Canals and Design of Canals

Design of Canals: Classification of canals and their alignments, selection of canal-cutting,

filling, partial cutting and filling. Canal structures- canal outlets, Cross section of canal –
alluvial soils. Kennedy‘s theory and lacey‘s theory and their comparison.

CANAL

 The canal is an artificial channel, usually trapezoidal in section.

 It is construct on the surface of the ground.
 It is use to convey water from the river, lake, reservoir, etc., to fields for irrigation,
for water supply schemes, for power generating units, etc.
 They always flow under gravity.
 The canal may be Kucha or Pucca.
 Pucca canals are known as lined canals.

CLASSIFICATION OF CANALS

The canals can be classified in several ways. All the possible classifications are
given as follows:

1. Classification based on financial output. Under this classification canals may be

divided into two types:

(i) Protective canal.

(ii) Productive canal.

(i) Protective canal.

 The purpose of a protective canal is to protect the areas most prone to famines.
 The canals are constructed having all the permanent works required for their
regulation.
 No discharge of water is left in them under normal conditions.
 But whenever famine conditions are anticipated due to shortage or no rains, these
canals are clear by employing labor at a short notice, and water is run in them to
provide water for drinking as well as irrigation purposes.
  These canals do not give any revenue to the state.

(ii) Productive canals.

 These are such canals, which after deducting repair, maintenance, and supervision
charges, yield revenue to the state.
 The revenue they yield should be instalment of initial investment plus 6 .25%
interest on the total investment.
 Most of the irrigation canals pertain to this category of canals.

2. Classification based upon the nature of the source of supply.

Under this classification, the canal can be divided into two categories:

(i) Permanent canals.

(ii) Inundation canals.

(i) Permanent canals.

 When canals are fed regularly or continuously, from a permanent source.

 Such canals are known as permanent canals. Permanent canals have a regular,
well-defined section.
 They have permanent concrete masonry regulation works.
 Such canals run practically throughout the year.
 Such canals are also sometimes know Perennial canals.
 These canals are closed only when either some construction is to be carried out
over them or silt clearance is to be done.
 These canals always take off from ice fed perennial rivers.

(ii) Inundation canals.

 These are such canals that run only for a duration, during which water level in the
river remains above some specified level.
 These canals do not have a very regular section and structures like falls etc.
  They are not provided with any diversion works in the river, in form of a weir or
barrage.
 They however have a head regulator. Inundation canals will be discussed in detail
in this chapter a little later.

3. Classification based upon the purpose of the canal.

 The following types of canals come under this category:

(i) Irrigation canals.

(ii) Water supply channels.

(iii) Power generating canals.

(iv) Navigation canals.

(v) Carrier canals.

(vi) Feeder canals.

 All these canals are made for some specific purpose.

 Irrigation canals supply irrigation water to fields and water supply channels
supply water to cities for drinking purposes.
 Power generating canals carry water to run generating units and
 Navigation canals are used for the purpose of augmenting inland transportation.
 Carrier canals do irrigation and side by side carry water for other canals.
 Feeder canals are constructed to feed two or smaller canals.

4. Classification based upon the relative position in a given network of canals.

 An elaborate network of irrigation canals consists of the following categories of

canals:

(i) Main canal.

(ii) Branch canal.

(iii) Distributory.

(iv) Minor.

(v) Water course.

(i) Main canal.

 This canal takes off directly from a river or reservoir.

 It is generally very big. Being too big, direct irrigation is generally not done from
it except in exceptional circumstances.
 It acts as a carrier to feed branch canals or major distributaries.

(ii) Branch canals.

 The irrigation area for big canals is generally very large.

 It may not be possible to supply irrigation water from one canal.
 In such circumstances, the main canal is bifurcated into two or more parts, which
are known as branch canals.
 Each branch canal is assigned to the task of irrigating a specified area.
 The discharge of each branch canal is decided to depend upon the area to be
irrigated by each.
 Branches also carry quite large discharges and as such direct outlets should be
given to lonely higher spots only lying along the alignment.
 Which cannot be irrigated from the distributaries.
 Branches act as feeder canals for distributaries.

(iii) Distributaries.

 Distributaries are channels carrying small discharges of say 1.2 to 7 cumecs.

 They usually take off from the branch but they can also be taken from the main
canal.
 But their discharge has to be smaller than the branch canal, otherwise, they will
become branches.
 The most of the irrigation is carried out by distributaries.
  Outlets are located at regular intervals and water is supplied to the fields.

(iv) Minors.

 They are also sometimes called minor distributaries.

 They take off either from branch or distributaries.
 Mostly they take off from distributaries.
 Mostly area lying along the branches is quite high and cannot be irrigated by
distributaties.
 In that case, a small minor is also taken off from the headworks of some
distributary and this minor is run along the branch canal.
 Outlets to the area lying in the vicinity of the branch are given from the minors.
 There may be some areas lying very low or the area may be located quite far off
from the distributary.
 In that case such areas may be irrigated by providing minors from the distributary.
 Minors carry hardly discharge for 10–15 outlets. Hence its discharge may be from
0.25 to 0.50 cumec.

(v) Water course.

 They are small channels that ultimately carry water to the fields from outlets.
 Watercourses are also sometimes know gools.
 They may be Pucca or lined. Nowadays stress is being given to the lining of canals.
 Water courses, a lot of precious irrigation water is otherwise lost in percolation.
 Outlets are usually taken from distributaries and minors, but they can be taken
from branches also but only in special circumstances.

5. Classification based on the alignment.

Depending upon the alignment they follow, the canals can be classified into following
three categories.

(i) Contour canal.

(ii) Ridge or water shed canal.

(iii) Side slope canal.

(i) Contour canals.

 These canals run nearly parallel to the contours of, the country.
 The main canal taking off from a river is hostly contour canal for some length near
the diversion headworks.
 Even branch and distributaries can be contour canals.
 The contour choosen for the alignment should include all the contours of the area
it has to irrigate.
 Contour canals, provide irrigation on one side only as contours of the other side
are higher and irrigation water cannot flow under gravity.
 However, irrigation facilities can be provided to the area lying on the higher side
of the contour canal by lift canals.

 Contour canals have only one bank.

 The other side being higher does not require the second bank.
 These canals are also sometimes known as single bank canals.
 They may however be having two banks also. They do not follow the same
contour all along.
 Some longitudinal slope has to be given to cause flow in the canal. Because of the
longitudinal slope, the contour canal slowly leaves the higher contour and adopts
the next lower contour

(ii) Ridge canal.

  The canal which follows the ridge of the country is known as ridge canal.
 It generally takes off from a contour canal.
 It irrigates on both sides.
 Since this canal can irrigate areas along both the banks it commands the largest
area with a minimum length of the canal.
 They do not cross any drainage and hence the construction of cross-drainage
works is obviated.
 If ridge takes a very sharp turn the canal should be aligned straight.
 This reduces the length of the canal but involves construction of cross drainage
work to pass run-off from the enclosed area, to the other side of the canal.
 Also, irrigation in this enclosed area cannot be done.
 Canals may also have to leave the water to bye-pass the towns and villages locate
on the watershed.
 Most of the irrigation canals are ridge canals.

(iii) Side slope canals.

 The side slope channels are aligned roughly at right angles to the contour canals,
along the slope between the ridges and the valleys.
 They are roughly parallel to the natural drainage of the country.
  They do not intercept any cross-drainage and hence no cross-drainage works
have to be constructed.
 Side slope canals have to be lined, as they have very steep bed slopes and the
Kucha canal may not withstand the erosive effect of increased velocities.

Classification based upon the material of construction.

 Under this category, the canals may be

(i) Unlined canals.

(ii) Lined canals.

(i) Unlined canals.

 The canal which runs through the natural soil of the region is known as the
Kucha canal or unlined canal.
 The section of such a canal is trapezoidal. The side slope of the banks depends
upon the nature of soil.
 Slopes vary from 1: 1 to 2: 1 in cutting and 2: 1 to 3: 1 in filling for general soils
like soft clay, alluvial soil, sandy loan, etc.
 These canals have to be run with restricted velocity so that erosion or sour may
not take place.
 A large amount of water is lost by percolation.
 Most of the canals in India are Kucha canals.
  But the government is aware of the shortcomings of such canals and laying more
and more emphasis on lining the existing as well as new canals.

(ii) Lined canals.

 The section of such a canal in pucca section, made of some strong and
impervious material.
 Lined canals can be run with large velocities and as such section of the canal can
be considerably reduced, thus causing economy in the earth work.
 Lined canals do not allow any percolation loss, and wore ever smaller areas
being exposed, evaporation losses are also considerably reduced.
 The irrigation water saved by lining of the canals can be used to provide
irrigation facilities to additional areas.
 Lined canals have more bed slope and thus a lot of command, is lost as the level
of water is depressed faster.
 Sources of water are limit and to provide irrigation facilities to larger areas,
judicious use of available water is very essential.
 Hence lined canals is the need of the time.
 If we analyze the benefits of the lining of canals on a long-term basis, we can
easily conclude that benefits would out weight the expenditure incurred for the
lining.
Alignment of Irrigation Canal

A final canal alignment should be aligned in such a way that:

It encloses the entire area proposed to be irrigated, with the shortest possible
length, and at the same time, it’s the cost including the cost of drainage
work is minimum.

1. A canal should be aligned on a watershed (or ridge) as far as possible because it ensures
irrigation on both sides of the canal and it avoids cross drainage works.

2. Attempts should be made such that the main canal mounts the ridge in as small a length
as possible from the point of off take.

3. The canal should run straight even when the watershed makes a sharp loop.

4. The alignment should be such that the number of cross drainage works is minimum.

5. The length of the canal should be as small as possible. The smaller the canal, the less are the
absorption and seepage losses and the lower is the maintenance cost.

6. The canal alignment should avoid inhabited areas, religious places, valuable property and
other important monuments.

7. As far as possible, the canal should run through the heart of the commanded area to keep the
cost of distribution system to a minimum.

8. As far as possible, curves in the canals should be avoided.

9. The canal should avoid sandy or alkaline or waterlogged areas and also the soil should not
be hard to excavate.

10. The canal should be aligned such that its crossings with the road, railway lines and
drainages are at right angles.

11. The canal should have a balanced depth of cutting as far as possible so that the soil
excavated from the cutting is used for filling. This ensures the minimum cost of earthwork.

12. The canal should not be in heavy cutting as it would be uneconomical and the flow irrigation
would not be possible.

Alignment of a field channel or water course:

The maintenance of a filed channel is the responsibility of the farmers. Its alignment should have
the following features:
1. They should be laid along field boundaries
2. They should be capable of supplying sufficient water to tail end
3. Separate field channels should be provided for high and low lands.
4. The field channels should not pass through rocky, brackish or cracked strata.

Longitudinal Section of Irrigation Channel:

 After designing the irrigation channel, it is essential to draw longitudinal and
cross-sections at suitable points for the proper execution of work and for giving
full information at a glance.
 First step in a construction program is to mark an alignment on the contour plan
or on Topo sheet.
 The alignment is then scaled generally in km and its fractions.
 That is starting from the head of the canal, reduced distances are marked on the
alignment and the natural surface levels (NSL) are interpolated for each section.
 The scales generally selected for drawing longitudinal section are: 1 cm =
160 m as horizontal scale and 1 cm = 0.6 m as vertical scale. Of course it is true
that the scales may be changed according to the nature of topography.
1. The first step in plotting L section is to plot the natural surface on the sheet
as per the scales selected. A convenient datum level may be selected for the
purpose arbitrarily.
2. For reference the FSL of a source or a parent channel and its bed level is
also plotted at the upstream of Head Regulator.
3. Next step is to plot the full supply line of the channel. While plotting FSL
due consideration should be given to the facts mentioned below.
a. Keep the FSL of off-taking channel 15 cm below the parent channel
This is generally done
i. To provide for loss of head at the regulator
ii. To meet the demand for extra supplies in the canal at a
future date
iii. To maintain the flow even if the channel is silted up to
some extent.
For main canals taking off from the river, FSL is kept about 1 m
lower than the pond level of the reservoir
4. Choose the bed slope close to Lacey’s slope or that given by Wood’s Table.
If the available slope is lesser than that, maximum slope as available on the
ground may be provided.
5. Provide falls if the slope available in the ground is steeper than the one to
be given to the canal bed.
 The magnitude of the drop should be such that FSL of the canal D/S
of fall should remain below the ground level for about half a Km
before emerging out of the ground level.
Unbalanced earthwork on both sides of falls should be kept
minimum.
6. Keep the channel in balanced depth of cutting or filling as far as possible
7. As a next step a table is prepared which gives full information about the
i. area to be irrigated per km in different seasons,
ii. discharges and outlet factors and
iii. Channel dimensions.
The table is called a schedule of area statistics and channel dimensions. The table is
generally prepared on the same sheet where L section is drawn. Complete columns of the
table are shown in Fig. in a tabular form. This makes the procedure of filling the table
very clear
BALANCING DEPTH OF CUT:
A canal section will be economical when the earthwork involved at a particular section
has an equal amount of cut and fill. Usually, a canal section has a part in cutting and Part
in filling as shown in the figure. If the amount of cut is equal to the amount of fill, it has to
be paid once only. The necessity of borrow pit or soil bank is entirely avoided.
For a given cross-section there is always only one depth of cutting for which the cutting
and filling will be equal. The depth is known as balancing depth
The balancing depth is worked out as under:

From Figure:
Area of the cut = by+zy2 = y(b+zy)
Area of fill = 2[(h-y)t+n(h-y)2 ]
Equating area of cut and area of fill
y(b+zy)= 2[(h-y)t+n(h-y)2 ]
y2(2n-z)-(b+4nh+2t)y+h(2t+2nh)=0
A canal is usually constructed with a side slope of 1:1 in cutting and a slope of 1.5:1 in
filling. Therefore putting n= 1.5 and z= 1 we get
y2(2x1.5-1)-(b+4x1.5h+2t)y+h(2t+2x1.5h)
2y2-y(b+6h+2t)+h(2t+3h)=0
𝑏 3
y2-(2 +3h+t)y+h(t+2 h) =0

The depth y from ground line and bed level is calculated

Calculate the quantity of earth work of an irrigation channel with the following
data
Bed width = 5m ; Side slope in cutting = 1:1 ; side slope in banking = 1.5: 1; Top
width of left bank = 3.00m ; Top width of right bank = 2m; Full supply depth = 2.10
m; Free Board = 0.45 m
Area in cutting = by+zy2 = y(b+zy)
Let b1 and b2 be the width of the top of bank on left and right side
Area of fill =[ b1(h-y)+n(h-y)2] +[ b2(h-y)+n(h-y)2]
Area in cutting = Area of fill
by+zy2=[ b1(h-y)+n(h-y)2] +[ b2(h-y)+n(h-y)2]
b= 5m; b1 = 3.00m; b2= 2 m ; h = 2.1+0.45 = 2.55 m ; z= 1; n= 1.5; d= ?
5y+1y2=[ 3(2.55-y)+1.5(2.55-y)2] +[ 2(2.55-y)+1.5(2.55-y)2]
5y+y2=(7.65-3y)+(5.10-2y)+3(6.50+y2-5.10y)
5y+y2=7.65-3y+5.10-2y+19.50+3y2-15.30y
5y+y2 = 12.75-5y+19.50+3y2-15.3y
0 = 2y2 -25.3y+32.25
Solving y= 1.44 m
Calculate the economical depth of cutting for the cross section of the canal shown
inn figure. The bed width of the channel is 5 m and top width of banks are 2m. side
slope of excavation is 1:1 and of bank is 1.5 : 1. Height of banks from bed is 2.92 m
throughout.
For balancing depth of cut:
y(b+zy)= 2[(h-y)t+n(h-y)2 ]
h= 2.92 m ; b= 5 m ; t = 2m; z= 1 ; n= 1.5
y(5+1xy) = 2[(2.92-y)2+1.5(2.92-y)2]
5y+5y2 =4(2.92-y)+3(2.92-y)2
5y+y2=11.68-4y+25.5-17.52y-3y2
2y2-26.52y+37.18 =0
y2 -13.26y+18.59 =0
y= 1.6 m
DESIGN :
A trapezoidal section is recommended for the canal.
From the longitudinal section of the ground along the proposed alignment the average slope of
the ground shall be determined. This would be the maximum average slope which can be
provided on the canal
Side Slopes
These shall depend on the local soil characteristics and shall be designed to withstand the
following conditions during the operation of the canal:
a) The sudden draw-down condition for inner slopes, and
b) The canal running full with banks saturated due to rainfall.
Canal in filling will generally have side slopes of 1,5: 1,
for canals in cutting the side slope should be between 1:1 and 1.5:1 depending upon the type
of the soil.
Freeboard
Freeboard in a canal is governed by consideration of the canal size and location, rain water
inflow, water surface fluctuation caused by regulators, wind action, soil characteristics,
hydraulic gradients, service road requirements, and availability of excavated material.
A minimum freeboard of 0.5 m for discharge (Q) less than 10 cumecs and 0.75 m for
discharge (Q) greater than 10 cumecs is recommended.
The freeboard shall be measured from the full supply level to the level of the top of bank.
NOTE — The height of the dowel portion shall not be used for tkeboard purposes.
Bank Top Width
The minimum values recommended for top width of the bank are as given in Table
Berms
Berms along the earthen canal are usually provided to reduce bank loads which may cause
sloughing of earth into the canal section and to lower the elevation of the service road for easier
maintenance. Berms are to be provided in all cuttings when the depth of cutting is more than
3 m. Where a canal is constructed in a deep through cut requiring waste banks, berms should
be provided between the canal section cut and the waste bank. Various other factors may be
involved in determining whether berms should be used and care should be taken that their use
is justified by the results obtained. However, the following practice is recommended:
a) When the full supply level is above ground level but the bed is below ground level, that is,
the canal is partly in cutting and partly in filling berm may be kept at natural surface level
equal to 2 D in width (see Fig. 1A) where D is the full supply depth.
b) When the full supply level and the bed level are both above the ground level, that is, the
canal is in filling; the berm may be kept at the full supply level equal to 3 D in width (see Fig.
lB).
c) When the full supply level is below ground level, that is, the canal is completely in cutting
the berm may be kept at the full supply level equal to 2 D in width (see Fig. 1C).
Dowel
Dowel having top width of 0.5 m, height above road level of 0.5 m and side slopes 1.5:1 shall
be provided on the service road side between the road and the canal (see Fig. 1).

Borrow pits in Canal

In case of canal banks, Borrow pits may be constructed out of canal section or within
the bed of the canal. Outside pits are not preferred because they can become mosquito
breeding centres during rainfalls.

Outside borrow pits should not be deeper than 30 cm, and it should be located at least
5 m away, in case of small canals, and 10 m in case of large canals, from the toe of the
bank.

The inside borrow pits may be located at the centre of the canal. The width of the borrow
pit should be half of the bed width of the canal. The maximum depth of the inside borrow
pits should not be more than 1 m. This type of pit is always preferable.
Spoil Bank
When the quantity of excavated earth is much in excess of the quantity required for filling
it has to be deposited in the form of the spoil bank
If the quantity of the extra earth available is small, it is used to widen the service road,
but the service road can only be widened to a certain limit beyond which its maintenance
may be difficult.
The height of the spoil bank is not kept large, but on costly land, the height of the spoil
bank is increased to involve the minimum width of the land.
A longitudinal drain is always made between the spoil bank and the service road.
Cross drains should also be provided at about 100 m intervals and the spoil banks should
be discontinuous at these points
Permanent Land width
The width of land required for the construction of canal cross-section is known as land
width.
Permanent land width is the distance between the outer toes of the canal bank plus a few
meters on both sides for the construction of a drain or line of trees etc. It is the land width
that is permanently required before starting the construction of the anal.
 Canal Outlet
An outlet is a small structure which admits water from the distributing channel to a water
course or field channel. Thus, an outlet is a sort of head regulator for the field channel
delivering water to irrigation fields. The responsibility of maintenance of distributing
channel and the whole canal network lies with the Government, while that of the field
channel lies with the farmer. The outlet is the connecting medium for the two.
Since the efficiency of the canal network depends upon the functioning of the outlets and
the other regulation works, a canal outlet should fulfil the following requirements:
(a) The outlet should be strong, with no moving parts liable to damaged or requiring
periodic attention or maintenance.
(b) It should be so design that the farmer cannot temper with the functioning and any
interference from him should be detectable.
(c) Since a large number of outlets are fixed on a distributing channel, the most essential
requirement is that it should be cheap.
(d) The design should be simple so that it can be constructed or fabricated by local mason
or technicians.
(e) It should be possible for the outlets to work efficiently with a small working head.
(f) From the farmer’s point of view, the outlet should give fairly constant discharge.
However, from the canal regulation point of view, the outlet should draw proportionately
more or less discharge with the varying supply in the distributing channel.
Criteria for judging the performance of outlet
Flexibility: It is the ratio of rate of discharge of an outlet to the rate of discharge of the
distributing channel
𝑑𝑞⁄
𝑞
F= 𝑑𝑄 ;
⁄𝑄

where F=Flexibility; q= Discharge through the outlet; Q =Discharge through the

distributing channel
Now for the filed channel q= k𝐻 𝑚
Where k is constant m= outlet index and H = head acting on the outlet
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑚𝑘𝐻 𝑚−1 𝑑𝐻
𝑑𝑞 𝑚𝑘𝐻 𝑚−1 𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐻
= 𝑚
=𝑚
𝑞 𝑘𝐻 𝐻
Similarly, for the parent channel,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐷𝑛
Where c is constant n= canal index and D= Depth of water in the canal
 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝐷𝑛−1 𝑑𝐷
𝑑𝑄 𝑛𝐶𝐷𝑛−1 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
= 𝑛
=𝑛
𝑄 𝐶𝐷 𝐷
𝑑𝑞⁄ 𝑑𝐻
𝑞 𝑚 𝑚 𝐷 𝑑𝐻
𝐻
F= 𝑑𝑄⁄ = 𝑑𝐷 = .
𝑄 𝑛 𝐻 𝑑𝐷
𝐷
Since any change in the water depth results in an equal change in the head causing flow
dH= dD . Thus expression for flexibility

𝒎 𝑫
F=Flexibility = .
𝒏 𝑯

Proportionality
A proportional outlet is the one on which the flexibility (F) is equal to unity. Thus, in a
proportional outlet, the rate change of its discharge is equal to the rate of change of the
discharge of the distributing channel. For proportionality, putting F= 1 in the flexibility
equation , we get the relation.
𝑯 𝒎
=
𝑫 𝒏

𝑯
The ratio of is known as the setting.
𝑫
In a proportional outlet therefore, setting is equal to the ratio of the outlet and the canal
indices.
From the point of view of proportionality, an outlet is classified into three types:
a. Proportional outlet
b. Hyper proportional outlet
c. Sub- proportional outlet
These will be explained both with respect to their flexibility as well as setting.
Setting
The setting is the ratio of the depth of the sill or the crest level of the module below the
full supply depth of the distributing channel to the full supply depth of the distributing
channel
𝑯
Thus setting =
𝑫
In the case of a proportionate outlet we have the setting equal to the ratio of outlet index
to the channel index, i.e.
 𝑯 𝒎
Setting =
𝑫 𝒏
5⁄ 5
For a channel of trapezoidal shape Q∝ 𝐷 3 i.e. n= 3
1⁄ 1
For an orifice type of outlet q=𝐻 2 m= 2

Hence for such a combination, we get

𝑯 𝒎 𝟏⁄
Setting = = = 𝟓⁄
𝟐
= 0.3
𝑫 𝒏 𝟑
Hence for the pipe outlet to be proportional, the outlet is set at 0.3 times the depth below
the water surface.
Hyper Proportional outlet
A hyper proportional outlet is one in which flexibility is greater than one, i.e. the discharge
in the oulet changes a larger percentage than percentage change in discharge of the
distributing channel. Thus, for a hyper proportional outlet
F>1

𝒎 𝑫
. >𝟏
𝒏 𝑯

𝑯 𝒎
Or <
𝑫 𝒏

The equation indicates that the numerical value of setting H/D is less that the ratio of
m/n or in other words, an outlet is hyper proportional if the setting is higher than
required for proportionality
Sub Proportional outlet:
A sub-proportional outlet is one in which the flexibility is lesser than one. i.e. the
discharge in the outlet changes by a smaller percentage than the percentage change in
discharge of the distributing channel. Thus for sub-proportional outlet
F<1

𝒎 𝑫
. <𝟏
𝒏 𝑯
Or 𝑯 𝒎
>
𝑫 𝒏
The equation indicates that the numerical value of setting H/D is greater that the ratio
of m/n or in other words, an outlet is sub-proportional if the setting is lower than
required for proportionality
Sensitivity
It is defined as the ration of the rate of change of an outlet to the rate of change in the level
of the distributing channel water surface, referred to as the normal depth of the channel.
𝑑𝑞⁄
𝑞
𝑆=
𝑑𝐺/𝐷
Where, S= sensitivity of the outlet; q= Discharge through the outlet; dq= change in the
discharge of the outlet; G= Gauge reading, so set G= 0 when q= 0 ; D= Depth of water in
the distributing channel.
∴ 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝐷
𝒅𝒒⁄
𝒒
𝑺 = 𝒅𝑫/𝑫 -------(1)

𝑑𝑞⁄
𝑞 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐷
But F= 𝑑𝑄 where =𝑛
𝑄 𝐷
𝑄

𝑑𝑞⁄
𝑞
F= --------(2)
𝑛𝑑𝐷⁄𝐷

From 1 and 2 we get

S= nF

It is evident the sensitivity of rigid module is zero.

Efficiency of an outlet
It may be defined as the ratio of the head recovered to the head put in. Lesser is the head
required for functioning of the outlet; more efficient the outlet will be. Efficiency is a
measure of conservation of head by the outlet
Drowning Ratio
It is the ratio of the depth of water level over crest on the downstream of the module to
the depth of water level over crest on the upstream of the module. In case of weir type
module the efficiency is the same as drowning ratio.

Minimum Modular Head

The minimum difference between the upstream and downstream water levels, which is
required to be maintained so as to enable the module to pass the designed discharge is
known as minimum modular head or minimum modular loss

Types of Outlet:
Canal outlets are classified into three types, namely,
(a) Non-modular outlets,
(b) Semi-modular (or flexible) outlets, and
(c) Modular outlets.
Non-modular Outlets:
 They are outlets whose discharge capacity depends on the difference in the water
levels in the distributary (that supplies water to the watercourse) and the water course.
 The discharge through such outlets varies over a wide range with fluctuations in the
water levels of either the watercourse or the distributary.
 A shutter provided at the upstream end regulates this outlet.
 The head loss in a non-modular outlet is lesser than that of a modular outlet.
 Such outlets are preferable for low head conditions.
 There is, obviously, a drawback with this outlet in that the discharge may vary even
when the water level in the distributary remains constant.
 Therefore, it is very difficult to maintain an equitable distribution of water at all such
outlets during periods of keen demand of water
 The most common types of non- modular outlets are submerged pipe outlet, masonry
sluice and orifices.
Open sluice:
An open sluice like a bridge opening is a rectangular pucca opening created across the bank
of the distributary, by rising the abutments at 2.5 to 3 m apart and with horizontal pucca floor.
The width of the opening is B
The height of the opening is H
Sill level of the outlet is kept somewhat above the bed of the distributary bed level.
Let HL be the head loss between distributary and water course
HL = Water level in the distributary – Water level of the water course
Discharge through opening is obtained from suppressed weir formula
2 3⁄
2
Flow over upper part lying above AB = 𝑞1 = 3 𝐶𝑑1 √2𝑔𝐵𝐻𝐿 --------(1)

Flow from lower part is computed from submerged orifice formula

𝑞2 = 𝐶𝑑2 𝐵 𝑑 √2𝑔𝐻𝐿
If Cd1 =Cd2 = Cd
2 3⁄
2
q=q1+q2 =3 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔𝐵𝐻𝐿 + 𝐶𝑑 𝐵 (𝐻 − 𝐻𝐿 )√2𝑔𝐻𝐿

2
= 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 𝐵√𝐻𝐿 √[3 𝐻𝐿 + (𝐻 − 𝐻𝐿 )]

1
Q=𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔𝐻𝐿 B[𝐻 − 3 𝐻𝐿 ]

If Cd=0.64
1
Q= 2.835√𝐻𝐿 B[𝐻 − 3 𝐻𝐿 ]

𝒎 𝑫 𝟏 𝑫 𝟑𝑫
For open sluice F=Flexibility = . =𝟓 =
𝒏 𝑯 ⁄𝟑 𝑯 𝟓𝑯

𝐻
And setting 𝐷 for proportionality = m/n = 0.6

Hence for an open sluice to be proportional, the pucca floor should be provided in such
a way to give H= 0.6 D ; or the sill level of the floor to be provided at 0.4 H above the
distributary bed level of the canal.

Submerged pipe outlet

The pipe outlet size generally varies from 10-30 cm in diameter, and are frequently laid on
light concrete foundation to prevent uneven settlement and consequent leakage
They are generally laid right angle to the direction of flow horizontally.
It is clear that, in general, the discharge through a non-modular outlet will vary with water
levels in the distributary and the watercourse
In the case of fields situated at high elevations, the level of the watercourse being high, it
could happen that the discharge is relatively small.
But in fields located at low elevations, the discharge is relatively larger due to the water
course being at a lower level.
Further, the tail reach may be completely dry or may be flooded, depending upon the amount
of withdrawal of water in the head reaches.
It is possible to increase the discharge through the pipe outlets by deepening the water course
and thus lowering the water level in it as far as practicable
The loss of head, H through the outlet is given by
H= Entry loss+ Frictional loss + Velocity head at the exit
𝑉2 4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝑉2 𝑉2 4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
H = 0.52𝑔 + +2𝑔 =1.52𝑔 +
2𝑔𝑑 2𝑔𝑑

𝑉2 4𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 1.5𝑑+4𝑓𝐿
H= +2𝑔 [1.5 + ]=2𝑔 [ ]
𝑑 𝑑

1⁄
𝑑 2
V= √2𝑔𝐻 [1.5𝑑+4𝑓𝐿]

The discharge q through the pipe outlet is given by

1⁄
𝑑 2
q= AxV= A√2𝑔𝐻 [1.5𝑑+4𝑓𝐿]

Or q= CA√2𝑔𝐻
1⁄
𝑑 2
The coefficient C= coefficient of discharge = [1.5𝑑+4𝑓𝐿]

L= Length of pipe(m); d= Diameter of pipe (m) ; A= Area of C/S of Pipe (m2)

If however, the diameter of the pipe in cm, the coefficient of discharge is given by IS
7986-1976;
1⁄
2
1 𝑑
𝐶= [ ]
20 ( 1.5𝑑 + 𝐿) 𝑓
400𝑓
The value of C varies 0.61-0.76.
Pbm: A Submerged pipe outlet has the following data
FSL of the distributary = 100.00
FSL of water course = 99.90 m
Length of Pipe = 9 m
Diameter of the pipe = 20 cm
Coefficient of friction = 0.005
Find the discharge through the outlet
Solution: d= 20 cm ; L=9 m; f= 0.005
Working head = H = 10-9.90 = 0.1 m
1⁄ 1⁄
2 2
1 𝑑 1 20
𝐶= [ ] = [ 1.5𝑥20 ] = 0.645
20 ( 1.5𝑑 +𝐿)𝑓 20 (400𝑥0.005+9)0.005
400𝑓
𝜋 𝜋
Area of C/S of pipe = A= 4 𝑥𝑑 2 =4 𝑥0.22 = 0.0314 m2

Hence q= CA√2𝑔𝐻 = 0.645x0.0314√2𝑥9.81𝑥0.1 = 0.0284 cumecs

Design a submerged pipe outlet for the following data:
Discharge through outlet = 0.04 Cumecs; FSL of distributing canal = 100.00m ; FSL
of water course = 99.90 m; Full supply depth in distributing canal = 1.1 m; Assume
average value of coefficient of discharge = 0.7
Given q= 0.04 Cumecs; C= 0.7
Available head, H =100-99.90 =0.10 m
q= CA√2𝑔𝐻 ⇒0.04=0.7A√2𝑥9.81𝑥0.1
𝜋
A= 0.0408 m2 == 4 𝑥𝑑2 ⇒d= 0.228 m

Provide 25 cm diameter pipe

Design an irrigation outlet for the following data:
FSQ of outlet = 50lps ; FSL in distributary U/S side of outlet = 200.00 m ; FSL in water
course on D/S side of the outlet = 199.92 m ; FSD in distributary on U/S side of the
outlet = 1.05 m.
Solution:
Available head across the outlet = FSL of Distributary – FSL of water course
= 200.00-199.92 =0.08 m
Since the available head is very small, a non-modular outlet such as a submerged outlet
is provided.
Discharge Q= Cd A √2𝑔𝐻𝐿
Assuming Cd= 0.73
0.05=0.73 A √2𝑥9.81𝑥0.08 ⇒ A= 0.055m2
Diameter of pipe = 0.264 m ⇒ Provide 30 cm dia pipe.
The RL of the bed of the distributary = 200.00-1.05 =198.95 m
Since the outlet is submerged the FSL is kept 8 cm above the top level of the pipe
Therefore the sill level of the pipe
200.00-0.38 =199.62 m
Hence 199.62- 198.45= 1.17 m above the bed of the distributary
Semi-modular or Flexible Outlets
In this type of module, the discharge is dependent only on the water level in the
distributary while the water level in the watercourse does not affect the discharge,
provided a minimum working head required for its working is available. A semi-module
is more suitable for ensuring equitable distribution of water at all outlets of a distributary.
However, the only disadvantage of the semi-modular outlet is the comparatively higher
loss of head it entails. Some of the semi-modular outlets include the following types:
(a) Pipe outlet discharging freely in the atmosphere
(b) Kennedy's gauge outlet
(c) Open flume outlet
(d) Orifice semi-s nodule
Free pipe outlet:
A pipe outlet discharging freely into the atmosphere is the simplest and the oldest type
of flexible outlet. The discharge through such an outlet will depend only upon the water
level in the distributary and will be independent of the water level of the watercourse so
long as the pipe is discharging freely. Silt conduction for such an outlet is quite good and
efficiency is high. But freely falling jet outlet can be provided only at few places where
sufficient level difference between the distributary and watercourse is available. The
discharge can be easily computed by using the equation

Q= 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻𝑜

Where Cd is coefficient of discharge = 0.62 for average condition of free fall

Ho=Head on U/S side measured from FSL of distributary up to the centre of pipe
outlet
A= Area of C/S of pipe
𝐻 𝑚
For the outlet to be Proportional F=1 Hence 𝐷 = Taking n= 5/3 and m= ½, the setting
𝑛
is equal to 0.3. Usually, a pipe outlet is set lower than this and is sub-proportional.

Design a pipe outlet for the following data:

Full supply discharge at the head of water course = 90LPS; FSL of distributary =
205.00 m; FSL of water course = 204.00
Solution:
Available head across the outlet = FSL of the distributary- FSL of water course
= 205.00-204.00 = 1m
A pipe outlet with free discharge is proposed as an available head is enough. The D/S end
of the pipe is fixed below the water level of the water course, thus making semi module

Q= 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻𝑜

Assuming the dia of pipe as 25 cm we have

𝜋
0.09= 0.62[ 4 𝑥0.252 ] √2𝑥9.81𝑥𝐻𝑜

Ho= 0.44 m
∴ RL of centre of pipe outlet = 205-0.44 = 204.56 m
0.25
RL of invert of outlet pipe = 204.56- = 204.43 m > FSL of the water course i.e 204.00
2

Hence a pipe of 25 cm dia can be laid horizontally with its bottom or sill level at RL 204.43 and it wil
be discharging freely as a semi module.

Kennedy’s gauge outlet

This outlet is made of cast iron and consists of three main parts:

1. The orifice with bell-mouthed entry

2. A long expanding delivery pipe
3. An intervening air column above the throat

 Water from distributing channel enters the outlet through bell mouthed
approach
 From the narrowest diameter of the throat, the jet shoots across the air in the base
of the vertical air vent pipe.
 The base of the air vent pipe is conical and allows free air circulation of air around
the jet.
 Thus the jet is exactly in the same condition as if it were discharging into the open
air, making the discharge independent of the water level in the watercourse..
 The jet is then received by a cast iron expanding pipe, about 3 m long.
 At the end of the CI pipe, a cement concrete pipe extension is usually added and
the water is then discharged in the field channel.
The discharge through this semi module is given by
Q= 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻𝑜
 Where A = Area of cross section of the pipe at the throat
Cd = Coefficient of discharge which may be as high as 0.97
 This module has, however, been superseded because the discharge could very
easily be increased by closing the air vents of the vent pipe.
 After the air vents are closed, the jet will suck the air in the chamber and its
pressure drops below the atmosphere.
 This increases the discharge.
 This module is obsolete as its manufacturing cost is high.
Crump’s open flume outlet:
It is a weir-type outlet with constricted throat and an expanding flume on downstream.
Due to constriction, a supercritical velocity is ensured in the throat and thereby allowing
the formation of a jump in the expanding flume. The formation of the hydraulic jump
makes the outlet discharge independent of the water level in the watercourse; thus
making it a semi-module.
The most commonly used type of such outlet is called Panjab Open Flume Outlet.

In such outlet the upstream approach is made curved and downstream approach is
made straight.
The length of the throat is kept 2H.
The width of the flume at the downstream end is kept 0.3 m wide than the throat width
(W).
The slope of the D/s glacis kept to the water course.
The discharge through such an outlet is given as :
 3⁄
q= 𝐶𝑑 𝑊𝐻 2

Where q= Discharge through the outlet

H= Head over the crest measured from FSL of distributary
𝑞
W= width of the throat ≈ 𝑄 𝐴 , where

Q= discharge through the distributary

A= Area of the waterway of the distributary of bed width B and depth y
Cd = Coefficient of discharge approximately equal to 1.71

Due to various losses, the actual value of C is less than 1.71 and depends upon the width
of the throat, as indicated below
Throat width Value of
Cd
0.06-0.90 1.60
0.009 to 0.12 1.64
Over 0.12 m 1.66

𝐻 𝑚 3⁄2
For proportionality F= 1 ; = = =0.9
𝐷 𝑛 5⁄3

𝐻
Thus proportionality is obtained when the setting 𝐷 = 0.9 If the outlet is set higher than
this, it is hyper proportional, and if it is lower it is sub-proportional.
The efficiency of the outlet varies between 80 to 90 %.
The minimum modular head of an open flume outlet is 0.2 H or 30% of the head over the
crest of the outlet with a minimum value of 6 cm..
The minimum throat width is 0.06 m, to avoid the choking of the outlet by floating
material.
Hence high setting is adopted for small requirements of discharge, through this would
result in poor silt condition.
Orifice Semi module (Crump’s APM- IS 7896-1976)
An orifice semi module consists of an orifice provided with gradually expanding flume on
the D/s side of the orifice.
The flow through the orifice is hypercritical resulting in the formation of hydraulic jump.
This makes the discharge independent of the flow conditions in the water course.
In this type of outlet, CI base, CI roof block and check plates on either side of the nucleus
around which masonry is built .
The roof block is fixed to the check plates by bolt which can be removed and the depth of
the outlet adjusted after masonry is dismantled.
Since the roof block cannot be adjusted without breaking the masonry around it, the
opening yo, and hence the outlet discharge cannot be easily tampered with by cultivators.
Q=The discharge through such an outlet is given by formula

q= 𝐶𝑑 (𝑊𝑦0 )√2𝑔𝐻𝑠

Where q= Discharge through the outlet; W= width of the throat; y0= Height of the orifice
opening = 1.5- 2 times the width of opening; Hs = Head measured from the U/S water level
in the distributary to the lowest point in the roof block; Cd= Coefficient of discharge varies
between 0.8 to 1.05 for throat width (W) varying between 0.06 to 0.3 m. It may be safely
taken for normal throat width (of the order of 0.12 m or so) as 0.91 in which case the
above formula reduces to

q= 4.04 W y0√𝐻𝑠

This type of adjustable modules are provided in eight different standards widths = 0.06,
0.075, 0.10, 0.12, 0.15, 0.19, 0.24, and 0.3 m
The minimum modular head loss involved in such a module is given by the formula
𝑊
HL= 0.82 Hs - 2
𝐻
Originally, when this module had a setting (i.e. ) of 6/10 it aimed at exact
𝑦
proportionality and therefore used to be called APM( Adjustable proportional module).
But experience showed that the channels using such modles silted very badly, and hence
proportionality was sacrificed to enable the outlet to carry silt charge by increasing the
setting to 8/10. Since then the outlet are known as AOSM( Adjustable Orifice Semi module
)
Advantages of this type of outlet are:
1. The adjustment can be made by raising or lowering the roof blocks at low costs by
dismantling the masonry in which the roof bolts are fixed
2. Any undue tampering of roof blocks by the cultivators can be easily detected, as it
requires the breaking of the visible masonry key.
3. It is simple and cheper
4. Silt conduction is good at various settings such as shown below
 Setting Silt conduction

6/10 99.5%

8/10 109.7%

10/10 121.9%

Rigid Module : Gibb’s Rigid Module

The essential feature of the outlet is an eddy chamber, semi-circular in plan, around which
water flows giving rise to free vorex. Flow.
Water enters through the inlet pipe having bell-mouthed entry and is directed to eddy
chamber through a 180° rising pipe in which free vortex flow is developed.
The characteristic feature of the free vortex flow is that the product of the velocity and
radius is constant for all the filaments .
Thus the water at the outer circumference of the chamber has greater radius and hence
lesser velocity, resulting in rising of water level there.
Thus the water surface in the eddy chamber slopes down towards the inner
circumference.
A series of baffles are suspended from the roof, with lower edges sloping at the required
height above the sill of the module.
If the head causing the flow increases, water banks up at the outer circumference of the
eddy camber and impinges against the baffles imparting an upward, rotational, direction
of flow to the water, which spins round in the compartment between two successive
baffles and finally drops on the for a wide range of variation of the head. This results in the
dissipation of excess energy and the release of a constant discharge. The outlet is relatively more
expensive, and its sediment withdrawing characteristic is also not good.
 Design of Alluvial channels
 ln the case of alluvial channels, the channel surface consists of alluvial soil which can be
easily scoured. Moreover, the velocity is low which encourages silting.
 Therefore, in an alluvial channel, scouring and silting may occur if the channel is not
properly designed.
 The quantity of silt transported by water in an alluvial channel varies from section to
section due to scouring of bed and sides as well as due to Silting (or deposition).
 If the velocity is too high, scouring may occur. On the other hand, if the velocity is too low,
silting may occur.
 The command of an irrigation channel decreases if the scouring occurs because the fall
supply level falls.
 The discharge capacity is decreased if the silting occurs because the cross-section is
reduced.
 Therefore the alluvial channel should be designed such that neither scouring nor silting
occurs.
 The velocity at which this condition occurs is called the critical velocity.
 Such an alluvial channel is called a stable channel.
 Therefore, a stable channel is one in which banks and bed are not scoured and also in
which no silting occurs. Even if there is some minor scouring and silting, the bed and
banks of a stable channel remain more or less unaltered over a long period of time. Several
investigators have studied the problem and suggested various theories.

These are known as Silt theories. The most commonly used theories are:

1. Kennedy’s silt theory 2. Lacey’s silt theory

Kennedy’s silt theory

From the observations, he concluded that the silt supporting power in a channel cross-section
was mainly dependent upon the generation of the eddies rising to the surface.

These eddies are generated due to the friction of the flowing water with the channel surface.

The vertical component of these eddies tries to move the sediment up while weight of the
sediment tries to bring it down.

So if the velocity is sufficient to generate eddies so as to keep the sediment just in suspension,
silting will be avoided based on the concept of critical velocity.

Eddies generated at the sides were neglected by Kennedy because such eddies are horizontal for
the greater part and therefore have very little silt supporting power.

Therefore, the eddies generated only at the bed of the channel are effective for transportation of
the silt.

Thus, the silt supporting power is proportional to the bed width (and not the wetted perimeter).
Kennedy therefore, selected the relevant parameter as the depth of flow D (and not the hydraulic
radius R) for the critical velocity
According to Kennedy, the critical velocity Vc in a channel may be defined as the mean velocity of
flow which will just keep the channel free from silting or scouring. He gave his equation as:

V0 = 0.55 D0.64

Later he recognized that the grade (or size) of silt played an important role in the silt-carrying
capacity of the channel and introduced another factor, called the critical velocity ratio (m). the
equation was thus modified as:

V0 = 0.55 mD0.64

m = critical velocity ratio

= 1.1 to 1.2 for coarse sand

= 0.8 to 0.9 for fine sand

Kennedy’s method of design: Kennedy used 3 basic equations, namely:

1. Continuity equation: Q = A V

2. Flow equation (Kutter’s equation):

1 0.00155
𝑁
+(23+ 𝑆
)
𝑉=[ 0.00155 𝑁 ] √𝑅𝑆
1+(23+ 𝑆 )
√𝑅

3. Kennedy’s critical velocity equation: V = 0.55 m D0.64

Generally, discharge Q, Manning’s coefficient N, and the C.V.R (m) are given or assumed. Still,
there are 4 unknowns, namely A, V, R, and S. Since there are only 3 equations and 4 unknowns, a
complete solution is not possible. To obtain the complete solution, either bed slope or B/D ratio
is assumed

Design Procedure:

When the bed slope is given: Given: Q, m, N and S. Steps:

 Assume a trial value of the depth D.

 Calculate the velocity V using V = 0.55 m D0.64

 Determine the cross sectional area, A = Q/V

 Assuming a side slope of 0.5: 1, compute the bed width.

 𝐷2 𝐴−0.5𝐷2
A= BD+ ⇒ 𝐵=
2 𝐷

 Compute the wetted perimeter for the assumed depth and computed bed width.
P=B+D√5
 Compute the hydraulic radius from the relation
𝐴 𝐵𝐷 + 0.5𝐷 2
𝑅= =
𝑃 𝐵 + 𝐷√5
 Calculate the actual mean velocity V from Kutter’s equation
1 0.00155
+ (23 + )
𝑉=[ 𝑁 𝑆 ] √𝑅𝑆
0.00155 𝑁
1 + (23 + )
𝑆 √𝑅
If the velocity computed now is same as found by Kennedy’s method, the design depth is correct.
Otherwise, repeat the above steps by assuming different depths of flow. If the Velocity from Kennedy’s
equation is less than that from Kutter’s equation, a greater value of D is assumed for the next trial and
vice versa

Pbm : Design an irrigation channel by Kennedy’s theory to carry a discharge of 15 cumecs. Take m
= 1.0, N = 0.0225 and S = 1 in 5000.

2. Design procedure when B/D is given:

Assume a depth of 1.74 m

V = 0.55 m D0.64 = 0.55x1x1.740.64 =0.78 m

A = Q/V = 15/0.78 = 19.13 m2

𝐷2
A= BD+ = 19.13
2

19.13−0.15𝑥1.742
B= = 10.12 m
1.74

Now P=B+D√5 =10.12+1.74√5 =14.01 m

𝐴 𝐵𝐷+0.5𝐷2 19.13
𝑅= = = =1.37 m
𝑃 𝐵+𝐷√5 14.01
1 0.00155
+(23+ ) 1
+(23+
0.00155
)
𝑁 𝑆
𝑉=[ 0.00155 𝑁 ] √𝑅𝑆 = [ 0.0225 0.0002
] √1.37𝑥0.0002
0.00155 0.0225
1+(23+ 0.0002 )
1+(23+ ) √1.37
𝑆 √𝑅

V= 0.782 m/s
Hence D= 1.74 m ; B= 10.12 m
2. Design procedure when B/D is given:

Given: Q, m, N and B/D.

Steps:
𝐵
Let =X
𝐷

 Calculate the area in terms of D.

𝐷2 𝐵
A= BD+ =𝐷2 ( + 0.5) ⇒ 𝐷2 (𝑋 + 0.5)
2 𝐷

 Write the continuity equation and substitute Kennedy’s equation for the velocity.
2 0.64
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 = 𝐷 (𝑋 + 0.5)55𝑚𝐷
 Calculate the value of D from above equation.
 Determine the bed width. B = x D
 Compute the hydraulic radius
𝑩𝑫 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝑫𝟐
𝑹=
𝑩 + 𝑫√𝟓
 Determine the velocity V from the relation
V = 0.55 m D0.64
 Compute the slope from Kutter’s equation. (for the first trial, the term 0.00155/S may be
neglected).

Example : Design an irrigation channel by Kennedy’s theory to carry a discharge of 5 cumecs. Take
m = 1.0, N = 0.0225 and B/D = 4.4.

Solution:

𝐵
𝐴 = 𝐷2 ( + 0.5) ⇒ 𝐷2 (𝑋 + 0.5) = 4.9𝐷2
𝐷

𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 = 4.9𝐷2 𝑥 (0.55𝑥1.0𝑥𝐷0.64 )

5= 2.965D2.64

We get D = 1.26 m

B= 1.26 x4.4 = 5.54 m

𝑩𝑫+𝟎.𝟓𝑫𝟐 𝟓.𝟓𝟒𝒙𝟏.𝟐𝟔+𝟎.𝟓𝒙𝟏.𝟐𝟔𝟐
𝑹= = =0.93 m
𝑩+𝑫√𝟓 𝟓.𝟓𝟒+𝟏.𝟐𝟔√𝟓

V=0.55x1.0x1.260.64 = 0.64 m/s

Neglecting the term 0.00155/S
1 0.00155 1
+(23+ ) +(23)
𝑉=[ 𝑁
1+(23)
𝑁
𝑆
] √𝑅𝑆 =[0.0225
1+(23)
0.0225 ] √0.93𝑥𝑆
√𝑅 √0.93

S= 0.0002288

Drawbacks of Kennedy’s theory:

 In the absence of B/D relation the Kennedy theory do not provide easy basis for
fixing channel dimensions uniquely.
 Perfect definitions of silt grade and silt charge are not given.
 No account was taken of silt concentration and bed load and complex silt
carrying phenomenon was incorporated in a single factor m
 Kennedy did not give any slope equation
 By use of Kutter's formula inherent limitations therein remain applicable in
Kennedy's channel design procedure
Lacey’s Regime theory
Lacey, an eminent engineer of the U.P irrigation department carried out extensive
investigations on the design of stable channel in alluviums. On the basis of his research
work he found many drawbacks in Kennedy’s theory and he put forward his new theory.
He differentiated between three regime conditions:
1. True regime 2.initial regime 3.final regime
2. Three regimes – true, initial, and final:
True regime: A channel will be in true regime if these conditions are satisfied:
1. Discharge is constant
2. Flow is uniform
3. Silt charge is constant
4. Silt grade is constant
Initial regime:

 It is the first stage of regime attained by an artificial channel.

 The channel when excavated has somewhat a smaller width and a flatter slope.
 As the channel comes in operation and flow takes place, the bed slope of the
channel is increased due to deposition of silt on the bed of the channel when the
channel throws down its incoherent silt on the bed.
 It increases the velocity of flow in the channel which allows the given discharge to
flow through the channel of the smaller width.
 With an increase of bed slope, the depth of channel may also change.
  However, the width of the channel does not change because the sides of the
channel are usually cohesive and they resist erosion.
 If the soil in banks is clay, the sides may resist erosion almost indefinitely.
 The channel in an alluvial soil achieves equilibrium, called the initial regime after
running for some time.
 This is achieved by change in bed slope and depth when discharge, silt grade, silt
charge and width remain constant.
 However, this stability is only temporary because the width of the channel has so
far not been adjusted to suit the requirement of a regime channel.
Final regime:

 It is the ultimate regime attained by an alluvial channel when in addition to bed

slope and depth, the width of the channel has also been adjusted.
 After a long time, because of continuous action of water, the resistance of the sides
of the channel is overcome and finally gets adjusted according to discharge and
silt grade, then the channel is said to have permanent stability called final regime.
Lacey’s Basic regime equations:
Lacey found that the silt is kept in suspension by the vertical component of eddies, but
he also considered the eddies generated at the sides of the channel which have vertical
components and hence support the silt. Lacey, therefore, considered the hydraulic radius
R as the characteristic parameter rather than the depth of flow D considered by Kennedy.

Lacey’s fundamental equations:

Lacey gave four basic equations:

1. Silt factor: This is similar to C.V.R (m) as introduced by Kennedy. The silt
factor was related to the average particle size of the silt. The silt factor
depends upon the average size of the channel boundary material and its
density. Since the specific gravity of all the transported material is same
(about 2.65), the difference in density is ignored, hence the silt factor is
related only to the particle size. Lacey gave the following equation for silt
factor:
f= 1.76√𝑚𝑟
 mr is the average particle size in mm
2. Relation between mean velocity (V) and hydraulic radius (R):

2
𝑉 = √ 𝑓𝑅
5
3. Relation between cross-sectional area (A) and mean velocity (V):
𝐴𝑓 2 = 140𝑉 5
2⁄ 1⁄
4. Flow equation: 𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅 3𝑆 3

Lacey’s derived equations:

Following equations are derived from the Lacey’s basic or fundamental equations as:
1⁄
𝑄𝑓 2 6
1. Velocity equation: 𝑉 = ( )
140
2. Wetted perimeter equation: 𝑃 = 4.75√𝑄
5 𝑉2
3. . Hydraulic radius equation: 𝑅 =
2 𝑓
5
𝑓 ⁄3
4. Slope equation 𝑆 = 1
3340𝑄 ⁄6

Channel Design Procedure

1. Calculate the silt factor 𝑓 = 1.76√𝑚𝑟
1⁄
𝑄𝑓 2 6
2. 2. Compute the velocity = 𝑉 = ( 140 )

3. Determine the area A= Q/V

4. Compute the perimeter 𝑃 = 4.75√𝑄
5. Knowing the area of flow and wetted perimeter, determine the depth D
and width B from the geometrical relations given below, using a side
slope of 0.5:1
𝑃−√𝑃2 −6.944𝐴
A= BD+0.5D2 and P = B+D√5 Compute 𝐷 =
3.472
5
𝑓 ⁄3
6. Determine the bed slope:𝑆 = 1
3340𝑄 ⁄6

Example : The bed slope of a regime channel is 1 in 5800. Determine the channel section
and discharge. The average particle size is 0.323 mm.

Solution:

𝑓 = 1.76√𝑚𝑟 =1.76√0.323 =1.00

 5 5
𝑓 ⁄3 1 1 ⁄3
𝑆= 1 ⇒ = 1 = 27.42 Cumecs
3340𝑄 ⁄6 5800 3340𝑄 ⁄6

Now discharge and silt factor are known, the section can be designed.

1⁄ 1⁄
𝑄𝑓 2 6 27.42𝑥12 6
= 𝑉 = ( 140 ) =( ) =0.76 m/s
140

A= Q/V= 27.42/0.76 =36.41 m3/s

P= 4.75√𝑄 =4.75√27.42 = 24.87 m

A= BD+0.5D2⇒ 36.41 = BD+0.5D2

P = B+D√5 ⇒ 24.87 = B+D√5

𝑃−√𝑃2 −6.944𝐴 24.87−√24.872 −6.944𝑥36.41

Solving 𝐷 = ⇒ D= =1.64 m
3.472 3.472

Solving for B= 21.32 m

Kennedy’s theory Lacey’s Theory

1. It states that the silt carried by the
flowing water is kept in suspension by
the vertical component of eddies which
are generated from the bed of the
channel.
1. It states that the silt carried by the
flowing water is kept in suspension by
the vertical component of eddies which
are generated from the entire wetted
perimeter of the channel.

2. Relation was given between V&D. 2. Relation was given between V& R.

3. Critical velocity ratio 'm' is introduced
to make the equation applicable to
different channels with different silt
grades.
4. Kutter's equation is used for finding
the mean velocity.
5. This theory gives no equation for bed
slope. 6. In this theory, the design is
based on trial and error method.
3. Silt factor f is introduced to make the
equation applicable to different channels
with different silt grades. 4. This theory
gives an equation for finding the mean
velocity.
5. This theory gives an equation for bed
slope.
6. This theory does not involve trial and
error method