Module 1: The endocrine system

The hypothalamus is part of the brain that controls many body functions. It is a
critical integrator centre, receiving many signals and ensuring appropriate outputs
to maintain body homeostasis. The hypothalamus is considered to be an endocrine
gland, as it produces neurohormones. The hypothalamus is anatomically connected
to the pituitary gland, and importantly regulates the hormonal output from this other
key endocrine gland.

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Explain why the hypothalamus is both a neural tissue and an endocrine gland.

List the various homeostatic roles of the hypothalamus.

Describe how the hypothalamus functions as an integrative centre.

Neurohormones

There is a another unique group of hormones called neurohormones. The study of

these hormones is called neuroendocrinology, and involves examining the
interaction between the two main body communication systems: the nervous system
and the endocrine system.

Image source: Kenneth Lopez-Loo.

Neurohormones are hormones that originate from neurons, instead of endocrine

glands. The key feature is that the hormone is produced in a neuron (neuro-) and
released into the circulation to act on distant target cells (-hormone). The release
of neurohormones is like neurotransmitters, in response to electrical signals ie.
action potentials. The key difference with neurohormones is that the synapse is
upon a network of blood capillaries and therefore neurohormones, like other
'hormones', circulate to have their effects.

Structure of the hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain. It is part of the central
nervous system. On the diagram below it can be seen as an emerald colour. It is
connected to the pituitary gland beneath the brain by what is known as the
infundibulum or pituitary stalk. Also there are two main parts to the pituitary gland:
the anterior and posterior pituitary.

Image source: The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland. Access for free at

https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction

The hypothalamus is made up of

nuclei - concentrations of neuronal cell bodies

and nerve tracts - axons

that surround the third ventricle - filled with cerebrospinal fluid

If we examine the hypothalamus closely, we can see various nuclei, or clustering of

neuronal cell bodies. This is difficult to envisage in 2 dimensions, but consider the
schematic diagram below. Each nuclei is named according to its anatomical
location in the hypothalamus.

Image source: The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland. By Oldblueday, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia

Commons.

Whilst you are not expected to remember each of the nuclei, what is important to
appreciate is that there are a concentration of neurons in the hypothalamic nuclei. If
we use the technique of Immunohistochemistry to label a specific neurohormone
(e.g. oxytocin in the figure below), we can observe both the nuclei (clusters of
brown spots) and nerve tracts (faint brown lines). Oxytocin neurons have their cell
bodies in both the paraventricular and supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus.
The paraventricular nucleus can be found on both sides of the third ventricle
existing in the midline, whilst the supraoptic nucleus exists above the optic chiasm
at the base of the brain.

Image source: Oxytocin staining in the rat hypothalamus. Courtesy Jonathan Curlewis.

The hypothalamic neurons that produce oxytocin have axons that extend down the
infundibulum to the posterior pituitary gland (see figure below), as well as other
regions of the brain. Oxytocin is synthesised in the hypothalamus (paraventricular
and supraoptic nuclei), transported down the axons in vesicles, before being
released as a neurohormone into circulation at the posterior pituitary gland, in the
capillary plexus. We shall revisit oxytocin as a posterior pituitary neurohormone later
in this module.

Image source: 'Posterior Pituitary Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus release oxytocin (OT) or ADH
into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland', modified. Access for free at
https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology

Function of the hypothalamus

Watch the video below to gain insight into the role of the hypothalamus as
an important integration centre.

Function of the hypothalamus

Start of transcript. Skip to the
end.

 Now just thinking about how the

hypothalamus actually
functions.

One of the things the

hypothalamus does is it

regulates behaviour. So it
regulates various sorts of

behaviours, reproductive
 0:00 / 6:01  1.0x     behaviour, feeding behaviour
and other