Indoor Envirnoment Quality In Residen al Buildings

Table of contents :
Ch.1.1 abstract

Ch.1.2 subject

Ch.1.3 topic

Ch.1 introduc on
1.1 Problem statement
1.2 Aim and objec ves
1.3 Research ques on
1.4 Scope of work
1.5 Hypothesis
1.6 Methodology
1.7 Research limita on
1.8 Research structure

Ch.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

2.1 Pa erns of Time Spent Indoors
2.2 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
2.2.1 Symptoms of Sick Building Syndrome
2.2.2 Resources of Sick Building Syndrome
2.2.3 Physical Factors Responsible for SBS
2.3 Indoor Air Pollu on And Pollutants Source
2.3.1 Carbon Dioxide and Its concentra on levels
2.3.2 Pollu ng Emission Sources in Indoor Air
2.3.3 Health Risk Associated with Pollu on

2.4 Indoor Air Quality Standards

 2.5 Assessment Methods
2.5.1 How Indoor Air Quality Assessments Can Promote Health
2.5.2 Measurement Methodology
2.5.3 Normalized Monitoring Methods
2.5.4 Not‐normalized Monitoring Methods
2.5.5 Ideal Guidelines for indoor environment quality assessments

Ch.3 Examples
Ch.4 Case study
Ch.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
The term "indoor air quality" (IAQ) can take many different forms. The term
"IAQ" describes the state of the air that affects a building's occupants' comfort
and well‐being both inside and outside of it. IAQ is a term that, according to,
describes the air quality inside and outside of buildings and other structures,
par cularly as it relates to the comfort and health of building occupants. [1]
According to the Na onal Health and Medical Research Council's defini on [2],
indoor air is defined as air that people in a building, regardless of their health
status, use for at least an hour. The Interna onal Air Quality (IAQ) is deemed
acceptable by the American Society of Hea ng, Refrigera ng, and Air‐
Condi oning Engineers, or ASHRAE, when 80% of the inhabitants in the
building feel comfortable and do not suffer from health problems while in the
building.
‘’The quality of the indoor environment is affected by the following factors:
• Physical – airfow, noise, temperature, and humidity
• Chemical – carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide, inorganic
and organic pollutants, vola le organic compounds, asbestos, and smoking
• Biological – bacteria, viruses, fungi, mites, dust, pets, and humans The
assessment of indoor air quality is subjec ve and depends on :
• Ambient air quality
• The volume of air per person in the room
• Air exchange
• The number of pollutants in the air, where these sources may be: humans,
animals, plants, and their metabolism; human and animal ac vi es; building
material; cleaning; cleaning and maintenance of buildings’’ [3]

1)‐[8] Evalua on and measurement of indoor air quality in the preschool building , M. A. A.
Rahman1 , M. Awang, 2018
2)‐[10] Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality , Alina Gherasim,novemebr 2023
3)‐ [13] Aspects of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT, Jozef Švajlenka,2022
Ch.2.1 Pa erns of Time Spent Indoors
People spend most of their me in various types of buildings, such as homes,
offices, schools, and restaurants, depending on what they do for a living (Figure
1). The state of the air in indoor spaces has a big impact on people's health and
wellbeing. Numerous researches have demonstrated a connec on between
enhanced indoor environments and favorable effects on human health .Low
IAQ causes unfavorable health effects, which in the worst cases can even be
fatal. This emphasizes how crucial the indoor air quality (IAQ) is in any indoor
area where people spend a lot of me.[3]

Figure1. Pie chart of the percentage of me spent in indoor and outdoor environments. Data were collected
from the United States Environmental Protec on Agency (US EPA) sponsored Na onal Human Ac vity Pa ern
Database (NHAPS). The total number of par cipants was 9196, and approximately 87% of the me spent in
indoor environments was in residen al buildings, office buildings, restaurants, and other indoor places, such
as malls, stores, schools, churches, public building, salons, health clubs, parking garages, auto‐repair shops,
and laundromats.REF : Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air
Pollu on in Residen al and Commercial Structure, Mehzabeen Mannan and Sami G. Al‐Ghamdi, 22 March 2021.

A variety of building types should be used as the basis for IAQ assessments in
order to gain a be er understanding of the factors affec ng overall IAQ.
Because building codes and regula ons differ depending on the type and
intended use of the building, it is impera ve to comprehend the rela onship
between IAQ and various residen al applica ons. Even in the worst
circumstances, death. This emphasizes how crucial the indoor air quality (IAQ)
is in any indoor area where people spend a lot of me. [3]

1)‐ [3]Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air
Pollu on in Residen al and Commercial Structure
Ch.2.3 Sick Building Syndrome

‘’In recent years, there has been a big trend of popula on movement from the
countryside to the ci es. As a result, we spend more and more me in confned
spaces. Outside in the fresh air, in our natural environment, we are less and less
what is beginning to affect our health, but especially the nega ve effects
(performance, psychological, health, etc.) of this emerging trend are beginning
to manifest. Unhealthy building syndrome is a global problem. According to the
WHO, it affected up to 60% of the total popula on in 2002, compared to only
30% in 1984. It is possible to assume that at present this number is much higher
and more than two‐thirds of the human popula on suffers from unhealthy
building syndrome, which is a very alarming number.‘’ ref : Aspects
of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT , Jozef Švajlenka,
2022 [11]

Ch.2.3.1 symptoms of Sick Building Syndrome

The wide range of symptoms associated with SBS is a common feature that is
frequently men oned in many defini ons. SBS is easily linked to a number of
symptoms related to health problems, including allergies, ver go, nausea,
hoarseness in the voice, upper and lower respiratory tract infec ons, fa gue,
headaches, coughs, deteriora ng concentra on, irrita on of the mucous
membranes, eyes, and nose, as well as a variety of skin condi ons and
persistent itching of the hands, face, or en re head. These detrimental effects
are interconnected because, in most cases, the existence of one effect triggers
the emergence of other effects, and their combina ons have even more
detrimental effects on our health and general well‐being at work and other
similar se ngs.[1]

1‐[11][ch5] Aspects of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT , Jozef Švajlenka,
2022
Ch.2.3.2 Resources of Sick Building Syndrome
"Sick building syndrome: are we doing enough?" is a recent study. separated
the reasons into two major groups:
• Factors related to the individual
• Environmental factors

Factors Related to Individuals

The biological diversity of each person, including allergic reac ons, gene c
suscep bility to allergies, gender (women are more suscep ble to SBS),
smoking, and a poor lifestyle, are some of these factors. The psychological state
of each individual and the elements affec ng the psyche therefore play a
significant role. In a study examining the rela onships between changes and
the effects of the indoor environment (SBS) and SBS over an 8‐year period,
researchers Norbäck and Sahlberg revealed the risks associated with indoor
smoking and poten al frequent interior pain ng (poor air quality, issues with
individuals with impaired ability to adapt to changes in the environment).

Factors Related to the Environment

One cannot solely a ribute the rise in SBS complaints to psychological issues
in people. Par cularly the humidity in the surrounding air, which is the primary
driver of bacterial growth and the development of mold, is significant in this
context . Moisture is a highly undesirable condi on, par cularly when it is
found inside a structure. Water condenses inside the structure or on its surface
in this condi on. This phenomenon (poor air quality, problems with individuals
with impaired ability to adapt to changes in the environment) causes breathing
problems that can lead to asthma pain ngs.

1‐[11][ch5] Aspects of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT , Jozef Švajlenka,
2022
Ch.2.3.3 Physical Factors Responsible for SBS
The WHO es mates that about 30% of recently constructed and remodeled
buildings have the poten al to harbor SBS. These buildings are almost en rely
enclosed, have inadequate ven la on, and are meant to be used as offices.
Building air quality is frequently linked to SBS symptoms, but it's not the only
factor. It can be difficult to pinpoint the precise cause of a given issue, but
current surveys suggest certain physical factors, such as : [1]
• Moisture and mold forma on
• Chemical pollutants
• Biological pollutants
• Insuffcient ven la on
• Electromagne c radia on
• Ligh ng and acous cs
Moisture and mold forma on
A number of not very high‐quality construc on technologies, which result in
the rise of the unhealthy building syndrome, came to us only over me. As a
result, buildings suffering on SBS may con nue to grow in the future. Another
fact is the countless shoddy reconstruc ons of historic structures, which are
already suscep ble to SBS symptoms and can cause discomfort or health
issues. This happens par cularly when the building is insulated during
reconstruc on, when new, totally air ght plas c windows replace old,
frequently leaking wooden windows, and more so when the cheaper the be er
mentality is applied.
In this instance, there is a "vacuum" of air within the structure. The structure
ceases to breathe due to severe air circula on restric ons. This has a lot of
nega ve consequences. One of them is the building starts to sweat due to the
higher concentra on of water. Windows that fog up all the me are a dead
giveaway that the building is unhealthy. Although window dewing is a rather
una rac ve flaw, Moisture is the primary cause of mold growth, which is
already a more serious issue. The presence of fungi in buildings is closely linked
to the development of different respiratory and other health issues in people
who spend a lot of me in these exposed building interiors. [1]
1‐[11][ch5] Aspects of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT , Jozef Švajlenka,
2022
Chemical pollutants
In this instance, the majority of the contamina on comes from chemical
sources. These can be obtained from the building's exterior or interior. Poorly
installed air intakes or incorrectly posi oned windows or vents allow
substances like radon, exhaust gases, dust, asbestos, or lead compounds from
paints to enter the building. Organic compounds (VOCs) are internal resources
in the majority of cases [42]. Carpets, upholstery, wood products, glues,
pes cide‐resistant cleaning solu ons, etc. are some of their sources. Increased
contamina on is also caused by cigare e smoke, materials burned in
fireplaces, fossil fuel heaters, and ar ficial fragrances from personal hygiene
and cleaning supplies. [1]
Insuffcient ven la on
Enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings was the primary objec ve of the
1970 thermal embargo. As a result, architects were compelled to create
structures that were even more air ght. Fresh air distribu on and external
ven la on declined as a result. Nevertheless, it has become clear over me
that the restricted ven la on speed is insufficient to preserve building
occupants' comfort and wellbeing.Thus, inadequate hea ng, cooling, and
ven la on systems are the cause of the rising indoor air pollu on. These
systems also add to the increased contamina on. [1]
Electromagne c radia on
The electromagne c radia on produced by household appliances like
microwaves, TVs, and computers over‐ionizes the air. Low concentra ons of
this don't really endanger people, but large electrical installa ons that aren't
properly grounded can produce powerful magne c fields that are linked to
cancerous illnesses. [1]
Ligh ng and acous cs
Employees in administra ve roles are more suscep ble to SBS symptoms than
those in senior management roles. This is because working condi ons for
managers are significantly be er. These syndromes are more common in
administra ve workers because of low ligh ng without sunlight, poor
acous cs, and poor ergonomics at work It's interes ng to note that SBS affects
more women than men (though this could also be because more women work
in these fields), and that it's more common in public buildings with ar ficial air
condi oning rather than natural ven la on.[1]
1‐[11][ch5] Aspects of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT , Jozef Švajlenka,
2022
Ch.2.4 Indoor Air Pollu on And Pollutants Sources

The quality of the air has become a major concern for environmental health in
recent years. According to Dela Cruz et al. (2014), air quality in the majority of
indoor built environments is directly correlated with VOC pollu on brought on
by interior finish elements.VOCs are released by a variety of materials,
including office chairs, wallpaper, carpets, and electronic equipment. However,
it appears that newer materials release the most VOCs.Indoor air quality has a
substan al impact on people's health and daily ac vi es, and it is largely
influenced by the quan ty and composi on of VOCs emi ed (Gong et al.,
2017)[1]

2.4.1 Carbon Dioxide and Its concentra on levels

A stable, colorless, non‐flammable, tasteless, and odorless atmospheric gas is

carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide concentra ons are 350 parts per million in
sparsely populated areas, 400 parts per million in ci es, and approximately 450
parts per million in the city center, on major thoroughfares, or in industrial
zones. One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms make up carbon dioxide.
atoms, which is frequently denoted by its CO2 equa on, and is roughly 1.5
mes more massive than air.Parts per million, or ppm, is the unit of
measurement most commonly used to express the concentra on of carbon
dioxide. It represents the number of par cles of a substance per million other
par cles. Nonetheless, there are instances when expressing the concentra on
in mass units (mg.m−3) is more prac cal. which provides a gas's mass in a
specific volume. Living outside does not present health risks due to the low
(0.03%) concentra on of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Closures are the
issue because they allow CO2 concentra ons to rise quickly, which makes
people more red and less produc ve in the workplace. The following table
2.4.1 show the Effects of CO2 concentra on on the human body

1‐ [11]Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022
Table 2.4.1.1 Effects of CO2 concentra on on the human body, Aspects of the Internal
Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT

The dura on of high concentra on exposure also determines the impact of

CO2 on the human body. Headaches, respiratory issues, or respiratory diseases
may arise based on the dura on and frequency of exposure to a high
concentra on environment. The aforemen oned health issues can be found in
places with inadequate ven la on or high popula on densi es (theaters,
auditoriums, offices, etc.) [20]. The effects of CO2 on the human body vary
depending on the concentra on of the gas in the air in the designated spaces
(Table 2.4.1.1). A maximum CO2 level of 1200–1500 ppm is the recommended
range. It is thought that CO2 concentra ons up to 5000 ppm are safe and do
not pose a significant risk to human health.[1]

1‐[11][ch5] Aspects of the Internal Environment Buildings in the Context of IoT , Jozef Švajlenka,
2022
2.4.2 Pollu ng Emission Sources in Indoor Air
It has been determined that over 130 chemical compounds are indoor vola le
organic compounds (VOCs) pollutants that are harmful to human health.
Principally, vola le organic compounds (VOCs) are released as alcohol (less
hazardous), ester (less harmful), aroma c compounds (very harmful), and
aldehydes and ketones (very harmful), alkane (less harmful), ester (less
harmful), olefin (less harmful), alcohol (less harmful), and aroma c compounds
(very harmful). VOC emissions can lead to headaches, nausea, and
disorienta on in addi on to irrita ng the throat, nose, and eyes. Exposure to
vola le organic compounds (VOCs) can have deleterious effects on essen al
organs, including the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system [3]. ‘’Air
pollutants measured include fine and course (PM2.5) and (PM10) PM, which
are par cles with aerodynamic diameters ranging from less than 2.5 and 10
mm, respec vely, ultrafine par cles less than 0.1 mm, ozone (O3), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur dioxide (SO2)’’.[4] The main
causes of indoor pollu on are human ac vity, a lack of air condi oning
systems, inadequate ven la on, and a variety of materials, chemicals, and
gases. For these reasons, various organiza ons, including the World Health
Organiza on (WHO) and the US Environmental Protec on Agency (US EPA),
have recognized indoor pollu on as a mul disciplinary phenomenon and have
classified pollutants into several categories. The World Health Organiza on
(WHO) es mates that indoor air pollu on contributed to over 1.5 million
deaths in 2000 .Furthermore, it has been determined that indoor air pollu on
ranks third globally in terms of disability‐adjusted lifeyears. A list of indoor
pollutants and their effects on health is presented inTable 2.4.2.1.[1][2]

1)‐[3] Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air
Pollu on in Residen al and Commercial Structure, Yu‐Pin Lin, 22 March 2021

2)‐[6] A pre‐assessment and pollu on preven on tool for indoor vola le organic compound
simula ons during the interior design stage, Weihui Liang,5 September 2022

3)‐[7] Benchmark of plant‐based VOCs control effect for indoor air quality: Green wall case in smith
campus at Harvard University, 11 August 2023

4)‐ [11]Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022
TABLE 2.4.2.1.Indoor air contaminants list and related health impacts REF : Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A
Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air Pollu on in Residen al and Commercial Structure, Mehzabeen Mannan
and Sami G. Al‐Ghamdi, 22 March 2021.

MAKE ANOTHER TABLE WITHOUT CONSEQUENCES

1)‐Biological Contaminants :
1)‐Allergnes ,Endotoxins and dampness
It can act as an emission focus capable of producing pollu ng releases towards
internal air. They exist evidence concerning directly or supple mented
genera on of indoor air pollu on from furnishings. Compounds such as
acetone, 2‐butanone, ethyl acetate, and tert‐butyl alcohol have been iden fed
in this sense. Hernández et al. observed total COV concentra ons in a
magnitude order of up to three mes greater, in air ght rooms (absence of
mechanical ven la on.
2)‐Chemical Contaminants :
1)‐ smoke :
Secondhand smoke, also known as environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), is the
mixture of smoke released when tobacco products burn. Of the goods that
produce tobacco smoke, they emphasize cigare es. and pipes or cigars, though
smokers' exhaled smoke is also included. One of the main causes of indoor air
pollu on and a poten al health risk to people is ETS. The connec ons between
tobacco smoke and tuberculosis are supported by scien fic evidence. Thus,
indoor air pollu on and secondhand tobacco smoke raise the risk of
tuberculosis, according to a study reviewed by Obore et al. [1]
2)‐coal and biomass fuel combus on fuels ,Carbon monoxide , nitrogen
dioxide and pes cides :
Among the items in this category are woodstoves, gas cooktops, fireplaces, gas
water heaters, and gas hea ng. They emphasize burning wood, fossil fuels, and
other forms of biomass. Specifically, coal and biomass are common solid fuels
that are used extensively as primary energy sources in developing countries
across the world, primarily for cooking and home hea ng. [1]
3)‐Off gassing‐emissions
1)‐formaldyehyde (HCHO), vola le organic compounds (VOC) ,Plas c
compounds
The chemicals emission into the indoor atmospheres coming from the
materials used in the buildings construc on results being a dominant factor in
the indoor air, which can involve serious public health problems, so the
Scien fc Community has addressed studies in this sense. Nguyễn‐Van et al.
conducted a radia on study in indoor air in tradi onal homes on Ðồng Van
Karst Plateau, northern Vietnam, due to soil building materials. They
concluded that the thoron (220Rn) safety threshold was o en exceeded in
indoor air, especially in dry soils without a treat and on the foors of classical
households built with mud. Similarly, Syuryavin et al. evidenced radon and
thoron emissions from Korean and Indonesian brick . Aspects such as the
type and loca on of tenement, year of building, and ven la on systems are
indivisible features regarding the indoor air quality. In this sense, a study
concluded that the concentra on of formaldehyde was higher in new than
older dwellings (30% approximately). Similarly, this study reported the
formaldehyde levels were favored with mechanical ven la on and in
concrete construc ons . [1]

2.4.3 Health Risk Associated with Pollu on

High air pollu on levels can cause a number of health problems. Significant
correla ons have been found through toxicological, clinical, and
epidemiological inves ga ons. found a nega ve correla on between air
pollu on exposure and unfavorable outcomes, such as early death in extreme
circumstances [32]. breathing difficulty, chest ghtness, and wheezing are
associated with brief exposure. Long‐term pollu on exposure is linked to the
aggrava on of cardiovascular and respiratory condi ons [33]. Many na ons
have established emission guidelines for two of the most dangerous pollutants:
ozone and par culate ma er. The health risks that the exposed popula on
faces at the current concentra ons and the health benefits of lowering the
concentra on levels are two important factors to consider when establishing
regulatory standards. Administra ve authori es have made significant
investments in developing tools to address the overwhelming need for precise
and though ul informa on regarding the health effects of exposure to air
pollu on over the past few decades. To evaluate the benefits and drawbacks
of US air pollu on regula ons, for example, the US Environmental Protec on
Agency created the Environmental Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program
(BenMAP‐CE) . Similar instruments have been purchased by the World Bank
and WHO to quan fy the health effects of exposure to ambient air pollu on.[2]

1)‐[11]ch2 Indoor Air Quality in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review on the Factors Influencing Air
Pollu on in Residen al and Commercial Structure, Yu‐Pin Lin, 22 March 2021

2)‐[11]ch 10 Health Risk Assessment Associated with Air Pollu on Through Technological
Interven ons: A Futuris c Approach, I. M. Dovlatov, 2022
Fig.2.4.1. Graphical abstract. Indoor air pollutants and sources, Impact of Climate Change on
Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022

Numerous methods are devised that integrate epidemiological evalua on into

the health‐related risk assessment (AP‐HRA). The assessment is essen al to the
fight against disease and the advancement of world health. AP‐HRAs assist in
policy‐making and interven on by forecas ng the health effects that are likely
to result from changes in air quality. The HRA tools are typically used to
es mate the health risks related to SOx and NOx, O3, and par culate ma er .
Using the Concentra on Response Func ons (CRFs), they also relate the
varia on in the concentra on and its associa on with lung cancer, respiratory
infec ons, and ischemic heart diseases. Below are some of the health effects
Fig.2.4.3.1 Common short‐ and long‐term effects of air pollu on

Health Risk Assessment Associated with Air Pollu on Through Technological Interven ons:
A Futuris c Approach, I. M. Dovlatov, 2022
linked to both short‐ and long‐term exposures, which are also summed up in
Fig. 2.4.3.1:
Short‐Term Exposure
1. Hospital admissions owing to respiratory diseases
2. Hospital admissions owing to cardiovascular diseases
3. Mortality
4. Absenteeism from work
5. Other acute symptoms
Long‐Term Exposure
1. Lung cancer
2. Impaired physiological func oning
3. Impaired growth
4. Chronic respiratory and heart diseases
5. Mortality caused by respiratory and cardiovascular diseases

2.4 INDOOR AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

People spend about 90% of their me indoors, where certain pollutants can
frequently be found in concentra ons that are higher than those found
outside.The American Society of Hea ng, Refrigera ng, and Air‐Condi oning
Engineers, the Occupa onal Safety and Health Administra on, the Centers for
Disease Control and Preven on, and other professional organiza ons develop
IAQ guideline standards that are intended to maintain healthy air in
buildings.46 The WHO's Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) are interna onal
guidelines that na onal, regional, and local governments can use to reduce air
pollu on and enhance the health of their ci zens. They combine tracking each
na on's progress in air quality with established scien fic evidence of the
nega ve health effects of air pollu on. The WHO updated the acceptable limits
for a number of air pollutants in 2021 (Table 2.4.1). In par cular, the annual
mean value for PM10 was reduced to 15 mg/m3 and for PM2.5 was reduced
to 5 mg/m.[1]

1)‐ Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022
Table .2.4.1 The world health organizarion’s air quality guidelines, Impact of Climate Change on
Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022

1)‐ Loca on
The loca on of a building may affect indoor pollu on. Par cles and other
pollutants found in buildings are sourced from busy areas and highways. When
structures are constructed on land with a high water table, contaminants from
chemicals or water may seep into the structure.43 According to a UK study,
bedrooms with high interior temperatures (26°C) are more likely to have health
problems than living rooms or other living spaces (28°C).50 According to
monitoring programs, temperatures typically drop at night and in the early
morning and then gradually rise throughout the day, reaching their highest
point in the evening.The top 51, 52 variables that affect the risks of indoor
heat[1]
2)‐ Building Characteris cs
Indoor air pollu on can also be a ributed to building design. How to preserve
energy building prac ces can significantly affect the respiratory health of
occupants. Buildings with high air exchange rates in the past made sure that
pollutants produced inside were con nuously mingled with ambient air.
However, these air changes necessitate energy to condi on the air to ensure
comfort and health indoors unless the desired outdoor climate is
complementary to that inside. In the most polluted area, the natural
ven la on reduc on resul ng from outdoor air pollutants ranges from 40% to
70%, while in all other tested ci es, it is between 5% and 20%.53 Pollutants or
water intrusion can occur through substandard window and door openings,
roofs, facades, and founda ons. external air intakes posi oned in close
proximity to pollu on sources .Waste receptacles and combus on products,
for example, are returned to the interior ambient air. Furthermore, special
assessments might be needed in mul ‐tenant buildings to make sure that
emissions from one unit don't seep into the units next to it. [1]
3)‐ Occupant Behavior
The age and socioeconomic status of the occupants influence their behavior.54
Those with preexis ng medical condi ons, the elderly, those living alone,
members of lower socioeconomic groups, and the very young are among the
popula ons most suscep ble to heat‐related mortality and morbidity. This risk
could be a result of physiological vulnerability and underlying medical
condi ons.3. A malfunc oning hea ng, ven la on, and air condi oning
(HVAC) system can lead to depressuriza on and the infiltra on of external
pollutants into the building. Dust and other byproducts of building materials
can be sources of pollutants circula ng in the building during pain ng and
other renova ons.[1]
4)‐ Microclima c Condi ons
IAQ is impacted by microclima c factors (humidity, temperature, air velocity,
etc.) as well as carbon monoxide and dioxide concentra ons [14]. An increase
in these indoor parameters can affect not only the pollutant emissions of
finishing materials and detergents, but also the well‐being and behavior of the
user, as the scien fic community has pointed out.
5)‐Natural Ven la on and/or Mechanical Systems
Inadequate air exchanges and/or ineffec ve filtra on systems are another
factor that contributes to low IAQ. These factors cause pollutants to recirculate
in confined spaces and deposit dirt and debris in the air handling systems. In
order to ensure regular, robust, and safe management, mechanical systems
should be appropriately designed for the tasks for which they are intended to
be used. Addi onally, processes should be implemented using crea ve
methods that provide flowchart solu ons for achieving the op mal service at
any given me .
6)‐ Construc on and Finishing Materials
Designers and users can choose specific building and finishing materials that
be er meet hygiene regula ons to help lower indoor pollutant concentra ons.
The environmental factors of the confined space should be taken into account
in rela on to the ac vi es that will be conducted because certain factors, such
as solar exposure and user occupancy, can have an indirect impact on material
emissions, such as high temperatures or rela ve humidity [7, 15]. Choosing
materials with low or no vola le organic compound (VOC) emissions will
enhance indoor air quality (IAQ), and less porous finishing materials can make
cleaning and maintenance easier. Using building and finishing materials with
interna onal cer fica ons is also strongly advised.[1]
1)‐ Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022

7)‐ Room Equipment and Furniture

Similar to this, designers' and users' choices of specific furnishings and
equipment can aid in lowering indoor pollutant concentra ons. This has been
proven by studies on evidence‐based design, which is why using furniture with
low or zero VOC emissions is strongly advised. Once more, it is advised to use
less porous finishing materials to make upkeep and cleaning easier. A er the
construc on of the site, the equipment should be located, and once installed,
an air exchange for the purpose of dilu on of emissions should be
guaranteed.Choosing materials with low or no vola le organic compound
(VOC) emissions will enhance indoor air quality (IAQ), and less porous finishing
materials can make cleaning and maintenance easier. Furthermore, it is
strongly advised to use building and finishing supplies with interna onal
cer fica on.[1]

1)‐ Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022
2.5 Assessment Methods
People spend a large amount of me in various indoor spaces, and indoor
environments are home to a variety of pollu on sources, including furniture,
cooking appliances, finishing materials, tradi onal and modern building
materials, and cleaning supplies. For these reasons, the quality of indoor air is
extremely important. In order to maintain an ideal IAQ, numerous
interna onal organiza ons throughout the world, including the WHO, have
established guidelines and threshold values (Table 2). The American Society of
Hea ng, Refrigera ng, and Air‐Condi oning Engineers (ASHRAE), the US EPA,
Health Canada, the Na onal Health and Medical Research Council in Australia,
the State Environment Protec on Agency in China, Hong Kong Indoor Air
Quality Objec ves, the Danish Society of Indoor Climate, and the World Health
Organiza on are the most well‐known organiza ons engaged in IAQ
regula ons outside of the WHO.[2]

2.5.1 How Indoor Air Quality Assessments Can Promote Health

The crea on of user‐friendly devices with integrated measurement techniques

and sensors that enable con nuous detec on has resulted from increased
a en on to IAQ. of varia ons in the concentra ons of pollutants and
significant microclima c parameters (e.g., temperature, rela ve humidity,
VOCs, CO2), as well as the capacity to perform real‐ me monitoring by
gathering a sizable quan ty of data (e.g., occupancy level, ac vi es performed,
air changes and ven la on, etc.). Currently available on the market are
wearables that are easy to use and have sensors that measure microclima c
and environmental parameters, concentra ons of pollutants (like the pump
test), and cardiovascular and respiratory parameters. Such con nuous
measurement devices have been used more o en in recent years, which has
strengthened public knowledge and awareness and started a new path for the
management and development of tools targeted at enhancing IAQ. It is
generally essen al to understand that sensor measurements are indica ve and
that their accuracy and dependability must be assessed. For instance, the
precise compounds they measure are s ll unknown, and the outcomes of using
various instruments can differ [9]. Therefore, results must be integrated with
conven onal measurement techniques and standardized laboratory analysis
rather than being directly compared with guidelines or reference values
adopted by various interna onal countries. These sensors can be valuable tools
for health promo on, even though it is s ll necessary to understand their
strengths and limita ons to make sure that the data collected is useful for the
intended purposes (e.g., response me, sampling rate, pollutant targets,
opera ng condi ons, sensor ac vity deadline, data storage and retrieval,
calibra on, dri , interference, etc.).[2]

2.5.2 Measurement Methodology

The assessment of exposure to those pollu ng compounds should be
addressed, given the body of evidence that has been developed thus far and
the fact that elevated concentra ons of indoor air pollutants can cause adverse
effects on human health. Because of this, measuring and quan fying the levels
of pollu ng compounds indoors is crucial for indica ng a possible low state of
air quality. When it comes to chemical pollutants, there are two ways to
measure pollu ng compounds in indoor air: normalized methods and non‐
normalized methods.[3]

1)‐ Impact of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality, Alina Gherasim, November 03, 2022

2)‐11 ch4 No Impacts on Users’ Health: How Indoor Air Quality Assessments Can Promote Health
and Prevent Disease, Marco Gola,2022

3)‐11 ch 2 A Comprehensive Review on the Indoor Air Pollu on Problem, Challenges, and Cri cal
Viewpoints, David Galán Madruga,2022
2.5.3 Normalized Monitoring Methods
While the European Legisla on currently in effect enumerates various
techniques for measuring outdoor air pollutants, those techniques are also
applicable in indoor environments. The reference techniques for monitoring
specific air pollutants in air quality monitoring networks to evaluate the quality
of the outdoor air are displayed in Table 2.1. It must be emphasized that the
noteworthy features of the approaches men oned above, such as
measurement parameters, equipment calibra on, and quality. [3]

Ambient air, EN 14212:2012. Standard technique for using ultraviolet

fluorescence to measure sulfur dioxide concentra ons
Ambient air, EN 14211:2012. The standard procedure for using
chemiluminescence to measure the concentra ons of nitrogen dioxide and
nitrogen monoxide
14626:2012: Air quality, ambient. Standard technique for using non‐dispersive
infrared spectroscopy to measure carbon monoxide concentra ons
Quality of ambient air EN 14625:2012. Standard technique for using ultraviolet
photometry to measure the concentra on of ozone
Ambient air, EN 12341:2014. Standard gravimetric measurement technique for
figuring out the mass concentra ons of suspended par culate ma er (PM2.5
or PM10)
Quality of ambient air EN 14662:2005. Standard procedure for calcula ng
concentra ons of benzene. Pumped sampling, followed by gas
chromatography and heat desorp on [3]

3)‐11 ch 2 A Comprehensive Review on the Indoor Air Pollu on Problem, Challenges, and Cri cal
Viewpoints, David Galán Madruga,2022
2.5.4 Not‐Normalized Monitoring Methods
They commercially exist “low‐cost” sensors that allow air pollutants
monitoring, being more adapted for indoor environments. Within this group
are included the following methodologies:
• Passive methodology This type of methodology is a useful tool for measuring
air pollutants in the gas eous phase. The founda on of passive methodology
is in concordance with Fick’ First Law. This Law sets a rela on between target
gas with the exposure me and the surface of the passive sampler. It is based
on a phenomenon of mass transference across a gas layer or a membrane.
Therefore, the target gas diffuses from areas of high concentra ons towards
low concentra on areas. As a func on of the dif fusive process, two types of
passive samplers are differen ated, Radiello sampler (the diffusive process
come about all space direc ons) and Ogawa sampler (axial diffusion). More
informa on concerning both passive samplers can be reached in the next links,
h ps://radiello.com/ and h ps://ogawausa.com/passive‐sampler/ .
Advantages sustained by this methodology drive mainly to the light‐weight of
samplers and small size, as well as they do not need calibra on or electric
power; therefore, their implementa on results high easy. Its use has already
been tested in indoor environments for measuring air pollutants, both Radiello
and Ogawa diffusive samplers. Within the passive methodology, the selected
method for assessing the microbio logical level in the inside air varies as a
func on of the target building and on who inhabit those buildings, among
other factors (h ps://asm.org/ASM/media/docs/Iaq. pdf, page 7, accessed on
July 15, 2021). Nonetheless, a habitual technique is based on the se le plate
method using open Petri‐dishes containing different culture media [48],
following ISO 14698, which depicts the principles and base methodology for a
formal system for evalua ng and controlling bio‐contamina on, where
cleanroom technology is applied. For fungi, CRBA (Rose Bengal CAF Agar from
Lioflchem) and TSA (Triptych Soy Agar from Merck) for bacteria have been used
as a culture media in 90 mm Petri‐dishes.
• Semiconductor gas sensors
Over the last years, low‐cost sensors are being used, as an alterna ve to the
u liza on of automa c analyzers (normalized methodology). Those
equipments, as an important difference with passive samplers, have the
possibility of monitoring air pollutants both in the gaseous and par culate
phase. Numerous scien fc studies have tested the performance of those
sensors in controlled atmospheres. In this sense, Demanega et al. evaluated
the performance of several mul ‐ and single parameter sensors for measuring
various air pollutants, par culate ma er, carbon dioxide (CO2), and total
vola le organic compounds (TVOCs) [50]. To generate the atmosphere under
target condi ons, they used a controlled chamber. They produced diverse air
pollu on focuses and two thermodynamic states varying temperature and
rela ve humidity. The reached outcomes were mixed. In the case of par culate
ma er, they observed that, despite mean rela ve error (MRE) exceeding 100%
for some sensors, those could be used to detect changes of par culate ma er
concentra on oscilla ng from 0.3 to 2.5 μm. The best MRE, rela ve to the
reference value, reached a factor of two. For CO2, an elevated number of tested
sensors exhibited an adequate performance up to 3′500 ppm (parts per million)
concentra ons resul ng in errors within 25% from the reference (se ng the
best MRE within 3% from the reference). TVOCs sensors displayed a potent
correla on with professional‐grade monitors. Low‐cost sensors have already
been employed for monitoring indoor air pollut ants. A research team
conducted a wide screening monitoring for PM2.5 par cles inside a typical
apartment in Beijing [51]. For achieving that aim, they sited low cost sensors
at 15 inside sites of the apartment and one ambient site (in the balcony). They
observed that predominant sources for releasing PM2.5 par cles had an
out door origin (infltra on) and cooking emissions. The difference in
concentra ons among the rooms had a direct rela onship regarding distances
from emission sources. As a limi ng factor, it is necessary to highlight that the
normalized techniques need in situ power supply and they are heavy, complex,
and expensive, generate noise, and require highly capacitated technician
personnel. On the other hand, the non‐normalized techniques need to be
validated by means of laboratory tests con ducted by the Na onal Reference
Laboratories at the interna onal level
2.5.5 Ideal Guidelines for indoor environment quality assessments using leed