampling
ramic raw materials have been obtained from a local- of potential raw materials, particularly where maps,
ized outcrop of rocks of unusual composition, such memoirs, and reference collections are not compre-
as from an igneous intrusion or a metamorphichensive) can be of great value in improving the petro-
inlier surrounded by sedimentary rocks (fig. 14). Un-graphic resolution so that useful conclusions may be
fortunately, successes are outweighed by failures. Itmade even in relatively unpromising situations.146
is typically not possible to predict the source loca- 3) Ceramic technology. In general, pastes with coarse
tion when the geologies of the source area and the rock and polymineralic sand tempers are more likely
findspot are similar, when the paste is fine-grained,to provide evidence of the source geology than are
or when the prevailing ceramic technology is domi- very fine-grained pastes.147 There are, however, some
nated by the use of an undiagnostic temper type, outstanding examples of fine-grained pastes that are
such as grog or organic material. For this reason, highly diagnostic of source. For example, certain fine
144 The studies of Peacock have been notably success- 146 See, e.g., T. Kilka, "An Example of Study Where the
ful. See D.P.S. Peacock, "A Contribution to the Study of Petrography Prevails over the Chemistry: The Bronze Age
Glastonbury Ware from South-Western England," AntJ 49 Ceramics from Fiave (Italy)," in Mary (supra n. 136) 61-72.
(1969) 41-61; D.P.S. Peacock and D.E Williams, Amphorae Also see WK. Barnett, "The Identification of Clay Collec-
and the Roman Economy (London 1986); M.G. Fulford and tion and Modification in Prehistoric Potting at the Early
D.P.S. Peacock, Excavations at Carthage: The British Mission Neolithic Site of Balma Margineda, Andora," in Middle-
1, pt. 1 (Sheffield 1984). ton and Freestone (supra n. 136) 17-38.
145 The term resolution is used here in a slightly differ- 147 The traditional view that, in contrast to fine wares,
ent sense than that suggested by P.A. Wardle, Bronze Age coarse pots were not widely traded has been overturned
Pottery from Eastern Yorkshire (Diss. Univ. of Bradford 1991), to a large extent. Analytical studies demonstrate that cook-
who uses it to indicate the geological limits, expressed in ing pots, for example, sometimes move over long distances.
kilometers, for locating a pottery source.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 15. Angular Fig. 16.

fragments Slag temper
of granite temper ini
Bronze Age pot from Timna,
Yorkshirea Bronze
mightAge co
sugges
of Israel.
origin, as the local geology The local but
is sedimentary, geolo
th
represent the preferentialfor provenience
utilization of studie
hard
clearly
boulders from glacial drift supports
in the local pr
area as temper.
micrograph shows a central fragment of gran
ing three minerals: feldspar (cloudy), quartz (
biotite mica (dark, striated). Field of view
6) A sufficient = 6
sampl
between paste groups
wares produced in apparent,
southern it is in
Italy often
the e
H
and Roman periods of each
are group are by
characterized re
ence of numerous very fine
sample. fragments
The worst typ of
glass in the matrix. aItpetrographic study
is essential that thi
take full advantage each
of the ofinformation
which represe of
or form. Where
the petrography to understand group
the cerami
of statistical
ogy, since pottery-making analysis
traditions can m
analyst (for example, minimum
the potter size of a gr
might h
may well
clays or used as temper be of
pieces 10 errati
or mo
that had traveled far; It see
will be recognized
fig. 15). t
required for
4) Petrological interpretation. the succe
Experience h
pends upon
that a good understanding of the the modes queso
tion and occurrence archaeologist
of rocks can beworkin very s
in interpreting theFrance, the identification of
ceramic a volcanic sand in a
petrographie
ceramic paste is very significant, pointing
For example, the compositions of tocertain
an origin
in southern Italy.
common mineral types, such To the excavator of a villa in the
as feldspars,
vicinity of from
geological environment Rome or Naples, such
whichinformation isthey
often a
whether plutonic, ofmetamorphic,
no assistance as volcanic sands are ubiquitous
or vol
there. Thus, in project
term "ceramic petrology" is formulation,
sometimes it is necessary us
to balance the resolution anticipated
scribe the broader theoretical framework on the basis
of geology, ceramic
proach. The implication is that technology, the
and the available
analys
number of
or has access to a level of samples against that required to answer
interpretative sk
the
the purely descriptive.48questions of interest.
5) Reducing background Even when all other controlling factors
"noise." Byappear comp
favorable, pottery
with like and restricting traditionssample
the can be critical in deter-
to cer
mining the extent
have been closely defined into terms
which petrography of is useful
typolo
petrographic results (fig. can
16). If calcined
be bone achieved.
or some other widely avail- Man
able material was used to temper
most successful provenience studiesa clay, then there
have
may be no ceramic
on carefully restricted possibility of proveniencing a ware, even such
types,
if production took place Red
tonbury Ware," "Pompeian over the outcrop of a unique
Ware," et
148 An outstanding illustration of the relationship be- ofAmerica Bulletin, pt. 1, 90 (1979) 993-95, with the full paper
tween ceramic petrography and geological environment in part 2 of the same journal, 90 (1979) 1644-1701 (mi-
is given by WR. Dickinson and R. Shutler, "Petrography crofiche only).
of Pacific Islands Potsherds," summary in Geological Society

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
rock type. For this reason, aorpilot study ofThe

characterization. uppetrographic
to 20 reso
thin sections is always to be recommended
be improved by systematic before
collection of
any major piece of work is undertaken. An informed
materials, including geological data, raw material
judgment of the likely outcome
samples andcan then
comparative befrom
ceramics made,
the study
and the optimal sample can be
area. Pilotselected.
studies may be carried out on selected
groups of material. Finally, it should be emphasized
CONCLUSIONS
that an experienced analyst is best fitted to advise
With an appreciation for the factorsonthat influ-
and carry out a project if helshe is involved in
ence a petrographic project, a researcher should
research be
formulation at as early a stage as possible.
able to make a realistic assessment of the potential
of an analytical program in his/her problem area
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
and the levels of interpretation that are BRITISH

possible. Proj-
MUSEUM
ects may be structured so that, if direct provenience

LONDON WC1B 3DG
prediction is not possible, then useful information
UNITED KINGDOM
will be obtained at the level of paste EZBMXXX@VMSFE.ULCC.AC.UK

classification
Ceramic Petrology and Petrography in the Aegean

SARAH J. VAUGHAN
INTRODUCTION
rock types and their constituent minerals. One
Ceramic petrological and petrographic tech-
earliest applications of petrography to archaeo
niques, which are derived from the ical materials
geological was undertaken by G.R. Lepsiu
sci-
ences, have proved to be valuable toolswhoforcharacterized
both the the marbles of museum artifa
and major
characterization and proveniencing of ancient pot- quarries of the classical period. The
lem of mineralogical
tery and other ceramics (including building mate- variation within single qua
rials such as concrete, mortar, plaster,was not Petrol-
etc.). addressed in this early work, however
the selective
ogy is broadly defined as the study of rocks use of one or two of Lepsius's p
according
graphic
to their chemical, physical, and optical characteristics by later art historians
attributes,
whatstructure,
to elucidate their occurrence, mineralogy, appeared to be overlapping source attribu
origins, history, and interrelationships. It in
This involves
turn led to dissatisfaction with the tech
Thesampling
considerable fieldwork in mapping and pioneering work of 19th-century scien
rock formations in a given region, so went
that largely
potentialunappreciated by archaeologists, w
source deposits and quarries used in antiquity can
were working out artifact typologies based pri
be characterized. Petrography is more narrowlycriteria. Indeed, up until the la
ily on stylistic
defined (see the preceding section by I.C.
years, Freestone),
relatively few petrological and petrogra
studies
and involves the systematic study of geological of ancient
and Aegean materials had been ca
out.151
archaeological samples by describing and interpret.-
ing their rock and mineral composiiton As for and tex- discipline, some of the early
any developing
ture in hand specimens and, especially, in from
work suffered thin cursory stylistic and technical
sections.149
descriptions of the pottery, minimal petrographic
detail (which is essential for future reference), and
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW little correlative fieldwork for meaningful interpre-
tation of the petrographic data. For example, while
The original thrust of petrographic techniques,
her preliminary petrographic data may be fine, such
as they evolved in the 19th century, was the assem-
limitations are evident in Pittinger's summary
blage of sufficiently detailed information to classify
analyses of Cycladic pottery,152 which also did not
149' See P.E Kerr, Optical Mineralogy4 (New York 1977), and
graphic Examination of Potsherds from Ancient Troy," AJA
C.S. Hutchison, Laboratory Handbook ofPetrographic Techniques 46 (1942) 237-44; G. Guerreschi, "Ceramica preistorica al
(New York 1974). microscopio," Sibrium 8 (1966) 151-60; ER. Matson, "Could
150 G.R. Lepsius, Griechische Marmorstudien (Berlin 1890). Pottery Have Been Made at Kea?" AJA 71 (1967) 191
151 E.g., L. Courtois, "Note preliminaire sur lorigine des (abstract).
differentes fabriques de la poterie du Chypriote recent," 152J. Pittinger, cited as personal communication in R.E.
RDAC 1970,81-85; M. Farnsworth, "Greek Pottery: A Miner- Jones ed., Greek and Cypriot Pottery:A Review ofScientific Studies
alogical Study," AJA 68 (1964) 221-28; WM. Felts, "A Petro- (Athens 1986) 263-64.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
include any material
on benchmarks
the Cycladic island of Siphnos,for each
I made briquettes
domestic ceramic from theagainst
fabrics recipes of some which
of the potters.varian
A common
have been assessed. Underfunded and
mixture was a dark red clay derived from thepoor
local
ceived petrographic schist
projects, which
and a highly altered, have
pale chloritic clay fromn
incorporated into theweathered schist exposures, in a ratio
archaeological of 2:1. Photo-
research
of a site from the beginning, have
micrographs of the thin also
section of resul
a briquette made
from this mixture show
undigested, largely irrelevant a fine micaceous fabric,at
appendices with t
of archaeological reports.
no particular clue that it represents a mixture, much
Despite the persistent methodological
less any and
suggestion of the relative ratios of fi
the known
cial problems, petrographic
components. research on a
Aegean pottery has seen
By analogy,some
mixed materialsnotable
in thin sections ofrece
vances in methodology,'53 terminology,154
ancient pottery are generally difficult to identify.
graphic analogy,155 experimental
Contrasting mineralogical features,work
however, can in
be est
ing agreed-upon criteria for
suggestive. temper
For example, identifica
significantly larger and more
deriving technological inferences
angular from
rock fragments of mineralogy petro
contrasting
data,'157 and the archaeological
with that in the fabric groundmass and
could well begeolo
the
rationale of preliminary
result of crushedpetrological
rock temper having been addedand
graphic research.'158 to the clay. But the analyst must be cautious. A thin
section of a briquette made from a settled sample
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
of a granodiorite clay from Naxos also contains
An important distinction must be kept
angular, in mindrock fragments, and clays de-
heterogeneous
when comparing the petrographic data rivedof
from some formations
stones and can exhibit marked
clays that have been collected in the mineralogical

field and thoseheterogeneity, which might be mi
of ceramic artifacts. Mineral and rock inclusions in interpreted by an analyst as evidence of materia
pottery can be directly altered by the potter. For ex-
mixed by the potter. It is important to determine
ample, in refining a clay by settling or sieving outthe properties of the available clays near an ancien
production center, since specific clays were eith
relatively heavier or larger materials, respectively,
or in adding temper that may have been sortedsuitable
or or unsuitable in unmixed condition for mak-
crushed, the petrography of the pottery fabric will

ing certain items (e.g., water jars, cooking pots) or
appear to be inconsistent with the unmodified clay
using a specific manufacturing technique (such as
of its source. wheel-throwing or hand-building). The decision to
In the Aegean, modern potters using traditional temper or not temper a clay reflects the potters' con-
methods typically mix clays, even adding in soils, siderations of the material and technological prop-
to achieve certain working and firing properties erties
for of the available resources.
the paste. Such mixtures are notoriously difficult toA petrographer must also be alert for other kinds
distinguish in thin sections, even when the ingredi-
of alterations in pottery sherds, such as the presen
ents are present in known percentages. In a recent of secondary calcite deposited by groundwater dur
unpublished study of clays used by traditional potters
ing burial (frequently marked by concentric rings
1 3 Freestone (supra n. 142); R.W. Dell'mour, "Keramikan-

21-40.
alyse mit dem Polarisationsmikroskop: Methodik, Inter- '157 S.J. Vaughan and D. Guppy, "Statistics and the Ar-
pretation, Beispiele,"Archaeologia austriaca 73 (1989) 17-34.
chaeological Sample," in C.L.N. Ruggles and S.P.Q. Rahtz
1'4 I.K. Whitbread, "The Characterisation of Argilla-
eds., Computer and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1987
ceous Inclusions in Ceramic Thin Sections," Archaeometry
(BAR 393, Oxford 1988) 55-59; Vaughan, "Late Cypriot Base
28 (1986) 79-88; Whitbread, "A Proposal for the System-
Ring Ware: Studies in Raw Materials and Technology," in
atic Description of Thin Sections towards the Study Middleton
of An- and Freestone (supra n. 136) 337-68; S.J.
cient Ceramic Technology," in Y. Maniatis ed., Archaeome-
Vaughan, "Material and Technical Characterization of Late
try: Proceedings of the 25th International Symposium (Amsterdam
Cypriot Base Ring Ware: A New Fabric Typology," in J.A.
1989) 127-38. Barlow, D.R. Bolger, and B. Kling eds., Cypriot Ceramics: Read-
155 P.M. Day, "Technology and Ethnography in ing
Petro-
the Prehistoric Record (University Museum Monograph
graphic Studies of Ceramics," in Maniatis (supra 74,
n. 154)
University Museum Symposium Series 2, Philadelphia
139-47. 1991) 119-30.
15 N. Cuomo di Caprio and S.J. Vaughan, "Differenti- 15 P.N. Hunt and D.R. Griffiths, "Optical Petrology in
ating Grog (Chamotte) from Natural Argillaceous Inclu- the Field," WorldArch 21 (1989) 165-72.
sions in Ceramic Thin Sections," Archeomaterials 7 (1993)

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
of deposition around voids), and

represented forthe loss
each pottery of
class a cer-
or ware, and that
tain percentage and/or type
the of
part inclusion
of each vessel thatdue to is
is sampled post-
most uni-
excavation treatment of the pottery
formly (especially,
representative acid-
of the vessel's fabric. For ex-
cleaning in Greece) or to "plucking"
ample, during
body sherds are usually the
adequate for miner-
abrasive preparation of the sherds
alogical as thin
comparisons. sections.
If the parent vessels are of
The petrography of archaeological
different dimensions,pottery can
however, the petrographic
provide information on a range
profiles of of technological
the sherds is-since
may not be comparable,
sues. For example, firing temperatures can be esti-
the fabric of a larger vessel often contains more in-
mated by the relative birefringence
clusions, providing of clay
support particles
for the wider, taller walls,
and the condition of primary
than that of acarbonate
smaller vessel. minerals
(such as calcite) in the fabric,
Coarsebecause temperatures
wares are particularly amenable to petro-
over 8300 C contribute to the dissociation of primary
logical and petrographic research, and are impor-
carbonates and destroy clay tantparticle
in elucidatingbirefringence.
both long-distance trade (e.g.,
Pottery fabrics fired as high
usingas 10000
storagejars and C, however,
pithoi) can
and local activities (such
contain primary carbonates, whose dissociation be-
as employing different clay bodies for cooking and
havior was, in fact, governed
storage by a Fine
vessels). number of recently,
fabrics and, most vari-more
ables, including inclusion dimension, calcite
utilitarian tools and products crystal
of coarser fabrics-
size, clay matrix composition, the relative vitrifica-
rooftiles, drains, bricks, basins, beehives, tuyeres,
tion (glassiness) of the ceramic
crucibles,surface, and
spindle whorls, etc.- have the prox-
been profitably
imity of inclusions to the studied
surface. In thin
by petrography, section,
providing an excellent per-
one can also distinguish vessel surfaces
spective on finished
the range of ceramic raw material byex-
applied slips from those simply wet-smoothed,
ploitation within a defined geographic region.and
The
evidence of burnishing or polishing is frequently
full potential of ceramic at-
petrology and petrography
tested by the orientation of finer
will be particles
realized, however, (partic-
only when well-conceived
ularly, platey clays and micas) parallel
archaeological projects areto the
coupled withobject's
programs
treated surface.
of field exploration and sampling of relevant clays
The size requirements of a petrographic sample,
and geological deposits.
an approximately 2-cm2 sherd, which is significantly
more than that required for isotopic or elemental
analyses (as little as 20-200 mg), can sometimes pose THE WIENER LABORATORY
a problem in obtaining permission from museumAMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES

and antiquity authorities. Smaller pilot projects, with 54 SOUIDIAS STREET
careful research designs and limited sampling, areio6 76 ATHENS
especially valuable initially. The analyst should take GREECE
care that vessels of different size and function are SVAUGH@LEON.NRCPS.ARIADNE-T.GR
Ancient Vitreous Materials
JULIAN HENDERSON
Vitreous materials, such as glass and glazes cov- to scientific terminology, glass is described as a super-
ering stones and crushed quartz (faience), have been cooled liquid whose structure is normally noncrys-
produced deliberately or adventitiously for thou- talline and lacks a long-range, ordered structure.159
sands of years, from at least as early as ca. 4000 B.C. Included under the heading vitreous, in addition
Worked obsidian, a naturally formed glass, extends to glass, are materials that are referred to as faience,
the human use of a vitreous material considerably "paste," enamel, frit, and glaze. Faience consists of
further back in time. Vitreous means that a material both glassy and crystalline components in which the
is made of, derived from, or contains glass; according crystals are almost always silica (which occurs most
159 WA. Weyl and E.C. Marboe, The Constitution of Glasses: J. Henderson, "Some Chemical and Physical Characteris-
A Dynamic Interpretation (London 1962); R.H. Brill, "A Note
tics of Ancient Glass and the Potential of Scientific Analy-
on the Scientist's Definition of Glass,"JGS 4 (1962) 127-38; sis," The Glass Circle 7 (1991) 67-77.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
ROSEDALE
ANNEALING
S 16^ FURNACE A .D
ANNEALING
FURNACE B
E 23
8
SMELTING
FURNACE
12 SS 6
113 17' 7
/:~ ~ ~~1 ,_2-.5 ... .-.... ,

A., \RUBBLE
- -"-' ';JI AS,,,

::%:".. /."" PACKED PACKED
0-feet
/E" feet020
CLAY
CLA Y
0 metres 5 ASH
SPILLED
S; SIEGES GLASS
Fig. 17. Plan of an excavated 17th-century

the northern type, with separate annealin
shire, England. (D.W. Crossley and EA. Aber
[1972] fig. 57)
abundantly as the mineral quartz). The term "paste" amount and rate of expansion and contraction of
is often used in technologically imprecise ways. For the glaze and substrate is critical for its structural
example, on close examination, some "paste" objects integrity. A family of vitreous materials known as
are found to be made or molded from an opaque fuel-ash slags is produced accidentally as by-products
glass, which is composed of fused particles of ground of many high-temperature industries.
glass. Enamel, on the other hand, is clearly defin-
MANUFACTURE, RAW MATERIALS, AND PROPERTIES
able as translucent or opaque glass set into a metal
or glass surface- most commonly in antiquity by cloi- Vitreous materials are produced using a range of
sonne or champleve techniques on metal. Frit is com- raw materials.'60 These include silica, an alkali such
posed of the basic raw materials of glass production as soda or potassium oxide, and a calcium-rich raw
that are only partially fused. Again, the archaeologi- material (e.g., lime), which, when fused, form a soda-
cal usage of the term "frit" can be quite ambiguous. lime-silica glass. Lead oxide, mineral colorants,
Glazes are simply glasses applied to pottery or stone opacifiers, clarifiers, and opalizers are used for creat-
surfaces, and often contain high lead oxide levels. ing and modifying the color and physical appear-
Their "fit" or adhesion to a surface is especially im- ance of vitreous materials. Waste glass (called cullet)
portant and, as with vitreous enamels, the relative is often added to the "batch" of raw materials and
160 W.E.S. Turner, "Studies of Ancient Glass and Glass- "The Raw Materials of Early Glass Production," OJA 4 (1985)
267-92.
Making Processes," parts III and V, Journal of the Society of
Glass Technology 40 (1956) 39-52, 277-300; J. Henderson,

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
reduces the overall melting temperature; its use is

therefore economically advantageous. Obviously,
quite specific temperature regimes are necessary to
melt or sinter raw materials (the latter involves heat-
ing the raw materials below their melting points until
they form a solid mass), as well as to recycle glass,
apply enamels and glazes effectively, anneal glass and
glazes (i.e., reheat them following manufacture, in
order to allow them to "relax" or stabilize), manufac-
ture faience, and develop or retain color and opacity/
clarity in vitreous materials. Furnaces and kilns were
designed quite specifically in keeping with the close
control of temperatures demanded by the industrial
processes. For example, one principal glass-melting
furnace type (the so-called southern type) is com-
Fig. 18. Backscattered
prised of a stoke hole, melting electron micrograph
chamber, and of fluorite
lower-crys-
temperature annealing tals,
oven seen as black
as particles
separate1-5 g in size,chambers
in a 16th-century
A.D. Chinese opaque turquoise cloisonne enamel. Discrete
of a single construction, whereas the so-called north-
clusters of different-size fluorite crystals indicate that the
ern type has an annealing oven
enamel was fused that is separate
within the cloisson in situ. from
the main furnace (fig. 17).
SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS
Lower temperatures were also involved in fritting
glass raw materials- that A wide
is, range of modern
partially meltingphysicochemica
pri-
mary raw materials and niques
removing any
have been used to impurities-
study vitreous mater
than for full fusion, andEven
such operations
though were provided
earlier investigations some- ev
times carried out in special furnaces.
for meaningful Experiment-
chemical compositional group
the techniques used
ing with a range of manufacturing up to about 1970
techniques and tende
conditions reveals the complexities of ancient
slow and time-consuming. vitre-
Consequently, a da
ous material technology. forAs ancient
one vitreous
example, material the compositions
effect
of varying the percentage slowlyof oxygen
developed. Recently, onfastertheand color
more
of the finished product mated
can be studied
techniques of dataand then
collection re-
and analys
enabled ancient
lated to the colors of ancient vitreous materials It
artifacts. to be is
character-
very im-
ized more exactly
portant that such investigations springover broader
from geographical
a close areas
consideration of the ancient materials
and longer time spans. Inin some their
cases, theproper
provenience
archaeological contexts.of an artifact can be assigned only on the basis of
Excavation of sites where ancient vitreous mate- its chemical composition.
rials were made into artifacts can potentially pro- The available scientific techniques provide a range
vide valuable evidence for raw materials, furnaces,
of information about vitreous materials. Scanning
kilns, crucibles, and fuel used, in addition to the vitre-
electron microscopy (SEM) is particularly useful for
ous products and by-products themselves. Such a
photographing and identifying opacifying crystals
study would normally be carried out for an entire and frits as small as 1 g in size in glasses and glazes
site or region, and the organization of the vitreous
(fig. 18). The chemical compositions of vitreous ma-
material industry should be linked to other high- terials can be determined using X-ray fluorescence
temperature activities for which different pyrotech-
analysis (XRF), electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA),
and proton-induced X-ray emission spectrometry
nological expertise and equipment (e.g., fuels, fur-
nace or kiln design, and the use of ceramic materials)
(PIXE). These surface techniques are minimally de-
might have been shared or influenced vitreous ma- structive or nondestructive. If surface layers have
terial technology. been weathered, however, they must be removed by
161 J. Henderson, "The Scientific Analysis of Ancient 19, UCLA Institute ofArchaeology, Archaeological Research
Glass and Its Archaeological Interpretation," inJ. Hender- Tools 5, Oxford 1989) 30-62.
162E.V. Sayre and R.W. Smith, "Compositional Categories
son ed., Scientific Analysis in Archaeology and Its Interpretation
(Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph of Ancient Glass," Science 133 (1961) 1824-26.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
14
Glass of 11th-7thcenturies B.C. date

12 LMHK composition from Northern
Weight%/. Italy, Switzerland and Ireland
K20
10
High MgO glass of 13th century to 7th century B.C.

4 - England, Germany, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary
Greece and Rhodes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Weight ?/o M
Fig. 19. Bivariate

by weight percen
Eastern and Egyp
the high magnesi
though important,
polishing before may not always contribute to
an
of these the archaeological interpretation in a meaningful
techniques
analyzed way.
and Fully integrating thereby
archaeological and scientific
aspects is essential for resolving
irregularities. specific techno-
Neutr
the logical and cultural issues, that
drawback as the following case a
verized; study demonstrates.
silica, the p
ous materials, is al
A CASE STUDY: BRONZE AGE GLASS IN EUROPE
concentrations of ot
elementsMuch can be
ancient glassmaking before theprfirst mi
trometry,nium A.D.another
was dominated by soda-lime-silica te
very nology. One
small interesting exception, however, occ
samples,
any lead at the turn of the millennium
that is (ca.
pre 1100-1000 B
use more than
as dated one
by dendrochronology), when an entirely
different vitreous technology emerged in parts of Europe
physical a
sult in different sensitivities. industry is characterized by an innovative use o
Behind equipment paraphernalia and complex- materials. Relatively high potassium oxide leve
ity, however, the most important consideration in up to 13% by weight are the earliest recorde
any study of ancient vitreous materials is research stances of such glass; in soda-lime glass, potass
design. To structure a clear and concise set of archae-oxide is typically ca. 0.5% or 2-3% depending u
ological and technological problems to be investi-the soda source. The new glass is also character
gated is essential. To do science for science's sake,by low calcium oxide and magnesia levels.164 H
163R.H. Brill, L. Barnes, and B. Adams, "Lead Isotopes 164J. Henderson, "Glass Production and Bronze Age
in Some Ancient Egyptian Objects," in A. Bishay ed., Re- Europe," Antiquity 62 (1988) 435-51; and Henderson, "Elec-
cent Advances in Science and Technology ofMaterials 3 (London tron Probe Microanalysis of Mixed-Alkali Glasses," Ar-
1974) 9-27. chaeometry 30 (1988) 77-91.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
silica levels are caused by crystals dispersed

the use of high potassium glass,through
it also used glasses
the glass, which reflect a relatively high
derived from probable proportion
recycled Roman tesserae
of light and make the glass appear
and/or "brilliant."
possibly early Islamic glass. The
low magnesia and high potassium oxide levels of the
glass have led to it being labeled
CONCLUSIONS LMHK. The earli-
est glasses of this type are concentrated in northern

The study of ancient vitreous materi
Italy (at the entrep6t of Fratessina at the head of
ranges over a large area of time and space-from
the Adriatic) and Switzerland (at a Bronze Age site
fourth-millennium B.C. Egyptian faience to the earli-
on Lake Neuchatel). This European glass is very
est glass of the third-second millennium B.C. Near
different from the ancient soda-lime glass of the Near
East to European glazes and enamels of later periods.
East and Egypt (fig. 19) and of later periods (from
Outside of the Near East and Europe, the prehistoric
the Hellenistic period to early medieval times) in
Europe. Since it appears at about high alumina thesoda-lime
sameglasses time
of India and the high
that
barium oxide glasses of Han China are evidence for
civilization and trade in the Near East and Egypt
silicate innovation.166
break down, possibly this glass helped to fill an eco-
Analytical techniques promise both to broaden
nomic vacuum. Even the LMHK Late Bronze Age
and deepen our understanding of vitreous technol-
glass found in eighth-seventh century B.C. Ireland
ogies and their roles in societies. PIXE and induc-
(e.g., at Rathgall, Lough Gur, and Freestone Hill) can
tively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICPS)
now be seen to be connected, however indirectly, to
enable chemical compositions to be measured at
developments in northern Italy. By chemically ana-
trace levels, providing very specific provenience data.
lyzing well-provenienced and well-dated glass ex-
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) enables
amples, it has thus been possible to shed light on
minute inclusions, down to a thousandth of a milli-
economic, technological, and cultural developments
in European prehistory. meter, to be photographed and analyzed.
Toward the end of the first millennium A.D. in In general, a sufficient number of closely datable
Europe, a similar shift from soda-lime glass to the artifacts is of overriding significance in the study
high potassium "forest" glass of the high medieval of ancient vitreous materials. Analytical equipment
can provide high-quality data, but the interpretation
period occurred.165 The technological change ap-
of the results is, in the end, strongly dependent on re-
pears to have been relatively fast, and was due to eco-
nomic and/or political disruptions in alkali (soda) search design and whether or not the archaeological
supply, which forced glassmakers to use plant ashes materials form coherent archaeological groupings.
that have a higher potassium oxide content. The enor-
mous demand for stained glass windows in churches, DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY
which now had to be made from the "forest" glass, AND PREHISTORY
must have caused major dislocations in the organi- UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
zation of the industry. Scientific analyses of medieval SHEFFIELD S10 2TN
"Limoges" enamels, a related vitreous technology of UNITED KINGDOM
the period, show that while this industry shared in J.HENDERSON@SHEFFIELD.AC.UK
Xeroradiographic Imaging
PAMELA B. VANDIVER AND CHARLES S. TUMOSA
Xeroradiography is a radiographic imaging tech- source. Differences in charge density produce an

nique similar to photocopying techniques pioneered image that is then rapidly transferred onto a 24.5 x
by the Xerox Corporation. The image is produced34.5 cm paper in a special copy machine. There is
by placing the object of interest on a charged seleni- no film to develop. Typical exposures are lower in
um plate and irradiating it with a standard X-rayenergy and exposure time than film radiography, and
165 M. Dekowna, Szklo W Europie wczesnosredniowiecznej 166 See esp. J. Bhardwaj ed., The Archaeometry of Indian
(Warsaw 1980); J. Henderson and I. Holand, "The Glass Glass (New Delhi 1990); and R.H. Brill andJ.H. Martin eds.,
from Borg, an Early Medieval Chieftain's Farm in North-Scientific Research in Early Chinese Glass (Corning, N.Y. 1991).
ern Norway," Medieval Archaeology 36 (1992) 29-58.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
the results are available within 3-5 minutes of be- A positive xeroradiographic image will usually dis-
ginning the imaging process.167 play the porosity and details of manufacture, while
a negative image shows better the inclusions or
As many studies have demonstrated, the images
are easy to "read" and understand because edges,
higher-density features of an object.170 One of the
joints, or pores are enhanced with a halo effect.168limitations of xeroradiography, however, is a 20-g
The researcher evaluating xeroradiographic images, spatial resolution, which is coarser than the 3-g reso
however, should understand the constraints of the lution of current X-ray film.
technique. For example, the print is a mirror image
of the object, unless reversed for publication pur-
EXAMINATION OF A GAZELLE RHYTON
poses. The images also superimpose edge-enhanced
surface detail onto the internal structure, and the A ceramic rhyton of a gazelle head in the
side nearest the charged selenium plate is imaged M. Sackler Gallery of the Smithsonian In
in more detail than the side away from the plate. (fig. 20) provides an example of the tech
This effect can be significant if the artifact is very information that can be obtained by xer
thick or is a hollow vessel. raphy.171 Although a gift to the Smithsonia
The mechanism of achieving contrast is differentprovenienced, the vessel is possibly from Ir
from that of film radiography where the image is dated by thermoluminescence to the first
is proportional to incident X-ray intensity on the
B.C.-first century A.D.
The rhyton was clearly made in several pie
film.'16' In electrostatic imaging, such as xeroradiog-
had been joined together. Visual examina
raphy, charges accumulate at boundaries and around
small details, and, much like a capacitor, a suffi-
suggested that the beaker portion of the v
ciently large electric field will discharge across
either wheel-thrown or hand-built with strips
an edge. Any residual charge imbalance can dis-
whereas the rhyton head was hand-mode
charge again and again, thereby producing an edge-
fine circumferential ridges, about 0.3-2.0 m
enhancement. Because differing charge buildups andbe seen on the interior using an intense
can
at a glancing or low angle to the surface, a
discharges occur, areas of varying density on a xero-
radiograph cannot be compared quantitatively. cate
The the smoothing of the surface.172 In add
technique has a wide dynamic range in which many cumferential grooves, about 3-4 cm apar
objects of diverse materials can be imaged in a single
felt on the interior. Since these grooves are
exposure; although densities are less well distin-
tal and do not spiral to the rim as is obs
guished than with film radiography, discontinuities
wheel-thrown vessels, they are most likely
are enhanced. The wide range of densities that been
can produced by hand-building. Because of
be imaged and seen in a xeroradiograph are often
ing and pitting, no additional information
obscured in a black-and-white print. ascertained from the exterior surface.
167 We thank Jane Norman and Thomas Chase of the

169-J.N. Wolfe, "Xeroradiography: Image Content and
Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, and
Comparison with Film Roentgenograms," American Journal
the staff of the Department of Radiography of the Alex-
of Roentgenology 17 (1973) 690-95.
andria (VA) Hospital, for their assistance in the xeroradiog-
170 P.B. Vandiver, W.A. Ellingson, T.K. Robinson,J.L. Lo-
raphy of the gazelle rhyton discussed below. D. Stonehambick, and EH. Sequin, "New Applications of X-Radiographic
of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and theImagingHis- Technologies for Archaeological Ceramics," Arche-
tory of Art (University of Oxford) provided the thermo- omaterials 5 (1991) 185-207.
luminescent dating of the rhyton. A. Gunther, M. Good- 171 The rhyton, inv. no. S1987.31, has been published in
way, and R. Henrickson offered useful comments on an Art in the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery: The Inaugural Gift
Asian
earlier draft of this manuscript. (Washington, D.C. 1987) 24 no. 16, and 43; T.S. Kawami, An-
cient Iranian Ceramics from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections
For discussion of the technique, see T.L. Thourson, "Xero-
(Washington, D.C. 1992) 222 no. 141; and A. Gunter, "The
radiography'Journal of the Society ofPhoto and Optical Instru-
mentation and Engineering 56 (1975) 225-35. Art of Eating and Drinking in Ancient Iran," Asian Art 1:2
16~8A.P. Middleton, J. Lang, and R. Davis, "The Applica-(1988) 39.
tion of Xeroradiography to the Study of Museum Objects," 172 P.B. Vandiver, "Sequential Slab Construction: A Con-
servative Southwest Asiatic Ceramic Tradition, ca. 7000-
Journal of Photographic Science 40 (1992) 34-41; W.D. Glanz-
man and S.J. Fleming, "Xeroradiography: A Key to the3000 Na- B.C.," Paliorient 13 (1987) 9-35; R.C. Henrickson,
ture of Technological Change in Ancient Ceramic Produc- "Wheelmade or Wheel-Finished? Interpretation of'Wheel-
marks' on Pottery," in P.B. Vandiver, J. Druzik, and G.S.
tion," Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A242
(1986) 588-95; S. Heinemann, "Xeroradiography: A Wheeler
New eds., Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 2 (Pitts-
Archaeological Tool," AmerAnt 41 (1975) 106-11. burgh 1991) 523-41.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 20. Ceramic gazelle rhyton, possibly from Iran, ca. fi

Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution S1987.31). Ma
vessel balances on its handle, and has a spout hole b
The xeroradiographs (fig. a luxury

21a-b)item thatconfirm
would not have beenthatproducedthe
beaker portion of the rhyton in large numbers.
was The method is unlike that
hand-built used
with
strips or coils. The process for otherof throwing
Greek results
zoomorphic rhyta in which the head in
the alignment of air pockets section is molded
in the and the beaker
clay is thrown.
body Micro-at an
angle of about 30-450 from the throwing

scopic examination of the Greek rhyton grooves
collection
and ridges.173 In contrast, at thecoiling
Ashmolean Museum shows clear marks where
techniques pro-
duce a horizontal alignment of porosity,
the two molded halves of the headsas wereis ob-
joined to-
served in figure 21a. It should gether, and be spiral throwing-ridges
noted that, and if occasional
the
vessel wall were shaped after diagonal stretch marks
coiling, in upper sections
porosity align- of the
ment might also be angled beakeroff from
portions of the the
vessels. horizontal.
The uneven wall thicknessItof is also
thesurprising that the firing
carefully temperature
sculpted
head supports the hypothesis of rhyton
of the gazelle hand-modeling
was so low that the bodyas is quite
its method of manufacture. porous and permeable
Rounded to liquids. Cracks that ap-
fingertip-sized
impressions, but no indentations peared during forming
made and by drying are present at
pointed
or blunt tools, are seen on the head's interior. Be- the top of the handle, the beaker joint of the extra
cause some of the exterior features are undercut, reinforcement clay strip extending from the throat
the head could not have been made in a single, open- to the base of the beaker (fig. 21a), and below the
face mold. The lack ofjoints indicates that the head handle in the wall of the beaker. Four grooves had
was made from a single piece of clay. been created with a rounded tool below and parallel
Even though molding and throwing would have to the handle after the clay body was stiff and some-
been more efficient, the care and excellence in crafts- what dry. Three of these grooves deformed the clay
manship of the gazelle rhyton, in particular the qual- body sufficiently to have produced cracks in the
ity of its sculpting using the labor-intensive methods grooves from which any liquid contents might have
of hand-building and modeling, suggest that this was escaped.
173 P.B. Vandiver, "The Implications of Variation in Ceramic Technology," Archeomaterials 2 (1988) 139-74.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 21. a) Xeroradiograph of the left side of the gazelle

hole through the mouth that was later covered over
head, the extra clay strip added between the throat
beaker and the head. The attached beaker is uniformly s
of the top of the rhyton, showing the attachment o
where a passage opens between the latter and the h
Does the gazelle

rhyton represent
rhyton an ancient
illustrates ex
the effec
ample in which
technical understanding
tive technique did
in discover
ing methods.
match the artisan's expressive sculptural The techni
capabiliti
Examination using xeroradiography
many other materials- combined tex wi
corrosion
other analytical techniques not only products,
has allowed etc.-
id
tification of the methods and sequence of manuf
ture, but also has led toCONSERVATION
further questions
ANALYTICAL LABORATORY about
intended function and quality of craftsmanship e
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
ployed in the vessel. WASHINGTON, D.C. 20560

The xeroradiographic analysis
CAL.PBV@IC.SI.EDU of the gazelle

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
The Provenience Analysis of Am

CURT W. BECK
Amber (figs. 22-23) is the name originally many

attached
as 100 fossil resins occurring throughout
to a fossil tree resin that occurs naturally over a large
Europe as well as other continents. In 1872, the Italian
part of northern Europe. It is thought to have origi- Capellini first suggested that some of
mineralogist
nated in a forested area of southern Scandinavia,
these non-Baltic deposits, including those he him-
but only secondary, tertiary, and higher-order
self hadde-
found near Bologna, might well have served
posits are known, and among these, the Jutland
as raw material for amber artifacts in prehistoric
peninsula and the shores of the eastern Baltic Sea
times, and that a Baltic origin should no longer be
are by far the richest. But due to later geological
assumed.174 The suggestion was not well received by
most
events- the formation of the Tethys Sea, the Ice archaeologists and led to a quite heated dis-
Ages,
and the river systems that were formed when the
cussion during the International Congress of Pre-
glaciers melted- it was carried west to the coast
historicof
Anthropology and Archaeology in Stock-
holmNorth
England, south to parts of the Netherlands, the in 1874.175
German plain, and southeast throughout all But of
the question had been raised, and the attempt
Poland and well into European Russia. Becausetoof the it by scientific means constitutes an im-
answer
wide distribution of amber in archaeological con-
portant and instructive chapter in the early history
texts throughout the Old World, attempts toofdeter-
archaeometry. The German apothecary Otto Helm
mine its provenience go back over moreset
than
out toaidentify Baltic amber by chemical analysis.
century. The method he used was the quantitative determi-
In the early 19th century, the somewhat mislead- nation of a characteristic component of Baltic amber,
ingly named "Baltic amber" was held to be the only succinic acid, which can be liberated from the resin
source of amber artifacts, and when these were found
in excavations outside the natural range of distri-
bution, they were ipso facto assumed to be imports
from the north. In the course of the 19th century,
425
mineralogists discovered, described, and named as
8 9 10l1
Fig. 23. Infrared sp

cally significant reg
Fig. 22. Piece of worked amber from Palaeolithic deposit of amber piece from
in Gough's cave, Cheddar, Somerset county, southwest it is of Baltic origin
England. (E.K. Tratman, Proceedings, University ofBristol Spe-
west England by hum
laeological Society 6 [1953] pl. 26) University of Bristol
174 G. Capellini, dans

"Uber das Vorkomm
l'antiquite," an
im bolognesischen und
tional anderen Pun
d'anthropologie
Verhandlungen 1872,
1874) 777-817.198.
175 H. Stolpe, "Sur l'origine et le com

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
by hydrolysis or pyrolysis inthus

wavelengths and amounts rangin
furnishes a pattern in which
3 to 8%. Over a period
theyof 25 years,
are diminished or missing. Helm soug
The resulting spec-
show that Baltic amber trum gives was the
information aboutonly sourc
the chemical structure
chaeological amber artifacts of the material, found
but it can also in the
be used, purelyOldem-
including most famously the amber
pirically, as a "fingerprint" characteristicbeads
of this, and
mann had found in Grave Circle A at Myce
only this, material.
Helm was not quite the In 1964, we could show that Baltic
detached, amber had a
objective sc
his explicit goal was to uniqueprove Capellini
infrared absorption spectrum.'78 That wrong
spec-
it became evident that amber-like fossil resins native trum, incidentally, proved that the age-old notion
to Italy, Romania, France, and Portugal contained that Baltic amber derives from pine trees, as claimed
as much or more succinic acid as Baltic amber,1'77 by Pliny the Elder, is wrong. The spectra clearly place
he high-handedly dismissed that evidence and the botanical origin not in the genus Pinus but in
claimed that he could recognize these resins as non- the closely related genus Araucaria.'79 For the pur-
Baltic by sight. Apart from its central methodolog- poses of archaeological provenience analysis, how-
ical flaw, this early provenience analysis of amber ever, the uniqueness of the "fingerprint" is enough.
had other disadvantages. As much as a gram of an Learning from the shortcomings of Helm's work,
archaeological amber find had to be destroyed for we proceeded with methodological rigor. The infra-
a single analysis, and the natural reluctance of red spectra of more than 2,000 samples of fossil
archaeologists to sacrifice what would often be an resins, collected from the mineralogical collections
entire singular find limited the application of the of natural history museums in Europe and the United
succinic acid method to a few dozen cases. Lastly, States, were determined. No European fossil resin
the question of provenience was often cast too nar- matched the infrared spectrum of Baltic amber,
rowly: finds from an excavation were compared to which is characterized by a single absorption in the
Baltic amber, on the one hand, and to a single vari- wave number range between 1100 and 1300 cm-1
ety of non-Baltic amber, such as Sicilian amber, on that is preceded by a broad shoulder (fig. 23). Infrared
the other. If the finds were "more like" one than the spectroscopy thus offers a reliable way of identify-
other reference source, they were assigned to ing it Baltic amber with absolute certainty. Like other
in blatant violation of the fallacy of the excluded
instrumental methods, the infrared test requires only
middle. a very small sample, typically between 1 and 2 mg,
The failure of this early instance of provenience and can be performed in about 20 minutes. That
analysis by physicochemical means had two predict-has made it possible, over the course of the last 30
able results: it lowered the confidence of archaeol-
years, to analyze more than 5,000 archaeological
ogists in the usefulness of the natural sciences in finds from excavations throughout the Old
amber
the service of archaeology, and it discouraged further
World, with the support of many private and public
foundations who have made the project possible,
work toward solving the amber problem. No attempts
to determine the provenience of amber were made most notably the Division of Anthropology of the
for more than half a century after Helm's death.
National Science Foundation. The program has been
When the search for a reliable method was resumed,
conducted under the aegis of the Union interna-
the arsenal of analytical chemistry had been enlarged
tionale des sciences prehistoriques et protohisto-
by a range of powerful instrumental methods. One riques since 1978, when the U.I.S.P.P. established a
of these, infrared spectroscopy, has provided"Committee
the on the Study of Amber" in recognition
solution to a very old question. When infrared light
of the potential of these analyses to elucidate the
passes through a material, those wavelengths areamber
ab- trade and the amber routes in prehistoric
sorbed that correspond to the amount of energy Europe.
re-
quired to support the vibrations of atoms within
Because of space limitations, a detailed account
molecules. The emerging infrared light lacks those
of our results cannot be provided here; a summary
1760. Helm, "Uber die Herkunft des in den alten 178 C.W. Beck, E. Wilbur, and S. Meret, "Infrared Spec-
Konigsgrabern von Mykenae gefundenen Bernsteins und troscopy and the Origin of Amber," Nature 201 (1964)
fiber den Bernsteinsiuregehalt verschiedener fossiler 256-57.
Harze," Schriften der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig, 179 C.W. Beck, E. Wilbur, S. Meret, D. Kossove, and K.
N.E 6:2 (1885) 234-39. Kermani, "The Infrared Spectra of Amber and the Iden-
177' C.W. Beck, "Amber in Archaeology," Archaeology 23 tification of Baltic Amber," Archaeometry 8 (1965) 96-109.
(1970) 7-11.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
up to 1986 of more thanItaly.s18

100A presumed
publications
find of amber fromisTell avail-
Asmar
able.180 It should be noted, however,
(ancient that
Eshnunna), dated the
to 2500-2400 over-
B.C., has
whelming majority of the been
archaeological amber
shown to be not amber, but finds
East African
of south-central and southern Europe
copal.182 Continued researchare indeed
on amber promises to
exports of Baltic amber from the north,
shed additional including
light on its cultural and economic
all of Schliemann's finds from
importanceBronze Age Greece.
in antiquity.
The few exceptions are instructive: a find of amber
in the Vayenas tholos at Pylos, for
AMBER RESEARCH example, is of
LABORATORY
Sicilian, not of Baltic, amber, as is a find from the VASSAR COLLEGE
Aeneolithic necropolis of Laterza in southern POUGHKEEPSIE, NEW YORK 12602
Skeletal Remains
PATRICIA SMITH
The study of human remains from archaeological

clear DNA extracted directly from the skeletal re-
contexts is one of the many research areas compris-
mains, which provide direct information on the ge-
ing physical anthropology. In contrast to archaeolog-
nome and pathogens present. Evaluation of nutrition
ical research that deals with the material culture re- and disease status, as well as evidence of trauma
sulting from human activities, skeletal analyses focus (palaeopathology), provides additional information
directly on the people responsible for such activities. on the life history of individuals and an estimate
The methods used in skeletal analyses are based on of the quality of life for the population under study.
those employed for diagnostic purposes in forensic Marked differences in incidence of disease between
anthropology, medicine, epidemiology, and anthro- subgroups may result from differences in occupation
pological studies of living populations. They are di- and/or access to available resources. This comprises
rected toward determining population origins and an important element of mortuary studies that in-
kinship, nutrition, disease status, and longevity of vestigate the correlation of social status to burial type.
past populations. From a broader perspective, they The techniques used in the above analyses range
provide the basic data for studying the nature andfrom the simple to the sophisticated. Age, gender,
rate of human evolution.
gross pathology, and phenotype can be determined
A skeletal investigation begins by determining the
from visual assessment, supplemented by measure-
manner in which the individual(s) was interred, asments made with calipers and tapes.'83 More sophis-
evidenced by the position of the bones (whether an ticated studies using radiographs, computerized
intact or disturbed burial). This is followed by the
tomography (c-t) scans, and optical and scanning
determination of age and gender, which are used electron microscopy improve the degree of accuracy
to estimate life expectancy for the population studied
achieved, especially for determination of age and
(palaeodemography). Physical characteristics of in-
pathology, while biochemical analyses of trace ele-
dividuals are usually defined by measurement of ments
the and isotopes can provide additional infor-
size and shape of the skull and long bones (mor-
mation on diet.184
phometry), as well as the presence of discrete traits.As in all archaeological studies, many factors affect
Resemblances between individuals and populations
the reliability of the available samples, including ex-
are then used to evaluate kinship and populationcavation priorities or constraints, burial practices
affinities. More sophisticated methods now coming
of the population under study, and soil conditions
into use include analysis of mitochondrial and nu-
causing poor preservation (especially of fragile in-
s180 C.W. Beck, "Spectroscopic Investigations of Amber," 183 WM. Bass, Human Osteology3 (Columbia 1987) is a
Applied Spectroscopy Reviews 22 (1986) 57-110. standard manual for bone identification and measurement.
181 C.W. Beck and H. Hartnett, "Sicilian Amber," in J. 184 For methods used in skeletal analyses and life history
Bouzek and C.W Beck eds., Amber in Archaeology (Prague, reconstruction, see Y.M. Iscan and K.A.R. Kennedy, Recon-
forthcoming). struction of Life from the Skeleton (New York 1989); and S.R.
182 C. Meyer, J.M. Todd, and C.W Beck, "From Zanzibar Saunders and M.A. Katzenberg, The Skeletal Biology of Past
to Zagros: A Copal Pendant from Eshnunna,"JNES 50 (1991) Peoples: Research Methods (New York 1992).
289-98.

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fant bones). To these Sample

mustsizes for Natufian
be sitesaddedin Israel and the
the "
factor that is due toWest Bank range
the fact from seven
thatindividuals at Erq el
skeletal
do Ahmar to moreone
not usually represent than 100 at Eynan. At mostin
point sites, both
time
the primary (intact)
accumulated deaths of and secondarily disturbed
several burials
generati
tion, immigration, were found. Preservation
and/or of bones ranged from mod-
differences in
over time may thuserate to poor, and the frequency to
contribute of infants varied
fluctuat
from site to site. Because of poor preservation, age
age/sex profiles represented.185
or gender could not be reliably defined for more
THE NATUFIANS: A CASE STUDY FROM
than half the adults excavated, while detailed mor-
THE NEAR EAST
phometric analyses could be carried out on even
Skeletal remains from the Epipalaeolithic or fewer specimens. The teeth and mandibles were best
Natufian period illustrate the potential and limita- preserved.
tions of skeletal analyses in resolving specific issues, The extent to which the Natufian age distribution
especially when dealing with small, biased samples. is biased by differential burial practices can be
Dated between ca. 12,500 and 10,500 B.P., Natufian roughly estimated by comparing life-tables calculated
sites show a marked increase in settlement size, per- for living populations with those for Natufians. As
manent habitation, and architecture as compared might be expected, infant deaths in a modern so-
with the preceding Kebaran period. These develop- ciety are inversely related to affluence, being most
ments are coupled with an increase in artifacts and frequent in the first months of life and declining later
features that are generally attributed to cereal col- in childhood. None of the Natufian assemblages so
lection and utilization, such as pestles, querns, sickle far studied, however, fits this model. Diagenesis (dif-
blades, and storage pits. In the succeeding Neolithic ferential preservation) cannot account for this dis-
period, similar tools and facilities are definitely be- crepancy, since the relative number of infant remains
ing used to process and store plant domesticates. recovered from sites with good bone preservation
The Natufian period has been subdivided into is not any greater than that for sites with poor pres-
ervation. The most economical explanation, which
three phases on the basis of tool types, and most re-
search on this culture has been directed towardhas also been established for other periods, would
appear to be that most Natufian infants were not
understanding the "triggers" that were responsible
buried in the same location as older children and
for the transition from hunting and gathering to plant
and animal domestication and the establishment of adults. The age distribution is then obviously skewed,
permanent settlements throughout the Near East.186limiting the validity of palaeodemographic analyses.
Skeletal remains have been found at most Natufian A further confounding factor is the small sample
sites, and research has focused on population affin- size. The discovery of only several hundred individ-
ities, disease, and diet.187 uals for a ca. 2,000-year time span implies that there
are many gaps in the skeletal record, which is in ac-
SAMPLE SIZE AND REPRESENTATIVENESS
cordance with the archaeological finding of periodic
Natufian skeletal remains, which have been re- abandonment of sites.
covered from the sites of Shukbah, Kebara, El Wad, While detailed palaeodemographic analyses of
Eynan, Nahal Oren, Erq el Ahmar, and Hayonim in Natufian populations are clearly inappropriate, an
Israel and the West Bank, are the primary focus here. alternative approach that provides some information
Numerous sites in Jordan (e.g., Beidha) and in Syria on longevity has been to assess the ratio of younger
(e.g., Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates), however, have to older adults. In the Natufian period, as in most
also yielded Natufian material. hunter-gatherer groups studied, very few adults sur-
lations in Israel," pp. 411-24) and P. Smith ("The Dental

l85J.W Wood et al., "The Osteological Paradox: Prob-
Evidence for Nutritional Status in the Natufians," pp.
lems of Inferring Prehistoric Health from Skeletal Samples,"
CurrAnthr 34 (1992) 343-70. 425-32). Also see O. Soliveres-Massei, Les hommes de Mal-
186 For recent overviews of the Natufian period, see A.
laha (Eynan) Israel, Pt. 2: Etude anthropologique (M6moires
Belfer-Cohen, "The Natufian in the Levant," Annual Reviewet travaux du Centre de recherches prehistoriques frangais
deJerusalem 7, Paris 1988) 157-204; and P. Smith, O. Bar-
of Anthropology 20 (1991) 167-86; M.N. Cohen, The Food Cri-
Yosef, and A. Sillen, "Archaeological and Skeletal Evidence
sis in Prehistory (New Haven 1977); and Bar-Yosef and Valla
(supra n. 66). for Dietary Change during the Late Pleistocene/Early Holo-
187 Recent summaries and comprehensive bibliogra- cene in the Levant," in M.N. Cohen and G.J. Armelagos
phies of skeletal analyses appear in Bar-Yosef and Valla
eds., Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture (New York
(supra n. 66) by A. Belfer-Cohen, L.A. Schepartz, and1984)
B. 101-36.
Arensburg ("New Biological Data for the Natufian Popu-

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 24. Side and frontal views of a skull of a Natufian m
vived beyond age 50. By contrast, ancient

somewhat agricultural
dolichocranic (long) skulls, and short,
societies in Israel and the West Bank had between broad faces. The teeth show a high incidence of
10 and 20% survival rates to this age.'88 lingual tubercles on upper incisors and large Cara-
belli's cusps on upper first molars. The Natufians
MORPHOMETRY AND FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY
differ markedly from contemporary populations in
All who have studied the Natufians from these sites
North Africa and the Nile Valley, which are extremely
in Israel and the West Bank agree on the overall phys- robust, with very much larger skulls and teeth, and
ical similarities of the populations. Individuals are well adapted to hunting and eating large game (of.
characterized by short to medium stature, large, figs. 24-25).189
Fig. 25. Side and frontal views of a skull of a Nubian male from West Sahaba
18ss Smith et al. and Smith (supra n. 187). Communities,"Rivista di antropologia (Rome), suppl. 61 (1988)
189 P. Smith, "Evolutionary Trends in Pre-Agricultural 281-94.

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At Hayonim, at least seven adults (29% of th
sample population) have a congenital absence o
third molar, while its overall frequency in Natufi
is of the order of 10%. This condition is inherited,
so that the exceptionally high frequency at Hayon
indicates close kinship among at least some of th
buried there. In a preliminary study, Ferembach r
ported that the Natufians from Eynan appeared
be taller and have larger heads than individuals fr
other sites, suggesting that these differences mig
be related to nutrition.190 This hypothesis, howev
has not been supported by the findings on the rel
tive incidence of disease at Hayonim and elsewhe
nor is the number of intact specimens on which d
tailed morphometric studies have been carried ou
sufficient to determine intra- and intersite variation.
Fig. 26. Teeth with hypoplastic defects, present as parallel
Highlighting the limited sample sizes available for grooves and pits on the enamel surface, from Achziv, Israel,
comparative studies is the fact that stature estimates ninth century B.C.
for the Lower Natufian phase at Eynan were based
on only one complete male femur and three incom- can be gauged by reference to the presence of de-
plete femurs.191 velopmental defects such as dental hypoplasia and
Small sample sizes similarly limit intersite and growth arrest lines.
interperiod analyses of cranio-facial parameters. For- A supplementary approach to population studies
tunately, mandibles are better preserved than other has been the use of dental traits, which have been
skeletal elements, and the number available for analy- found to be extremely reliable in studies of the popu-
sis is sufficient for basic statistical inferences. The lation affinities of modern and ancient societies.196
data show that a significant reduction in mandibu-Renfrew's criticisms regarding the effect of environ-
lar robusticity occurred during the Natufian period,
mental stress on skeletal morphometry can then be
thus corroborating the evidence for changing dietscountered by careful evaluation of the severity of
and reduced selective pressures on jaws based on
developmental defects in the samples compared, as
patterns of dental disease.192 well as by the use of parameters that show a high
In a recent article, Renfrew stated that skeletal degree of heritability such as dental traits. For
analyses are of limited value for studying population the Natufians, such studies have emphasized the
origins, since skeletal parameters may be modified similarities of Natufian populations from all sites
by environmental stress.93 Certainly, environmental and phases.
stress during childhood may depress growth, but
PALAEOPATHOLOGIES WITH CHANGING DIET
other skeletal and dental parameters are less affected.
Indeed, in the classical study by Boas, usually quoted Environmental stress in the Natufians has been
in support of plasticity of cranial measurements, the assessed in terms of developmental defects and other
differences found in head length between immi- pathologies. Fortunately for the physical anthropolo-
grants to the United States and their offspring were gist, the timing and severity of events, which are
small.194 Later studies have found that most param- sufficiently stressful to depress growth, result in per-
eters of the cranio-facial complex show a high de- manent scars in the teeth and bones that can be
gree of hereditability and so are reliable for studies readily identified in adults. The latter include hypo-
of population distance.195 At the same time, the plastic defects of teeth (fig. 26) and hypercalcified
possible influence of stressed conditions on growth growth arrest lines (Harris lines) in long bones. Simi-
190 D. Ferembach, "Squelettes du Natoufien d'Israel: 195 S.O.Y. Keita, "An Analysis of Crania from Tell-Duweir
Etude anthropologique," Anthropologie 65 (1961) 46-66. Using Multiple Discriminant Functions;" American Journal
191 Soliveres-Massei (supra n. 187). of Physical Anthropology 75 (1988) 375-90.
192 Smith et al. (supra n. 187). 196 The rationale and methods used in dental anthro-
193 C. Renfrew, 'Archaeology, Genetics and Linguistic Di- pology are reported in a series of classic articles in Dental
versity," Man 27 (1992) 445-78. Anthropology, edited by D.R. Brothwell (New York 1963). Note
194E Boas, "Changes in the Body Form of Descendents especially the article by the late A.A. Dahlberg, "Analysis
of Immigrants," American Anthropologist 14 (1912) 530-63. of the American Indian Dentition," pp. 149-78.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
the Natufians with hunter-gatherers, who show little

pathology, rather than with agriculturalists. Some
researchers, however, have argued that few signs of
developmental lesions or other pathologies will be
found if individuals succumb rapidly to disease
rather than surviving long enough for the body to
respond.198 Thus, they hypothesize that a low fre-
quency of growth insults may equally characterize
populations with high or low stress levels. Certainly,
a catastrophe or severe epidemic may cause sudden
death of large numbers of the population over a short
period of time. Unless the population is decimated,
however, some equilibrium is eventually reached, and
survival for even two or three days is sufficient for
a visible response to infection or severe malnutri-
tion to occur in the bones or developing teeth. For
most Natufian sites, the samples extend over several
generations, so that we are not dealing with a single
episode. The frequency of developmental defects and
other skeletal pathologies in samples from the differ-
ent sites and periods is stable, indicating that the
level of'environmental stress affecting the bony
tissues was fairly constant. In contrast, the severity
of dental disease increased over time, pointing to
a marked dietary change within the Natufian period.
Hunter-gatherers typically eat foods that require
prolonged mastication and are largely self-cleansing.
Teeth of early Homo sapiens, like those of contem-
porary hunters and gatherers, are characterized by
Fig. 27. Radiograph of humeri, showing variation in cor-
little caries or periodontal disease, while attrition
rates
tical thickness of bones (most vary according
apparent onto the
theabrasiveness
second of the diet.
bone
from the bottom, as the whiteMost agriculturalists,
bands along on thethe
other hand,
length eat softer
of
the bone), Dor, Israel, 15th-18th century
foods, including A.D. of cooked carbo-
large quantities
hydrates that stick to the teeth. This predisposes agri-
culturalists to dental caries and periodontal disease,
larly, loss of cortical bone while
(periostitis),
attrition rates varyresulting
not only with thefrom
abrasive-
chronic malnutrition andlor disease in the weeks ness of the food but also with methods of food prep-
preceding death, can also be diagnosed from the
aration. For example, flour ground using simple mill-
bones (fig. 27). The frequency of hypoplastic defects
ing stones produces considerable grit that contributes
in Natufian teeth is approximately 50%, compared to rapid tooth wear. For this reason, early agricul-
with approximately 33% in Middle Palaeolithic Homoturalists show severe attrition, in addition to higher
sapiens and 90% in later agricultural populations rates
of of caries and periodontal disease than hunters
Israel and the West Bank. The relative frequencyand of gatherers.
growth arrest lines in long bones shows a similar pat-
Dental disease patterns in Natufian populations
terning that demonstrates the intermediate status indicate increased consumption of cooked carbo-
of the Natufians. Other pathological signs, such hydrates
as over time. The dental disease patterns of
reduction in bone mass (osteopenia) and inflam- the Natufians more nearly resemble those of early
matory or degenerative lesions of the bones, alsoagriculturalists than those of hunter-gatherers in
occur in lower frequencies in the Natufians thanrates
in of attrition, caries, and periodontal disease.
later agricultural populations.197 Moreover, when specimens are separated out by
phase, the severity of dental disease can be seen to
The results obtained from the study of pathologies
and developmental defects thus concur in aligningincrease over time, suggesting a gradual increase in
197 Smith et al. (supra n. 187). 198 Wood et al. (supra n. 185).

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
cereal consumption. Studies based
DNA analysis of ancienton strontium/
skeletal remains and mum-
calcium (Sr/Ca) ratios of mified
bones provide independent
tissues, which promises to be a very powerful
support for the hypothesis of with
technique increased cereal
wide application. While thecon-
cost of
sumption in the Natufian period.1'99
such analyses presently prohibits Recently,
their use on a rou-
acorns have been proposed as the main source
tine basis, they should enable the physical anthro- of
the increased carbohydrate consumption
pologist in
to test hypotheses derived the
from Na-
morpho-
tufian period,200 despite their
metric absence
and palaeopathologic from
analyses the
by relating a
plant remains. This hypothesis still remains to
known pathology to a DNA mutation or to the pres-be
tested by dental microwear analysis
ence of using
a specific pathogen scanning
as identified by its DNA.
electron microscopy. Since
Many questions involving the origins, the
acorn flour lacks abra-
relationships,
sive phytates present in the husks
and descendants and
of prehistoric stalks
and historical popu- of
cereals, it should result in a smoother,
lations, more
as well as their behavior polished
and standard of
surface of the abraded teeth than
living, should that produced
also eventually be answerable. by
cereal consumption.
CONCLUSIONS
DENTAL DIVISION OF ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY
Research on the skeletal remains of the Natufians FACULTY OF DENTAL MEDICINE
is ongoing. As this brief review has shown, skeletal HEBREW UNIVERSITY
analyses offer unique perspectives on past societies HADASSAH EIN KAREM
and individuals, and can provide specific answers P.o. BOX 1172
to questions that cannot be addressed by other means. JERUSALEM, ISRAEL
The latest innovation is nuclear and mitochondrial SMITH@DS.HUJI.AC.IL
Immunochemistry Applied to Archaeology

A.M. CHILD AND A.M. POLLARD
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE

the host creature (referred to as in vitro), to
and quantify specific compounds, such as the
Immunology is the study of the reaction between
teins in blood. Immunochemistry normally tri
the immune system of a living organism (the
over host
conventional organic analysis because its
animal) and a foreign substance (i.e., an tion
infectious
limits are much lower.
agent or substance that the organism does not rec-
The recognition process itself works on the basis
ognize as "self"). Most living creatures possess an in- geometry (in much the same way as
of molecular
nate immune system, which does not require prior of a space shuttle!). The foreign sub-
the docking
contact with a foreign substance (i.e., an infectious
stance (or antigen- the molecule that generates the
agent) in order to be effective. Acquired immunity-
antibody) enters the host via the bloodstream or by
the ability to build up resistance to infection by an
transport across a mucous membrane (e.g., the cells
immune response- is a characteristic of vertebrates
lining the lungs or gut). It then encounters partic-
including humans. ular cells called B-lymphocytes. Each B-lymphocyte
The immune response includes a recognition sys-of producing only one type of antibody
is capable
tem in which the host animal creates "designer mole-
that will have a particularly shaped "docking mecha-
cules" called antibodies that are capable nism."
of recog-
The antigen selects the most suitable B-
nizing and reacting with the invading substance
lymphocyte(the
cells, and triggers them not only to pro-
antigen).2'1 Immunochemistry is the application of
duce antibodies, but also to reproduce themselves,
this antibody-antigen reaction in contexts
thus outside
enabling the host to respond more quickly to
199 M. Schoeninger, "The Agricultural 'Revolution': Its ranean Forest: Implications for the Origins of Cultivation
Effect on Human Diet in Prehistoric Iran and Israel," in the Epipalaeolithic Southern Levant," American Anthro-
Palorient 7 (1981) 73-92; A. Sillen and J.A. Lee-Thorp, pologist 95 (1993) 420-35.
"Dietary Change in the Late Natufian," in Bar-Yosef and 201 C.A. Janeway, "How the Immune System Recognizes
Valla (supra n. 66) 399-410. Invaders," Scientific American 269:3 (1993) 61-67.
20) D.L. Olszewski, "Subsistence Ecology in the Mediter-

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Recognition site
of surface A tiny fraction of the total
antibody receptor lymphocyte population
V
ACTIVATION
ANTIBODY SECRETING
PLASMA CELL
Secreted antibody
combines with antigen
Fig. 28. Schematic diagram of antibody-antigen binding and activation. The invading antigen binds only to
the antibody receptor to make a good geometrical fit. This binding reaction causes the lymphocyte whose
receptor has been selected to activate other plasma cells to produce more antibody with the same receptor
geometry. (I. Roitt, Essential Immunology7 [Oxford 1991] fig. 2:10)
similar invaders in the future (fig. 28). Different parts techniques have been used: radiolabeling, known as
of the foreign invader may trigger different B- RIA (radioimmunoassay, using a low activity radio-
lymphocytes to produce a range of antibodies, all active compound attached to the antibody), or en-
of which will react with the original antigen.202 This zyme labeling. The latter method (ELISA-Enzym
is the molecular basis of the resistance to disease. Linked Immunosorbant Assay) is now becomin
more popular because it does not require the us
DETECTION METHODS
of radioactive material. It has the disadvantage, how
For immunochemical work, the molecule to be ever, that a further step is needed, usually the ad
identified or quantified (e.g., the human bone pro- dition of another chemical that will change colo
tein osteocalcin) is injected into the bloodstream of when it comes in contact with the enzyme. Th
a host animal such as a rabbit and becomes the
amount of antigen detected can then be quantified
antigen. This stimulates the rabbit's immune because
system the depth of color change is proportion
to produce antibodies to human osteocalcin (de-amount of antibody-antigen complex pro
to the
scribed as rabbit anti-human osteocalcin). These anti-One problem posed by archaeological ma
duced.
terialthen
bodies can be collected and purified, and are is that extracted solutions are often colored
used to bind with human osteocalcin wherever

byithumic
may compounds from the soil, which may mask
be encountered (for instance, in mixed protein
the ex-
color change.
tracted from archaeological bone). Both these detection systems can be used in con-
junction
In order to be certain that this binding has taken with gel separation techniques, in which
place, it is important to be able to demonstrate the
the molecules extracted are separated according to
existence of the antibody-antigen complex size thus
and electric charge (electrophoresis), followed
formed. This can be done by a variety of methods,
by transfer onto a suitable supporting membrane
but in archaeological immunochemistry, two(blotting)
main prior to detection. This gives increased
202 G.J.V. Nossal, "Life, Death and the Immune System," Scientific American 269:3 (1993) 21-29.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
specificity, since the this

molecular weight
research at present is largely range
driven by
antigen can also be measured
about the length(dot-blotting
of time that biomolecules
or
ern blot). vive in archaeological human tissue from a
of contexts. Proteins in human bone that have been
ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
studied include apohaemoglobin206 (which, together
The principal use of immunochemistry iniron,
with archae-
is responsible for oxygen transport in the
bloodstream)
ology has been to demonstrate the presence of a par,and albumin207 (the most abundant
ticular biological compound in material from
dissolved an in serum).
protein
archaeological context. A typical exampleComplications
would be arise with the immunochemical de-
the detection of apohaemoglobin (a blood tectionprotein)
of degraded protein (see below), but poten-
in archaeological bone. To date, much of tially
thisthis
work
approach could be used for the diagnosis
has largely been directed toward discovering
of a range of howdiseases that are not currently visible
in the archaeological record.
long biomolecules can survive in an immunologically
3) A third area of application is much more
recognizable form. So far, the direct archaeological
controversial-
benefits of this work have yet to be seen, but hold the use of immunochemical tests to
identify
some promise for the detection of diseases thatblood
leave residue proteins both on stone tools
no lesions in bony tissue. and as a pigment in rock art. The subject was first
investigated in 1983, when T. Loy208 identified the
In general, the applications of immunochemistry
to palaeobiology and archaeology fall species
into the fol- of blood residues on stone tool sur-
of origin
lowing three broad categories: faces from recrystallized haemoglobin, after confirm-
1) The demonstration of protein survival in presence
ing the "dino- of blood using test-strips. The latter
are used as the
saurs" and other fossil species. More specifically, a very presumptive screening method
for the detection
degree of affinity between modern antibodies and of albumin and apohaemoglobin
extracted fossil antigens has allowed a phylogenetic
in fresh urine samples. Fresh samples are required,
study of certain fossil and modern animals,
since, after
suchone as day, there is contamination by the
mammoth, mastodon, and modern elephants products or ofseals
bacterial metabolism that can give false
positives. more
and terrestrial carnivores.203 Archaeologically Myoglobin and chlorophyll, along with
relevant are the studies of Neolithic and Bronze
other Age
porphyrin-ring containing substances, also give
equids,20 and the preliminary work false on Neander-
positives.209 Because of the caution with which
dried blood
thal, Homo erectus, Australopithicus robustus, residues are treated by forensic scien-
and Cro-
Magnon man.205 The assumption is thattists theandaffinity
because it was unclear whether Loy's samples
or degree of binding between an antibody raised
were uncontaminated, his results were greeted rather
against a particular protein from the modern species
skeptically. Further work by Loy and others has now
and an ancient antigen (the comparableproved
protein ex- a reasonable doubt that recognizable
beyond
proteinsof
tracted from the ancient sample) is a measure can indeed survive for long periods, al-
the
genetic similarity between the two species.
though Arguably,
a number of investigators still express con-
a better measure of this may now becern
provided bytechniques used in some of these
about the
DNA homologies. blood residue studies.210 The oldest reported blood
2) The detection of proteins in archaeological
residue dates hu-
to 90,000 years ago, from Tabun Cave
man bone andlor mummified tissue. As noted above,
in Israel.211
2,13J.M. Lowenstein and G. Scheuenstuhl, "Immunolog- Journal of Physical Anthropology 87 (1992) 365-72.
ical Methods in Molecular Paleontology" Philosophical Trans- 208 T.H. Loy, "Prehistoric Blood Residues: Detection on
actions of the Royal Society of London B 333 (1991) 375-80. Stone Tool Surfaces and Identification of Species of Ori-
204 A.S. Gilbert, J.M. Lowenstein, and B.C. Hesse, "Bio- gin," Science 220 (1983) 1269-71.
chemical Differentiation of Archaeological Equid Remains: 209 R.E. Gaensslen, P.J. Desio, and H.C. Lee, "Genetic-
Lessons from a First Attempt," JFA 17 (1990) 39-48. Marker Systems: Individualization of Blood and Body
205J.M. Lowenstein, "Immunological Reactions from Fluids," in G. Davies ed., Forensic Science (Washington, D.C.
Fossil Material," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 1986) 209-40.
of London B 292 (1981) 143-49. 210 See A.M. Child and A.M. Pollard, "A Review of the
2o6 P.R. Smith and M.T. Wilson, "Detection of Haemo- Applications of Immunochemistry to Archaeological Bone,"
globin in Human Skeletal Remains using ELISA,"JAS 17 JAS 19 (1992) 39-47, with references.
(1990) 255-68. 211 TH. Loy and B.L. Hardy, "Blood Residue Analysis of
207 C. Cattaneo, K. Gelsthorpe, P. Phillips, and R.J. Sokal, 90,000-year-old Stone Tools from Tabun Cave, Israel,"
"Reliable Identification of Human Albumin in Ancient
Antiquity 66 (1992) 24-35.
Bone using ELISA and Monoclonal Antibodies," American

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
(i.e., degraded) proteins may still be recog

an antibody raised against the complete m
provided that the particular epitope is int
versely, and more likely, it also follows that
0 degraded molecule may have lost the parti
quence or shape that the antibody recogni
therefore go undetected. This is a problem
to archaeological and palaeobiological pro
gives rise to a number of possibilities that
considered. If antibodies are raised again
protein, what are the chances of missing sl
graded proteins? Alternatively, antibod
against degraded proteins are likely to hav
affinity for proteins other than those agai
they were raised (i.e., they give false posit
These problems, when coupled with thos
tamination, which is a characteristic of an
ical study of archaeological material, make
munochemical study of prehistoric hum
challenging field.213
Fig. 29. Schematic drawing of a folded protein molecule
showing how the epitopic region recognized by a single
antibody (marked by the symbolMUMMIFIED
o)TISSUE AS A CASE STUDY
is discontinuous
throughout the protein chain as a whole, depending
Although most archaeological human rema
strongly on the exact three-dimensional shape of the chain.
skeletonized, there is a whole class of mummified
If the protein is degraded, it is unlikely that the individual
components of the epitopic region,tissue that
even is characterized
if they by are theall
survival
still of a sig-
present, will retain the same geometry,
nificant amount and therefore
of soft tissue, which the
is of great in-
chances of recognition occurring are drastically reduced.
terest to the palaeobiologist and palaeoserologist.
(A.M. Child and A.M. Pollard,JAS 19 [1992] fig. 1)
Mummies - both natural and artificial- have now
been extensively studied, and are probably the most

THE PROBLEM OF DEGRADED PROTEIN
fruitful area for the application of immunochemi-
Although antibody-antigen recognition is based
cal techniques.214 It is here that immunochemical
on a three-dimensional geometrical "matching," it
detection of protein, in addition to providing infor-
actually involves only a small region of the antigen.
mation about the survival of particular proteins, can
In other words, even in a relatively large
also molecule
be expected to give evidence of infectious
such as apohaemoglobin, recognition diseases.
involves only
Antibodies to disease are themselves pro-
a very small fraction of the total structure, which
teins (called immunoglobulins), which, if produced
is known as the epitope (fig. 29). The latter mayinbe
by the host vivo may survive in mummified tissue,
either a specific short sequence of the
andamino acid
therefore be detectable by immunochemical
chain that makes up the protein, or it may be a
methods.
number of nonsequential parts of the chain thatjust

The amino acids that link together to form pro-
happen to lie together in space becauseteins
of the
canthree-
also be studied, either individually in
dimensional nature of the molecule. An antigen amay
providing potential dating technique (known a
have several epitopes, which is why oneamino
antigen
acid may
racemization215) or collectively for con-
induce many different antibodies. firming the identity of proteins by matching their
Given that these recognition sites are amino
only acid
a small
profile with modern standards. Another
part of the total structure, it follows that incomplete
class of biomolecules, the lipids (fats), are potential
212 I.A. Wilson, D.H. Haft, E.D. Getzoff, J.A. Tainer, R.A. 214 R.A. Borraco, "Paleobiochemistry," in A. Cockburn
Lerner, and S. Brenner, "Identical Short Peptide Sequences and E. Cockburn eds., Mummies, Disease and Ancient Culture
in Unrelated Proteins Can Have Different Conformations: (Cambridge 1980) 312-26.
A Testing Ground for Theories of Immune Recognition," 215 P.M. Masters, "Amino Acid Racemisation Dating-A
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 82 Review," in M.R. Zimmerman and J.L. Angel eds., Dating
(1985) 5255-59. and Age Determination of Biological Materials (London 1986)
213 Child and Pollard (supra n. 210). 39-58.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
sources of information about

pear that tissue
if population genetics are integrity
required, the
lifestyle, and evidence of isdisease.
best approach now to use DNA homologies. Po-
Palaeoserology, in particular tentially, therefore, itthe
would seemstudy of an
that useful palaeo-
blood groups, is reported anthropological
to information
work can be obtained
best whenfrom s
sue is preserved.216 the Since
palaeobiologyblood
of mummified groups,
tissue, although as
by the ABO antigens,most canauthors stress
be that this must be used in con-
determined from
extracted from bone, hair, skin, or muscle, as well junction with other information.
as blood cells, there have naturally been a number
of studies in which blood grouping has been at- SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY
tempted on mummies.217 Standard tests for free UNIVERSITY OF WALES
ABO antigens have yielded poor results, but tests COLLEGE OF CARDIFF
adapted for tissues devoid of blood are claimed to
CARDIFF CF1 3TB
have given adequate results.218 These data have been WALES
used to study relationships between living and pre- UNITED KINGDOM
historic populations in the Aleutian Islands, south-
western United States, Peru, and Chile. More recently, DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
however, it has been realized that blood grouping UNIVERSITY OF BRADFORD
on material extracted from soil is extremely dubi- BRADFORD BD7 1DP

ous due to the ubiquity of interfering material, and UNITED KINGDOM
it is not now recommended.219 Again, it would ap- A.M.POLLARD@BRADFORD.AC.UK
Palaeogenetics: DNA for the Archaeologist

INGOLF THUESEN
In 1981, Chinese scientists reported thepects of ancient biological life is more far-reaching
extraction
of nucleic acids, the genetic material of thanalldating such remains. Thus far, most palaeo-
living
cells, from a body found in the Changsa Han genetic research has been concentrated on the de-
tomb.220 Despite the considerable implications of velopment of analytical methods. Considerable effort
the discovery, the result was hardly recognized at the has also gone into finding the oldest genetic mate-
time. Four years would pass before scientists in the rial. A weevil trapped in amber, which is dated to
Western hemisphere presented similar results from 120-135 million years BP., has been reported, and
this new field of science, which now is materializing plant remains in amber have also produced DNA.221
in an interdisciplinary space between archaeology, Even if a very conservative estimate is assumed for
molecular biology, genetics, biological anthropology, the preservation of ancient DNA (5,000-10,000 years),
palaeozoology, palaeobotany, and palaeontology. For these discoveries demonstrate that it can survive
reasons mentioned below, the discipline is here called under special circumstances for much longer times
palaeogenetics, but other names have been applied to
GENERAL BACKGROUND
it, such as genetic archaeology, biomolecular archae-
ology, or simply molecular archaeology. The discov- Organic life takes shape due to a coded
ery of the method and its impact on archaeological in DNA molecules (Deoxyribo-Nucleic Acid
science have been compared to that of radiocarbon are located in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus.
dating, although the potential of reconstructing as- The four "building blocks" of DNA molecules are nu-
216 Borraco (supra n. 214). of Nucleic Acids of Liver from a Corpse from the Changsa
217 R.L. Henry, "Paleoserology," in Cockburn and Cock- Han Tomb," Shen Wu Hua Hsueh Yu Shena Wu Li Chin Chan
burn (supra n. 214) 327-34. 39 (1981) 70ff [Chinese].
21 Borraco (supra n. 214). 221 E.g., R.J. Cano, H.N. Polnar, N.J. Pieniazek, A. Acra,
219 W.F. Rowe, "The ABO Grouping of Human and G.O. Polnar, "Amplification and Sequencing of DNA
from a 120-135-million-year-old Weevil," Nature 363 (1993)
Remains--A Review," in G.C. Llewellyn and C.E. O'Rear eds.,
Biodeterioration 6 (Proceedings of the 6th International 536-38;
Bio- H.N. Polnar, R.J. Cano, and G.O. Polnar, "DNA from
deterioration Symposium, Slough, Eng. 1984) 134-42.
an Extinct Plant," Nature 363 (1993) 677.
22( G.H. Wang and C.C. Lu, "Isolation and Identification

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
cleotides that are labeled targeted

A, T, C, ofand
or a result G according
contamination, will be mul-
to their base contents (A tiplied
= adenine,
to several millionT = by
copies thymine,
this technique.
C = cytosine, and G = guanine). The
On the other hand, nucleotides
the strength of the method in
are joined in pairs (A-T and
generatingC-G) to isform
ancient DNA apparent. In a long
theory,
double helix, which through the
one surviving interaction
ancient molecule or segment is with
suffi-
RNA (Ribo-Nucleic Acid) cient
determines
for characterizing someand regulates
biological aspect of a
the synthesizing of proteins
plant,in particular
animal, enzymes.
or human individual (e.g., part of
A particular sequence of nucleotides, a gene,
a Y-chromosomal DNA-segment deter-
can establish that
mines a specific protein. DNA
a humanmolecules,
individual is male). which store
the biological information, Radiocarbon
are transmitted through
dating of ancient DNA assumes that
reproduction among individuals. Thus,
contamination factors all the
have been excluded. For mu- in-
herited characteristics of the individual
seum specimens, contamination(the geno-
from handling can
type) can be described by its DNA.
be ignored when Defects
non-human animal oror changes
plant species
in the genes occur (e.g., byare ionizing radiation),
being tested, since specific non-human DNAlead-
se-
ing to mutations and inherited diseases
quences are such
targeted. For human as cystic
samples, contami-
fibrosis and hemophilia. Thenationevolution of a (e.g.,
must be avoided or removed domes-
by sampling
ticated plant or animal species is due to human
from body regions that have never been exposedex-or
ploitation and selection of handled
individuals or races that
by humans, or by cleaning the exposed sur-
have optimal genetic characteristics.
faces of the samples).
At the termination of life, Although
enzymatic activity
the discovery of ancient DNA nor-
from
mally initiates destructionmummy
of DNA and RNA. Under
tissue in museum collections was ground-
one set of extraordinary conditions, however,
breaking, its archaeological caused
applications are re-
either by nature itself or stricted.
by human intent,
Only a finite number some
of mummies of
are avail-
the nucleic acid in cells or tissue may
able for analyses. survive
Therefore, by made
attempts were the
to
process of mummification. extract DNA from ancient bone and teeth. In 1989
ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS and 1990, two research groups independently re-

ported successful extraction of human DNA from
AND PROCEDURES
bones.224 Because of its very broad applicability to
An early attempt to extract and characterize
human and an-
animal bone remains, this discovery has
cient DNA was made on mummified tissue from an
important implications for future archaeological
extinct zebra species, the quagga.222 The successful research.
extraction of DNA from an Egyptian mummy soon Since the discipline of palaeogenetics is barely 10
followed.223 The results showed that it was possible years old, its archaeological accomplishments have
to extract small segments of the genome. An obstacle been limited. There are a few instances of sex de-
in these pioneering efforts was to prove the authen- termination and ethnic characterization of human
ticity of the DNA extracted from the specimen. archaeological material.225 Biological topics, such as
Mummies in museums have often been handled by taxonomy and general evolutionary theory, have gen-
a number of individuals, and just a single cell from erally received the most attention. Egyptian mum-
a conservator or scientist may contaminate the mies have already been mentioned. Broader-based,
sample. This problem is greatly magnified if the am- more systematic research programs are now in prog-
plification method known as PCR (Polymerase Chain ress.226 The prehistoric and historical populations
Reaction) is used. A single sequence of DNA, whether of central Italy and Spain are being studied using
222 R.G. Higuchi, B. Bowman, M. Freiberger, O.A. Ryder, Material from Mummified Tissue and Bone'JAS 17 (1990)
and A.C. Wilson, "DNA Sequence from the Quagga, an Ex- 679-89.
tinct Member of the Horse Family," Nature 312 (1984) 225 E.g., S. Hummel and B. Herrmann, "Y-Chromosome-
282-84.
Specific DNA Amplified in Ancient Human Bone," Natur-
223 S. Piiibo, "Molecular Cloning of Ancient Egyptian
wissenschaften 78 (1991) 266-67; H. Nielsen,J. Engberg, and
Mummy DNA," Nature 314 (1985) 644-45; for a recent over-
I. Thuesen, "Frozen Samples: DNA from Arctic Human
view by the same author, see "Ancient DNA," Scientific Ameri-
Burials," in B. Herrmann and S. Hummel eds., Ancient DNA
can 269:5 (1993) 86-92. (New York 1993) 119-37.
224 E.g., E. Hagelberg, B. Sykes, and R. Hedges, "Ancient226See R.K. Wayne and A. Cooper eds., Ancient DNA
Bone DNA Amplified," Nature 342 (1989) 485; I. Thuesen
Newsletter, Institute of Zoology, Regent's Park, London NW1
andJ. Engberg, "Recovery and Analysis of Human Genetic 4RY, England.

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palaeogenetic methods.227 A multidisciplinary

ect has been initiated for the Guanche mummies
of the Canary Islands.228 Successful extractions of

DNA from carbonized plant remains have been re-
ported for ancientJordan (Tell es-Sa'idiyeh).229 Our
palaeogenetic research group has been engaged in
pilot studies since 1986 to adapt palaeogenetic
methods to archaeological issues, both in analyzing
museum specimens and in developing appropriate
field methods.230
The scientific procedure begins with the formula-

tion of an archaeological problem that can conceiv-
ably be answered on the basis of genetic informa-
tion. The individual is sampled from a well-preserved
part. For example, for a human skeleton, a piece of
a femur or a tooth is excellent. Any contamination
must be avoided. The DNA in the sample is then
extracted according to protocols, which may differ
depending on the type of tissue, skin, bone, etc.231
If the extracted DNA is damaged, it can be repaired
by other procedures to obtain adequate ancient DNA,
i.e., DNA that can be routinely handled by molec-
ular biological procedures. Sometimes the extracted
DNA contains substances that inhibit the PCR am-
plification; this problem can be solved by further

purification procedures.
The next step in the analysis is genetic character-
ization of the extracted DNA, which requires knowl-
edge of the particular sequences that characterize
Fig. 30. Sampling of human remains for DNA analysis in
sex, biological kinship and ethnicity, and species
the field in eastern Syria. A tooth, after being removed
variation or defects (such as inherited diseases). from a cranium, is placed in a tube with a DNA-extraction
buffer.
For determination of human sex, the X- and Y-
chromosomes are obvious targets. For species varia-
tion, particular highly variable regions of the genomesequences in order to establish the species and other
are relevant. In that regard, particular attention has biological characteristics. With these results, the
been directed to so-called mitochondrial DNA archaeological problem has been resolved or must
(mtDNA). These DNA molecules are located in be reassessed for further research.
organelles (mitochondria) outside the cell nucleus,

A CASE STUDY FROM ANCIENT SYRIA
and are inherited only maternally.
The targeted DNA sequence from the sample is In 1990 and 1991, a Danish archaeologic
amplified by PCR. The nucleotides of the PCR prod-dition excavated remains of a settlement and ceme-
uct are sequenced and compared to reference DNAtery at Tell Mashnaqa in the middle Khabur River
227 R. Mariani-Costantini and colleagues at the Institute 2301 I coordinate a palaeogenetic research group at the
University of Copenhagen and the National Museum in
of Pathology, Universita Gabriele D'Annunzio, Chieti, Italy;
Denmark. Many of the ideas and the case study presented
and A. Perez-PWrez and colleagues at the Secc. Antropologia,
Universidad de Barcelona, Spain. here are based on the work of this group, whose members
228 A.C. Aufderheide (Department of Pathology, Univer- include Henrik Nielsen (Department of Biochemistry),
sity of Minnesota, Duluth), C. Rodriguez Martin (Museo Soren Norby (Department of Forensic Genetics),Jens Peder
arqueol6gico de Tenerife, Santa Cruz, Canary Islands), Hart
and Hansen (Laboratory for Biological Anthropology),
colleagues. DNA analyses have also been carried outall byat the University of Copenhagen, and Bent Aaby, who
P. Rogan (University Hospital, Hershey, Penn.), and W. is in the Science Unit of the National Museum.
Salo
(University of Minnesota, Duluth). 231 See B. Herrmann and S. Hummel eds., Ancient DNA
229 T.A. Brown and K.A. Brown, "Ancient DNA and the (New York 1993).
Archaeologist," Antiquity 66 (1992) 10-23.

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region, Syria.232 The finds extraction

have been radiocarbon
buffer (fig. 30). After a few hours, DNA-
dated by accelerator mass spectrometry
extraction was initiated in(AMS) to
the camp headquarters.
ca. 5000 B.C. Palaeogenetic methods
This routinewere
producedemployed
a large series of samples
to develop field methods and from to obtain
the burials. Although culture-
the laboratory analyses
historical information. Howarelong would
still in progress, DNA results
the preliminary in indicate
fragile 7,000-year-old human bones
that specific be preserved
palaeogenetic routines can be carried
in a hot and mostly dry environment?
out in the field, even If preserved,
under the difficult and trying
palaeogenetic information on sexof and
conditions the east ethnicity
Syrian desert.
might be obtained.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
In 1990, the samples of bones, which were brought
The application
back to the laboratory in Copenhagen, gave of palaeogenetics to a
negative
results for DNA, and the observed chemical
ical remains reactions
depends upon the close co
of archaeologists
indicated that destructive enzymatic activitiesand geneticists. Such
might
have been triggered by exposure of to
promises the bones significantly
contribute to air to the
and light. Therefore, a procedure was
tion of pastdeveloped in environmen
human life and
the next field season to reduce the risk of of
tion. Determination post-
human sex, bio
exposure degradation and modern contamination.
nicity, and kinship are realistic objectiv
Burials were carefully located before
rapidly bone knowledge
growing material of the huma
was exposed. A team of scientists (including
For other molec-
animal and plant species, an
ular biologists and physical analysis
and dental anthropol-
should contribute significantly t
ogists) excavated the humanmorphological
remains. The position
identification. Since DNA f
of the body and large bones were identified
organisms before
will also eventually be isolated
the skeleton was completelytified,
exposed. A few centi-
new perspectives on inherited an
meters of bone were removed
diseases,and placed
the fermentation in foods
of ancient tubes
and bev-
with DNA-extraction buffers as soon as the skeleton erages, etc., should emerge.
was uncovered. Gloves were worn to avoid contamina-
tion. Teeth were especially important, since it is be- CARSTEN NIEBUHR INSTITUTE
lieved that DNA in the interior, sealed environment UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN
of the tooth might be better preserved. After record- NJALSGADE 80, DK-2300 S
ing and photographing, a tooth would be pulled out DENMARK
from the jaw and placed in a tube with a DNA- IT@ANNE.IHI.KU.DK
Archaeological Conservation
CATHERINE SEASE
struction of
Every civilization has had people repairing a considerable amount of excavated ma-
and
conserving objects of cultural importance. It is
terial. Bynot
the early 19th century, reaction by archae-
uncommon, but always fascinating, to excavate arti-
ologists to these restorations precipitated a change
resulting
facts that were repaired in antiquity. The conserva-in a preference for antiquities in their
tion of archaeological material as we know
originalitcondition.
has At this time, publications also
slowly developed into a discipline over the began
pastto 200
appear that dealt with the treatment of
years.233 In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, muchas well as the analysis of the materi-
antiquities,234
cleaning, repairing, and restoring of antiquities als of whichwasthey were made.
done empirically by craftsmen or archaeologists andRoyal Museums of Berlin established
In 1888, the
was not based on scientific principles. Heavy-handed their Chemical Laboratory, and Friedrich Rathgen,
restorations led to the alteration and sometimes de- its first director, became the first scientist hired to
232 See, e.g., I. Thuesen, "Tell Mashnaqa," in H. Weiss, Its Publications,"Journal of the American Institute for Conser-
"Archaeology in Syria," AJA 95 (1991) 691-92 and AJA 97 vation 26 (1987) 85-104.
(1993) 111-12. 234 H.G. Bennet, "An Account of the Ancient Rolls of
233 N.L. Caldararo, "An Outline History of Conservation Papyrus Discovered at Herculaneum and the Method Em-
in Archaeology and Anthropology as Presented through ployed to Unroll Them," Archaeologica 15 (1806) 114-17.

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 31. Conservator in the process of consolid

a burial in Iraq
work in a museum laboratory. excavated material safely from He the groundrecogniz

and to
need for a systematic a laboratory
approach where it couldto be studied. In 1888,
conservatio
a scientific understanding Flinders Petrie
of published
how a short
and articlewhyin the art
deteriorate. Over his 39-year Archaeological Journalcareer, Rathgen
(vol. 65, pp. 85-89) in which he w
tively involved in developing described treatment methods
and he employed in the
applying ph
and chemical methodsfield to the
on freshly preservation
excavated material. Today, three man- of ar
ological materials, and he
uals and thus
numerous played
publications provide the anarchae- impo
role in the development offield
ologist with basic archaeological
conservation techniques.236 co
vation as a science and Inprofession.235 As
the early years, no formal training for conser- simila
oratories were established at other museums, the vators existed. Conservators received their training
number of scientists working on the conservation through an apprenticeship system working in mu-
of artifacts grew. seum laboratories. In 1957, the Institute of Archaeol-
At the same time, the literature pertaining to ar- ogy, University of London, established the first uni-
chaeological conservation grew. Rathgen's handbook, versity course in archaeological conservation.
Die Konservierung von Altertumsfunden (Berlin) ap- Archaeological conservators today are highly
peared in 1898; an English translation appeared in trained specialists with a broad knowledge of all ma-
1905 entitled The Preservation of Antiquities: A Hand- terials found on excavations. Ancillary disciplines,
book for Curators (Cambridge). This was followed in including archaeology, materials science, chemistry,
1934 by the publication of Harold Plenderleith's The ancient technology, and art history, are important
Preservation of Antiquities, which in its revised form parts of the conservator's training. Conservators need
(London 1971) has until recently been a standard to understand the different materials from which
reference for English-speaking conservators. artifacts are made and their chemical and physical
Most early conservation treatment took place in structures. By understanding how these materials
laboratories, and field conservation consisted pre- deteriorate and under what conditions, conservators
dominantly of rudimentary techniques to remove are able to treat artifacts to prevent further deteri-
235 I. Gilberg, "Friedrich Rathgen: The Father of Mod- ologist2 (Archaeological Research Tools 4, Los Angeles
ern Archaeological Conservation," Journal of the American 1992); D. Watkinson ed., First Aid For Finds (London 1987);
Institute for Conservation 26 (1987) 105-20. and K. Singley, The Conservation ofArcheological Artifactsfrom
236 C. Sease, A Conservation Manual for the Field Archae- Freshwater Environments (South Haven, Mich. 1988).

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
Fig. 32. Heavy, fragile pottery vessels, here examples from

an excavation in Iraq, can be bandaged and moved to the
laboratory for careful removal of soil, consolidation, and
reconstruction
oration from taking place. Excellent manual skills

and a sensitivity for objects and materials are also
prerequisites for a conservator.
In the field, a conservator is typically responsible
for cleaning all artifacts, stabilizing metals and fugi-
tive paints, piecing together broken objects, and lift-
ing delicate objects out of the ground (figs. 31-32).
In some instances, treatment can be considered
merely first-aid measures for safely excavating objects Fig. 33. Detail of an Anglo-Saxon sword. Wood, leather,
and shipping them to a conservation facility where and fleece have been preserved by the iron corrosion prod-
they can be examined. A series of lifting techniques ucts, and could easily have been lost by injudicious cleaning.
has been developed over the years for this purpose.
More and more frequently, however, due to laws gov-
erning the removal of material from the country of and careful cleaning techniques enable a conserva-
origin, the only conservation treatment that artifacts tor to bring to light evidence that could easily be
receive will be that done in the field. This places destroyed by inexperienced hands.
greater pressure on the conservator to treat artifactsConservators can also help in planning and im-
more fully in the field, so that the maximum infor- plementing the storage of artifacts, of particular
importance for multiseason excavations that provide
mation can be retrieved from each object (see fig. 33),
research carried out, and publication drawings and on-site storage for years before artifacts go to the
photographs made before the artifacts disappear into local or national museum. By assuring optimum stor-
museum storerooms. age conditions, particularly for metal artifacts, the
Documentation is an important part oflong-term any con- preservation of the excavated material is
greatly increased. Conservators can also help pack
servation treatment. Conservators maintain written
objects safely to ensure their safe transport whether
and photographic records detailing the condition
of an object before and after treatment, the variousto the local museum or back to a laboratory or re-
steps in its treatment, the materials used, and anysearch facility in another country. Taking time and
care over the packing of artifacts can mean the differ-
observations that might be of interest to the archae-
ologist, conservator, and other scientists who may ence between their survival or destruction.
subsequently work on and study the object. For ex- In addition to their knowledge of conservation,
ample, textiles and other organic materials are fre-conservators bring additional expertise to an exca-
quently preserved only in the corrosion products vation. Experience working on known materials fre-
of associated metal artifacts (fig. 33). A trained eyequently enables the conservator to identify the ma-

152.118.24.31 on Sun, 12 Sep 2021 00:00:12 UTC
142 P.E. McGOVERN, SCIENCE IN ARCHAEOLOGY
terials from which objects are made. Sometimes

A conservator this
may be called upon to make casts or
information can be of importanceimpressions
to theof archaeolo-
objects to aid in their study. For ex-
gist when exotic materials unusual ample, to the
cylinder sealssite
or coins are
cannot usually be taken
found. For example, at a site on Crete, material
out of a country for study.that
Rollings of the seals or
was first labeled as fine ware ceramics was
plaster casts eventually
of the coins, however, often offer a more
identified by the author as fragments ofofostrich
cost-effective means studying this material. Numis-
eggshell. matists also often prefer to publish photographs of
A knowledge of ancient manufacturing processes coin casts, as they frequently show more detail than
frequently helps a conservator make observations photographs of the coins themselves.
about objects that other members of the team can-
not. In cleaning an object, the conservator is the first
person in perhaps thousands of years to examine FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
it carefully, noting details of manufacture and use ROOSEVELT ROAD AT LAKE SHORE DRIVE
that add to the information the object reveals. CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60605

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Science in Archaeology: A Review

Author(s): Patrick E. McGovern, Thomas L. Sever, J. Wilson Myers, Eleanor Emlen

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/506880

Archaeological Institute of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and

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cognitive processes of ancient humans).13

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and H. Meyerhoff ed., The Philosophy of History in Our Time

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offered in that spirit. For The

edge" of current research. Each contributor, by stand- ARCHAEOLOGY (MASCA)

mizes, as it were, how much archaeology has to ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

gain by emphasizing its essential, interdisciplinary PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 19104

New windows on the past are being opened

Beginning at the turn of the century, archaeology

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jets or Cessna aircraft to provide greater resolu-

tect ancient Anasazi roads in Chaco Canyon, New ADMINISTRATION

2 Lillesand and Keifer (supra n. 24); B. Richason 30

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area surveys in Italy, Sicily, mainland Greece, Crete,

APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

For exploration, salvage work, comparing

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size of the film, the proper altitude is derived from

white negatives and colored slides at the same in-

The altitude at which the cameras are positioned

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OTHER BALLOON SYSTEMS

own balloon systems and increasingly hear of suc-

titude. The whole range of remote-sensing equip-

36 See AJA 92 (1988) 124; 93 (1989) 130; 95 (1991) 22; 96

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tures within sites. This should help to minimize the

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Fig. 5. Elizabeth Raipn recording cesium magnetometer me

THE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS OF

44 E.K. Ralph, "Comparison of Proton and Rubidium try 7 (1964) 20-27.

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45 See EG. Rainey, "The Location of Archaic Greek (1970) 10-17.

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Palaeoethnobotany (or the shorter term, archaeo-

Although archaeologists have been saving plant

53:1 (1990) 55-60.

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through the 1970s, Reconstructing

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through time. Irrigated grains tend to be plumperARCHAEOLOGY (MASCA)

Gordion, size and shape of both wheat and barley

are remarkably stable throughout the occupation.

The study of micro- and macrofossils (including

60o Miller (supra n. 55) 146-48.

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is often the result of the disintegration and leveling

used to reconstruct the contemporaneous palaeo-

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western Iran, optimal conditions for tree growth were

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can be attributed to human impact on the environ- GRONINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS

Faunal Analysis with a Focus on Anatolia

Analysis of animal bones (faunal analysis)Perception