CCNet Lect 29 (Control Plane - Routing Algorithms)

Lecture 29: Control Plane – Routing Algorithms CE213: Computer Communications & Networks
CE213: Computer Communications and Networking
Dr. Rashid Jillani
✓ Routing Algorithms
Reference Material: Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 8th Edition by Kurose and Ross, Section 5.1, 5.2, 5.2.2
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP ▪ network management,
▪ SDN control plane configuration
▪ Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Distance vector algorithm

Based on Bellman-Ford (BF) equation (dynamic programming):
Bellman-Ford equation
Let Dx(y): cost of least-cost path from x to y.

Then:
Dx(y) = minv { cx,v + Dv(y) }
v’s estimated least-cost-path cost to y

min taken over all neighbors v of x direct cost of link from x to v
Bellman-Ford Example
Suppose that u’s neighboring nodes, x,v,w, know that for destination z:
Dv(z) = 5 Dw(z) = 3 Bellman-Ford equation says:
5
Du(z) = min { cu,v + Dv(z),
3 w
v 5 cu,x + Dx(z),
2
u 2 1 z cu,w + Dw(z) }
3
1 2
= min {2 + 5,
x 1
y 1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Dx(z) = 3
node achieving minimum (x) is
next hop on estimated least-
cost path to destination (z)
Distance vector algorithm

key idea:
▪ from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate
to neighbors
▪ when x receives new DV estimate from any neighbor, it updates its
own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{cx,v + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N
▪ under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

actual least cost dx(y)

Distance vector algorithm:

each node: iterative, asynchronous: each local
iteration caused by:
wait for (change in local link ▪ local link cost change
cost or msg from neighbor) ▪ DV update message from neighbor
recompute DV estimates using distributed, self-stopping: each

node notifies neighbors only when
DV received from neighbor its DV changes
▪ neighbors then notify their
if DV to any destination has neighbors – only if necessary
changed, notify neighbors ▪ no notification received, no
actions taken!

Distance vector: example

DV in a:
Da(a)=0
Da(b) = 8
Da(c) = ∞ a b c
Da(d) = 1 8 1
Da(e) = ∞
t=0 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
Da(h) = ∞
▪ All nodes have
Da(i) = ∞
distance estimates
to nearest A few asymmetries:
d e f ▪ missing link
neighbors (only) 1 1
▪ larger cost
▪ All nodes send
their local
distance vector to 1 1 1
their neighbors
g h i
1 1

Distance vector example: iteration
a b c
8 1
t=1 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors
g h i
1 1

a
compute compute
b compute
c
8 1
t=1 1 1
All nodes:
vectors from
neighbors d
compute compute
e compute
f
local distance
vector
local distance
vector to neighbors
g
compute h
compute compute
i
1 1

a b c
8 1
t=1 1 1
All nodes:
vectors from
neighbors d e f
local distance
vector
local distance
vector to neighbors
g h i
1 1

a b c
8 1
t=2 1 1
All nodes:
vectors from
neighbors d e f
local distance
vector
local distance
vector to neighbors
g h i
1 1

compute
a compute
b compute
c
2 1
t=2 1 1
All nodes:
vectors from
neighbors compute
d compute
e compute
f
local distance
vector
local distance
vector to neighbors
g
compute compute
h compute
i
8 1

a b c
8 1
t=2 1 1
All nodes:
vectors from
neighbors d e f
local distance
vector
local distance
vector to neighbors
g h i
1 1

…. and so on
Let’s next take a look at the iterative computations at nodes

DV in b: DV in c:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞ Dc(a) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
DV in a: Dc(d) = ∞
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Da(a)=0
Dc(e) = ∞
Da(b) = 8
Dc(f) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(g) = ∞
Da(d) = 1 8 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Da(e) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
▪ b receives DVs Da(h) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e Da(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1 De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1 De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞
g h i
1 1

DV in b: DV in c:
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Da(a)=0
Dc(e) = ∞
Da(b) = 8
Dc(f) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(g) = ∞
Da(d) = 1 8 compute 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Da(e) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
▪ b receives DVs Da(h) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e, Da(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
computes: e
De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1
Db(a) = min{cb,a+Da(a), cb,c +Dc(a), cb,e+De(a)} = min{8,∞,∞} =8 1 De(d) = 1
Db(c) = min{cb,a+Da(c), cb,c +Dc(c), c b,e +De(c)} = min{∞,1,∞} = 1 De(e) = 0
Db(d) = min{cb,a+Da(d), cb,c +Dc(d), c b,e +De(d)} = min{9,2,∞} = 2 De(f) = 1
1 1 1 De(g) = ∞
Db(e) = min{cb,a+Da(e), cb,c +Dc(e), c b,e +De(e)} = min{∞,∞,1} = 1
De(h) = 1
Db(f) = min{cb,a+Da(f), cb,c +Dc(f), c b,e +De(f)} = min{∞,∞,2} = 2
DV in b:
De(i) = ∞
Db(g) = min{cb,a+Da(g), cb,c +Dc(g), c b,e+De(g)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(a) = 8 Db(f) =2
g h D (c) = 1 Db(g)
i =∞
1 ∞, 2} = 2
Db(h) = min{cb,a+Da(h), cb,c +Dc(h), c b,e+De(h)} = min{∞, 1Db(d) = 2 Db(h) = 2
b
Db(i) = min{cb,a+Da(i), cb,c +Dc(i), c b,e+De(i)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
DV in b: DV in c:
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Da(a)=0
Dc(e) = ∞
Da(b) = 8
Dc(f) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(g) = ∞
Da(d) = 1 8 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Da(e) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
▪ c receives DVs Da(h) = ∞ DV in e:
from b Da(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1 De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1 De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞
g h i
1 1

DV in b: DV in c:
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(e) = ∞
Dc(f) = ∞
a b c
compute Dc(g) = ∞
8 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 1 1
▪ c receives DVs
from b computes:
d b(a}} = 1 + 8 = 9
Dc(a) = min{cc,b+D e f
DV in c:
Dc(b) = min{cc,b+Db(b)} = 1 + 0 = 1
Dc(a) = 9
Dc(d) = min{cc,b+Db(d)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Dc(e) = min{cc,b+Db(e)} = 1 + 1 = 2 Dc(c) = 0
Dc(d) = 2
Dc(f) = min{cc,b+Db(f)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞
Dc(e) = ∞
Dc(g) = min{cc,b+Db(g)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ * Check out the online interactive
Dc(f) = ∞ exercises for more examples:
Dc(h) = min{cbc,bg+Db(h)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ h Dc(g) = ∞ i http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/
Dc(i) = min{cc,b+Db(i)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
DV in b:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
DV in d: Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞
Dc(a) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ DV in e:
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Dc(b) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ De(b) = 1
Dc(d) = 0 a b c De(c) = ∞
Dc(e) = 1 8 1 De(d) = 1
Dc(f) = ∞ De(e) = 0
t=1 Dc(g) = 1
1
Q: what is new DV computed in e at
1t=1?
De(f) = 1
De(g) = ∞
Dc(h) = ∞
▪ e receives DVs Dc(i) = ∞ De(h) = 1
from b, d, f, h De(i) = ∞
DV in h: d compute
e
1
f DV in f:
Dc(a) = ∞ 1
Dc(b) = ∞ Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ Dc(b) = ∞
Dc(d) = ∞ Dc(c) = ∞
1 1 1 Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(e) = 1
Dc(f) = ∞ Dc(e) = 1
Dc(g) = 1 Dc(f) = 0
Dc(h) = 0 Dc(g) = ∞
g h i Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = 1 1 1
Dc(i) = 1
Distance vector: state information diffusion

Iterative communication, computation steps diffuses information through network:
t=0 c’s state at t=0 is at c only
a b c
8 1
c’s state at t=0 has propagated to b, and
t=1 may influence distance vector computations
up to 1 hop away, i.e., at b 1 1 t=1
t=2
c’s state at t=0 may now influence distance
t=2 vector computations up to 2 hops away, i.e.,
d e f
at b and now at a, e as well 1 1
c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector

t=3
computations up to 3 hops away, i.e., at d, f, h 1 1 1 t=3
c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector

t=4 g
computations up to 4 hops away, i.e., at g, i 1
h 1
i
t=4
Distance vector: link cost changes

1
link cost changes: y
4 1
▪ node detects local link cost change x z
50
▪ updates routing info, recalculates local DV
▪ if DV changes, notify neighbors
t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its neighbors.

“good news t1 : z receives update from y, updates its DV, computes new least cost
travels fast” to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its DV. y’s least costs do not
change, so y does not send a message to z.

Distance vector: link cost changes

60
link cost changes: y
4 1
▪ node detects local link cost change x z
50
▪ “bad news travels slow” – count-to-infinity problem:
• y sees direct link to x has new cost 60, but z has said it has a path at cost of 5. So
y computes “my new cost to x will be 6, via z); notifies z of new cost of 6 to x.
• z learns that path to x via y has new cost 6, so z computes “my new cost to
x will be 7 via y), notifies y of new cost of 7 to x.
• y learns that path to x via z has new cost 7, so y computes “my new cost to
x will be 8 via y), notifies z of new cost of 8 to x.
• z learns that path to x via y has new cost 8, so z computes “my new cost to
x will be 9 via y), notifies y of new cost of 9 to x.
…
▪ see text for solutions. Distributed algorithms are tricky!
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms

message complexity robustness: what happens if router
LS: n routers, O(n2) messages sent malfunctions, or is compromised?
DV: exchange between neighbors; LS:
convergence time varies • router can advertise incorrect link cost
• each router computes only its own
speed of convergence table
LS: O(n2) algorithm, O(n2) messages DV:
• may have oscillations
• DV router can advertise incorrect path
DV: convergence time varies cost (“I have a really low-cost path to
• may have routing loops everywhere”): black-holing
• count-to-infinity problem
• each router’s DV is used by others:
error propagate thru network
Distance vector: another example

cost to cost to
Dx() x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 Dx(z) = min{cx,y+ Dy(z), cx,z+ Dz(z)}
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to y
Dy() x y z 2 1
Dx(y) = min{cx,y + Dy(y), cx,z+ Dz(y)}
x ∞ ∞ ∞ = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 x z
7
from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞
cost to
Dz() x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Distance vector: another example

cost to cost to cost to
Dx() x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
cost to cost to cost to y

Dy() x y z x y z x y z 2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
x z
7
from
y 2 0 1 from y 2 0 1
from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
cost to cost to cost to

Dz() x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time

CCNet Lect 29 (Control Plane - Routing Algorithms)

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Lecture 29: Control Plane – Routing Algorithms CE213: Computer Communications & Networks

CE213: Computer Communications and Networking

Dr. Rashid Jillani

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector algorithm

Let Dx(y): cost of least-cost path from x to y.

v’s estimated least-cost-path cost to y

Distance vector algorithm

▪ under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector algorithm:

recompute DV estimates using distributed, self-stopping: each

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector: example

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector example: iteration

Let’s next take a look at the iterative computations at nodes

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector: state information diffusion

c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector

c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector

Distance vector: link cost changes

t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its neighbors.

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Distance vector: link cost changes

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms

Distance vector: another example

Distance vector: another example

cost to cost to cost to y

cost to cost to cost to

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