01 Soil Mechanics

SOIL MECHANICS
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Transfer building loads to underlying ground.
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Shallow Foundation
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Deep Foundation
• mostly for weak soils or heavy loads
weak soil
bed rock
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Deep Foundations - Piles
Izmir - Turkey
Izmir -Turkey
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Retaining Walls
• retain soils from spreading laterally
Izmir- Turkey
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Dams
Atatürk Dam Sanliurfa-Turkey
Deriner Dam Artvin-Turkey Hoover Dam Nevada-Arizona ,USA
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Earthworks
Typical earthworks include preparing the ground for;
• Roads
• Railway
• Causeways
• Dams
• Levees
• Canals etc…
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Soil Nailing
• Steel rods placed into holes drilled
into the walls and grouted.
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Sheet Piles
 sheets of interlocking steel driven into
sheet pile
the ground, forming a continuous sheet
 resist lateral earth pressures
 used in excavations, waterfront
structures
10
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Sheet Piles
From Izmir-Turkey
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Shoring
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Tunneling
Izmir-Turkey
Bolu-Turkey
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Ground Improvement - Stone Column
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Ground Improvement - Dynamic
Compaction
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Ground Improvement - Geotextile
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SOIL CHARATERICTIC
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Rock Cycles
Soils The final products

due to weathering are
soils
(Das, 1998)
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Bowen’s Reaction Series
• The
reaction series are similar to the
weathering stability series.
More stable
Higher weathering
resistance
(Das, 1998)
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DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is a natural body comprised of minerals and organic matter, liquid,

and gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is
characterized by one or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that
are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions,
losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability
to support rooted plants in a natural environment.
Soil is formed over a long period of time.

 The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time.
 It can take 1000 years or more.
 Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals.
 The surface rocks break down into smaller pieces through a process
of weathering and is then mixed with moss and organic matter.
Bina Nusantara iyte.edu.tr

SOIL FORMATION
Weathering is the process of the breaking down rocks.
 There are two different types of weathering.
 Physical weathering and chemical weathering.
In physical weathering it breaks down the rocks,

but what it's made of stays the same.
In chemical weathering it still breaks down the
rocks, but it may change what it's made of.
STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3
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SOIL PROFILE
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SOIL PROFILE
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SOIL TYPES
SOIL TYPES
 RESIDUAL SOIL
 SEDIMENT SOIL
 ALLUVIUM SOIL
 LACUSTRINE SOIL
 MARINE SOIL
 PARTICULAR SOIL
 EXPANSIVE SOIL
 ORGANIC SOIL
 COLLAPSIBLE SOIL
 QUICK CLAY
BASIC CHARACTERISTIC
• PARTICLE BONDING
THE PARTICLE BONDING IS VERY WEAK SO RELATIVELY
EASY TO GOING TO CHANGE AND HAVE NON-LINEAR
BEHAVIOUR AND CHARACTERISTIC
• SHAPE, SIZE AND STRUCTURE OF SOIL

PARTICLE
• Cohesive Soil
• Non-cohesive Soil

LOOSE SAND DENSE SAND
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION
TYPE OF CLASSIFICATION:
 CLASSIFICATION BY VISUAL
 AASHTO
 UCS
SOIL TESTS
 ATTERBERG LIMIT
 SIEVE ANALYSIS
 HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
CLASSIFICATION BY VISUAL
Carried out by direct observation (visual

examination) to the sample and approximate the
type of soil by:
 Colour
 Smell
 Sense/Feeling
 Endurance
 Swelling
 Sedimentation

Atterberg Limit Tests
Liquid Limit: Plastic Limit:
The liquid limit is the water The plastic limit is determined
content at which a soil changes by rolling out a thread of the fine
from plastic to liquid behavior. portion of a soil on a flat, non-
porous surface.
Casagrande Device
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Atterberg Limit
Cohesive Soil
Base on water content
Consistency Limit : Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and
Shrinkage Limit
Volume
Plasticity Index
PI
Solid Semi Plastic Liquid

Solid
Water content
SL PL LL
LIQUID LIMIT (LL)
The liquid limit is that moisture content at which

a soil changes from the liquid state to the plastic
state.
It along with the plastic limit provides a means of
soil classification as well as being useful in
determining other soil properties
Two main methods to determine the liquid limit :
 Cone Pentrometer Method
• Casagrande Method
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
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SAMPLE PREPARATION :
 Any coarse particles present need to be removed, by hand or by wet
sieving (coarse particles are defined as any particles retained on a 425
micron sieve).
 Next a representative sample is required weighing around 200g.
 This sample should be cut into small pieces using a knife or shredder
and any coarse particles removed with tweezers.
 Then the sample is transferred to a flat glass plate, distilled water is
added and the soil and water are mixed thoroughly with two palette
knives until the mass becomes a thick homogenous paste.
 The paste is then transferred to an air tight container for 24 hrs to allow
the water time to penetrate the soil fully.
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TESTING PROCEDURES:
• Push a portion of the sample into the cup with a palette knife taking care not to trap
air, strike off the excess and with the straight edge to get a smooth and level
surface.
• With the penetration cone raised and locked lower the supporting assembly so that
the tip of the cone just touches the surface of the soil in the cup.
• When the cone is in position a slight movement of the cup will mark the surface.
• Lower the stem of the dial gauge so that it comes into contact with the cone shaft
and gives a reading, record the reading to the nearest 0.1mm.
• Release the cone for a period of 5s (plus or minus 1s) if the apparatus is not fitted
with an automatic release and locking device take care not to jar the apparatus
during the procedure. After 5s the cone should have, to some extent, penetrated
the smooth surface of the soil, lock the cone in this new, lower, position and lower
the stem of the dial gauge again so that it just comes into contact with the cone
shaft, record this new reading to the nearest 0.1mm Lift out the cone and clean it
carefully, to avoid scratching, then add a little more wet soil and repeat the test.
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Notes:
If the difference between the first and second
penetration readings is less than 0.5mm record
the average of the two penetrations.
If the second penetration is more than 0.5mm
and less than 1mm from the first, carry out a
third test.
If the overall range is then not more than 1mm
record the average of the three penetrations. If
the overall range is more than 1mm remove the
soil from the cup, remix and repeat until
consistent results are obtained.
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TESTING PROCEDURES (continued):

 Take a moisture content sample of about 10g from the cup around
the area penetrated by the cone.
 Repeat the test at least three more times using the same sample of
soil - to which further increments of distilled water have been added.
Proceeding from the drier state to the wetter. The amount of water
added shall be such that a range of penetration values of
approximately 15-25mm is covered by four or more test runs and is
evenly distributed.
 Each time the soil is removed from the cup for the addition of water
the cup and cone must be thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left
for any length of time it should be covered with a damp cloth to
prevent it drying out.
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Result
• Calculate the moisture content of each test sample,
• plot the relationship between the moisture content and the
corresponding cone penetration recorded on a linear chart, with
the percentage moisture content as ordinates on the linear scale
and the number of bumps on the opposite scale,
• draw a line of best fit between the points.
• From the curve read off the moisture content corresponding to a
cone penetration of 20mm to the first decimal place,
• express this moisture content to the nearest whole number and
report it as the liquid limit.
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Example of
Typical Result
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
• Per definition as water content at 25 blows
METHOD A :
MULTI-POINT

CASAGRANDE METHOD
METHOD B :
SINGLE-POINT
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
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PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)
• Plastic behaviour
• The test is done by rolling up the
soil sample to 3.2 mm diameter
• Defined as the water content, in
percent, at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 1/8 in (3.2mm) in
diameter.

SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL)
Test Standard : ASTM D 427

Defined as the moisture
content, in percent, at which the
volume of soil mass ceases to
change
WS <<<  easy to have volume
change

CONSISTENCY RELATIONSHIP
• Plasticity Index (PI)

PI = LL - PL
• Liquidity Index (LI)
ω  PL
LI 
LL  PL
• Consistency Index (CI)
LL  
CI 
LL  PL

CONSISTENCY RELATIONSHIP
• Activity (A)
PI
A
%clay _ fraction
A < 0.75  non-active clay

0.75 A<1.25  normal clay
A 1.25  active clay
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Grain Size Tests: Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis is used to
assess the particle size
distribution of a granular
material.
A sieve analysis can be

performed on any type of non-
organic or organic granular
materials including sands,
crushed rock, clays, granite,
feldspars, coal, soil, a wide
range of manufactured
powders, grain and seeds,
down to a minimum size
depending on the exact
method.
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Sieve Analysis
• Test Standard
ASTM D422, AASHTO T88
• The testing should be
only carried out once for
one sample

Curve of Particle Size Distribution
D60 D30 2
CU  CC 
D10 D10 .D60
Grain Size Tests: Hydrometer Tests
The hydrometer test is used to determine grain size distribution
smaller than #200 sieve.
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Hydrometer Analysis
Used to extend the distribution curve of
particle shape and to predict the particle
size less than 200 sieve
Principle of work : sedimentation of soil
particle in water
Assumption : All particle have rounded
shape
Stoke rule is valid :
 
V: termal velocity
s   w D 2 γ : unit weight of sphere

s
v
γ : unit weight of liquid
w
η: the viscosity
18 D: diameter of sphere

Water Content Test
Water content or moisture
content is the quantity
of water contained in a
soil rock, ceramics, fruit,
or wood.
i.e. generally drying sample
in an oven set at 105oC for 24
hours
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Specific Gravity Test
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a stated
temperature to the mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at
a stated temperature.
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Oedometer Test
• The standard oedometer test is a
classical laboratory test that
allows characterizing the soil
stress-strain behavior during one-
dimensional compression or
swelling.
• Carried out on saturated soil

specimens, this test can be used
to determine consolidation and
swelling parameters.
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BASIC OF CLASSIFICATION
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AASHTO
• The soil classified into 7 major categories (A-1 to A-7)
• Based on:
• The result of Sieve Analysis
• Atterberg Limits
• The soil quality based on Group Index Calculation
Plasticity Index for sub

group A-7-5  LL minus 30.
Plasticity Index for sub
group A-7-6 > LL minus 30

AASHTO
GROUP INDEX
GI  ( F  35){0.2  0.005( LL  40)}  0.01( F  15)(PI 10)
F = The percentage of soil pass sieve no. 200
Subgrade Group Index Value

Very good Soil Class A-1-a (0)
Good 0–1
Medium 2–4
Bad 5–9
Very Bad 10 - 20

AASHTO
GROUP INDEX
Rules:
• If GI < 0, GI = 0
• GI  Integer Number
• No upper limit of GI
• For coarse grained,
• GI = 0 for A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3
• GI =0,01(F-15)(PI-10) for A-2-6 and A-2-7

AASHTO

AASHTO Make examination of soil to determine whether it
is granular or silt clay materials
Determine amount passing No. 200 sieve
PROCEDURE
Granular Materials Silt-Clay Materials
35% or less pass No. 200 sieve 36% or more pass No. 200 sieve
Run LL and PL on minus No.

40 sieve material
A-2
Less than 25% Silt Clay
Less than 35%
pass No. 200 sieve PI less than 10 PI greater than 11
pass No. 200 sieve
Run sieve analysis, also LL

Run LL and PL on minus No.
and PL on minus No. 40
40 sieve material
sieve material
A-1 A-7
Greater than 50% Silty Clayey LL less LL greater LL less
Less than 50% LL greater
pass No. 40 sieve PI less than 10 PI greater than 11 than 40 than 41 than 40
pass No. 40 sieve than 41
Less than 15% PI equal to or less

Less than 25% LL less LL greater LL less LL greater PI greater than LL
pass No. 200 sieve than LL minus 30
pass No. 200 sieve Less than 10% than 40 than 41 than 40 than 41 minus 30
Less than 30% or
Less than 50% pass No. 200 sieve or
pass No. 40 sieve PL equal to or
pass No. 40 sieve PL less than 30
Less than 50% greater than 30
Nonplastic
pass No. 10 sieve
PI less than 6
PI less than 6
A-1-a A-1-b A-3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5 A-7-6
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AASHTO
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USCS
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
• Soil classification determined base on the soil
parameter i.e.:
• Diameter of soil particle

 Gravel : pass sieve no.3 but retained at sieve no. 4
 Sand : pass sieve no. 4 but retained at sieve no. 200
 Silt and Clay : pass sieve no. 200
• Coefficient of soil uniform

• Atterberg Limits

USCS
Soil Type Prefix Sub-group Suffix
• Notation Well Graded W
• G = Gravel Gravel G Poor Graded P
Sand S Silty M
• M = Inorganic Silt
Clayey C
• C = inorganic Clay Silt M
• O = Organic Silt or Clay Clay C LL < 50% L

Organic O LL > 50% H
• W = Well Graded
Peat Pt
• P = Poorly Graded
• L = Low Plasticity
• H = High Plasticity

USCS
Steps of determination
Determine the soil particle by count the
percentage of soil pass sieve no. 200.
If the percentage less than 50% so the soil is
classified as coarse grained.
Determine the percentage of soil pass sieve no. 4
and retained at sieve no. 200.
If the percentage less than a half of the percentage
of coarse material, the soil is classified as gravelly
soil

THE FLOW CHART OF USCS METHOD
Make visual examination of soil to determine

whether it is HIGHLY ORGANIC, COARSE
GRAINED, or FINE GRAINED, ini borderline
cases determine amount passing No. 200 sieve
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOIL (Pt)

Fibrous texture, color, odor, very high COARSED GRAINED FINE GRAINED
moisture content, particle of vegetable 50% or less pass No.200 sieve More than 50% pass No.200 sieve
matter (sticks, leaves, etc.)
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FLOWCHART OF USCS
METHOD (CONTINUED)
COARSED GRAINED
50% or less pass No.200 sieve
Run sieve analysis
GRAVEL (G) SAND (S)

Greater percentage of coarse Greater percentage of coarse
fraction retained on No. 4 sieve fraction pass on No. 4 sieve
Less than 5% more than 12% Less than 5% more than 12%
Between 5% and 12% Between 5% and 12%
pass No. 200 pass No. 200 pass No. 200 pass No. 200
pass No. 200 sieve pass No. 200 sieve
sieve * sieve sieve * sieve
Run LL and PL on Run LL and PL on

Examine grain size Borderline. to have double Examine grain size Borderline. to have double
minus No. 40 minus No. 40
curve symbol appropriate to grading curve symbol appropriate to grading
sieve fraction sieve fraction
and plasticity characteristic, and plasticity characteristic,
e.g. GW-GM e.g. GW-GM
Well Poorly Below A line and Limits plot in Above A line and Well Poorly Below A line and Limits plot in Above A line and
Graded Graded hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on Graded Graded hatched zone on hatched zone on hatched zone on
plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart
GW GP GM GM-GC GC SW SP SM SM-SC SC
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FLOWCHART USCS
METHOD (CONTINUED)
FINE GRAINED
More than 50% pass
No.200 sieve
Run LL and PL on minus No.40

sieve material
L H
Liquid Limit Liquid Limit
less than 50 more than 50
Limits plot in hatched

Below A line and hatched Above A line and hatched Below A line on Above A line on
zone on plasticity
zone on plasticity chart zone on plasticity chart plasticity chart plasticity chart
chart
Color, odor, possibly LL Color, odor, possibly LL

and PL on oven dry soil and PL on oven dry soil
Organic Inorganic Inorganic Organic
OL ML ML-CL CL MH OH CH

USCS
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USCS

COMPARISON OF AASHTO AND USCS
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EXAMPLE
RESULT OF ANALYSIS AND ATTERBERG LIMIT
- GROSS WEIGHT OF SAMPLE = 1000 GRAM
Sieve Size Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3
No. 4 990 gram 970 gram 1000 gram
LL 20 - 124
PL 15 - 47
PI 5 NP 77
Sieve Size Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3
No. 4 99 % 97 % 100 %
No. 10 92 % 90 % 100 %
No. 40 86 % 40 % 100 %
No. 100 78 % 8% 99 %
No. 200 60 % 5% 97 %
LL 20 - 124
PL 15 - 47
PI 5 NP 77

Direct Shear Test
• For any soil Cohesion (C) and Angle of
Internal Friction (Ø) are two important
engineering properties, which indicate
the shear strength of soil. These two
parameters are required for design of
slopes, calculation bearing capacity of
any strata, calculation of consolidation
parameters and in many other
analyses. Direct shear test is used to
predict these parameters quickly,
especially in cohesionless soils
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Triaxial Test
Measures shear strength
parameters of soil
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California Bearing Ratio Test
The primary purpose of the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
test is to determine the
bearing capacity anf the
mechanical strenght of road
sub-bases and subgrades.
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Penetrometer Test
Penetrometers are used to

determine the resistance to
penetration (bearing
capacity) of a soil.
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Suction of Soil Test
Soil suction in practical
terms is a measure of the
relationship of soil to
retain water and can
provide information on soil
parameters that are
influenced by the soil water;
for example, volume
change, deformation, and
strength characteristics of
the soil.
Tensiometers
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Permeability Tests
Soil permeability is a measurement of the rate
water moves through soil.
There are several methods used to measure
and quantify soil permeability.
1-) Constant Head Permeability Test
2-) Falling Head Permeability Test
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Permeability
Water
Loose Soil Dense Soil -
- HighPermeability - Low Permeability
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FIELD TESTS
 Field Exploration - Drilling
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
 Seismic Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
 Vane Shear Test (VST)
 Dilatometer Test (DMT)
 Pressure Meter Test (PMT)
 Direct Push Permeability Test
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FIELD EXPLORATION – DRILLING
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Standart Penetration Test (SPT)
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Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
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Seismic Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
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Vane Shear Test (VST)
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Dilatometer Test (DMT)
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SOIL COMPACTION
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INTRODUCTION
Soil compaction is defined as the method of
mechanically increasing the density of soil. In
construction, this is a significant part of the building
process. If performed improperly, settlement of the
soil could occur and result in unnecessary
maintenance costs or structure failure
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SOIL COMPACTION
• PURPOSE
Improving the soil quality by:
 Increasing the shear strength of soil
 Improving the bearing capacity of
soil
Reduces the settling of soil
Reduces the soil permeability
To control the relative
volume change

TYPES OF COMPACTION
Four types of compaction effort on soil :
Vibration
Impact
Kneading (yoğurma in TR)
Pressure
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SOIL COMPACTION
• BASIC THEORY
Developed by R.R. Proctor at 1920-an with 4 variables :
• Compaction efforts (Compaction Energy)
• Soil types
• Water content
• Dry Unit Weight
• LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST
• Standard Proctor Test
• Modification Proctor Test
• Dietert Compaction
• Harvard Miniatur Compaction

STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
• The soil is compacted at cylindrical
tube
• Specification of test and equipments
• Hammer weight = 2,5 kg (5,5 lb)
• Falling height = 1 ft
• Amount of layers =3
• No. of blows/layer = 25
• Compaction effort = 595 kJ/m3
• Soil type = pass sieve no. 4
• The test is carried out several time with
different water content
• After compacted, the weight, moisture
content and unit weight of samples are
measured
• Test Standard :
• AASHTO T 99
• ASTM D698

MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
• The soil is compacted at

cylindrical tube
• Specification of test and
equipments
– Hammer weight = 4.5 kg (10 lb)
– Falling height = 1.5 ft
– Amount of layers =5
– No. of blows/layer = 25, 56
– Compaction effort = 2693 kJ/m3
– Soil type = pass sieve no. 4
• The test is carried out several time
with different water content
• After compacted, the weight,
moisture content and unit weight
of samples are measured
• Test Standard :
– AASHTO T 180
– ASTM D1557

TEST RESULT
 w .GS .S
d 
S  GS .
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DIETERT COMPACTION
• Principle of work:
Impact Compaction is acted like
Proctor Test
• The size of soil particle:
Pass sieve 2 mm
• The falling height is more constant
 reproducible
• To get the approximation of
compaction characteristic of less
soil sample
• Purpose for other soil testing such
as unconfined compression test

HARVARD MINIATUR COMPACTION
• Principle of work :
Sheepfoot roller compactor
the act of kneading on the ground
• Spring Load Tamper :
Spring 40 lb
• The size of soil particle:
pass sive 2 mm
• Compaction in 3 layers with 25
pressures per layer

FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
• Smooth Wheel Roller :
compaction equipment which
supplies 100% coverage under
the wheel, with ground contact
pressures up to 400 kPa and may
be used on all soil types except
rocky soils. Mostly use for
proofrolling subgrades and
compacting asphalt pavements.

FIELD COMPACTION
• Rubber Tire Roller :
A heavily loaded wagon with several
rows of three to six closely spaced
tires with tire pressure may be up to
about 700 kPa and has about 80%
coverage (80% of the total area is
covered by tires).
This equipment may be used for both
granular and cohesive highway fills.

FIELD COMPACTION
• Sheepsfoot Roller :
This roller has many round or
rectangular shaped protrusions or
“feet” attached to a steel drum.
The area of these protusions ranges
from 30 to 80 cm2.
Area coverage is about 8 – 12% with
very high contact pressures ranging
from 1400 to 7000 kPa depending
on the drum size and whether the
drum is filled with water.
The sheepsfoot roller is best suited
for cohesive soils.

FIELD COMPACTION
• Tamping Foot Roller :
This roller similarly to sheepsfoot
roller, which has approximately
40% coverage and generate high
contact pressures from 1400 to
8400 kPa. Tamping foot rollers are
best for compacting fine-grained
soils.

FIELD COMPACTION
• Grid Roller :
This roller has about 50% coverage
and pressures from 1400 to 6200
kPa, ideally suited for compacting
rocky soils, gravels and sand. With
high towing speed, the material is
vibrated, crushed, and impacted.

FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment:
• Baby Roller :
Small type of smooth wheel roller yang,
which has pressure ranges from 10 to 30
kPa. The performance base on static weight
and vibration effect.

FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment:
• Vibrating Plate :
Compaction equipment, which has
plate shape. Usually used for narrow
area and high risk when use large
compaction equipment like smooth
wheel roller etc.

FIELD COMPACTION
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FIELD COMPACTION
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FIELD COMPACTION
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FIELD COMPACTION
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CHARACTERISTIC AND APPLICATION
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CONDITIONER FACTORS
• Characteristic of compaction equipment

• Weight and size
• Operation frequency and frequency range
• Soil Characteristic
• Initial density
• Soil type
• Size and shape of soil particle
• Moisture Content
• Compaction Procedure
• No. of passes of the roller
• Layer thickness
• Frequency of operation of vibrator
• Towing speed
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FIELD COMPACTION CONTROL
• Excavate a hole with certain diameter

and depth. Determine the mass of
excavated material.
• Determine the moisture content
• Measure the volume of excavated
material by:
• Ottawa Sand  Sand cone
• The balloon method
• Pouring water or oil
• Compute the total density,  and d,field
• Compare d, field with d,max and
calculate the relative compaction

SPECIFICATION OF COMPACTION
• End Product Specification

 d ( field )
RC  x100%
 d (max)
• Method of Specification
• Minimum soil sample 100 kg
• Need special experience to find out the optimum
moisture content in order to get optimum
compaction performance
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND CBR
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND CBR
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SOIL INVESTIGATION
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SOIL INVESTIGATION AND LABORATORY TESTS
SOIL INVESTIGATION
LABORATORY TESTINGS
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS
CPT AND N-SPT VALUE
BETWEEN SOIL PARAMETER

SOIL INVESTIGATION
• PURPOSE
• To describe the soil condition and its stratification (tabakalaşma).
• To get the soil sample for laboratory testing
• undisturbed sample
• disturbed sample
• To find out the ground water level
• To get the soil properties directly
• In-situ Test (Yerinde Test)

SOIL INVESTIGATION
• STAGES
• Site Inspection
• Initial Investigation
• Cone Penetration Test (Sondir)
• Advance Investigation (detail)
• Boring and sampling
• Standard Penetration Test
• Pressuremeter
• Dilatometer
• Additional Investigation

SOIL INVESTIGATION
• DEPTH OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

• Shallow Foundation : 3 x Foundation width (min. 9m)
• Raft Foundation : 2 x Foundation width
• Pile Foundation : 2 x Pile width (measured from pile tip)
• Pile + Raft Foundation : 2 x building width
• Retaining Earth Structure : 0.7 x cutting width or 1 x cutting height (take
the biggest)
• Soil Embankment : 2 x embankment width

SOIL INVESTIGATION
• NO. OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

• Initial Investigation :
• Normal Soil : every 100 to 200 m
• Soft Soil : every 50 to 100 m
• Detail Investigation :
• Square structure : every 15 to 25 m
• Strip structure : every 25 to 50 m
• At the important side of the structure, the number of soil investigation
can be increased

BORING INVESTIGATION (sondaj)
• AUGER BORING
• WASH BORING
• CORE DRILLING
• TEST PIT

BORING INVESTIGATION
• AUGER BORING
• Carried out by pushing and rotating the auger into soil
• Limited application, only suitable for shallow foundation
• Not suitable for boring under ground water table
• Simple, easy to operate and minimum disturbance to soil

• WASH BORING
• Use rotary bore machine
• Soil dig and washed by water circulation
• Can not used for soil identification
• Less suitable for rock boring
• Suitable for all type of soil
• Very suitable for soft soil
• Disturbance to soil structure is minimum

• CORE DRILLING
• Use rotary bore machine
• Single tube without water circulation
• Double or triple tube with water circulation
• Can use for rock
• Can identify soil directly
• Not suitable for boring of soft soil
• Can make a disturbance soil structure

• TEST PIT
• Carried by excavated soil manually
• For shallow depth
• Difficult to apply to soil with high water level
• Very simple and relative cheap
• Identification can be done directly by visual.
• Large number of soil sample

SAMPLING METHOD
• UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLING

• Sampling Technique
• Sensitive and soft to very soft clay or silt 
thin wall tube + piston
• Soft to medium stiff clay or silt  shelby
thin wall tube sampler
• Hard to very hard clay or silt  thick wall
tube sampler or Denison or Pitcher
samplers

THIN WALL and PISTON SAMPLER

THICK WALL and DENISON SAMPLER

SOIL SAMPLER TUBE (ASTM D1587)

SAMPLING METHOD
• UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE
• Storage Technique/Sample treatment

• The tube shall be covered by paraffin candle
• Storage at cool place and at vertical position
• Shall be labeled to facilitate soil identification
• The tube shall be folded by foam during transportation
• The laboratory tests shall be carried out as soon as possible

SAMPLING METHOD
• DISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE

• Sampling Technique and Sample Treatment
• Can get from core drilling or SPT tube
• Shall be folded by plastic and storage at cool place
• Shall be labeled to facilitate soil identification
• Usually use for fill material

INSITU TEST
• BASIC AND SIMPLE INSITU TEST

• Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
• Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
• INSITU TEST for DIRECT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
• Field vane shear test  Soil Strength
• Pressuremeter Test/Lateral Load Test (LLT)  Soil Deformation
• Flat Dilatometer Test  Soil Deformation
• Plate Bearing Test  Strength and Deformation of Soil

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
• PRINCIPLE OF WORK
Carried out by punching the standard tube to
bore hole using free fall 63.5 kg hammer from
760mm height. The number of blows required
for spoon penetration of three 150mm. The
number of blow counted at the last of 300mm
penetration.
• RULES
• Dimension of SPT tube according to ASTM D1586
• The hammer type is conventional or automatic
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
• ADVANTAGES
• Could be used to identify soil types visually
• Could be used to get qualitative soil properties by empirical
correlation
• LIMITATION
• The soil strength profile can not be measured continuously
• The high accuracy is needed during investigation in case of weight
and falling height of hammer

SPT HAMMER

DIMENSION OF SPT TUBE

EXAMPLE OF BORING LOG AND SPT
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SPT EXECUTION
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CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)
• TYPE OF PENETROMETER AND PRINCIPLE OF WORK

• Mechanical friction-cone penetrometer
by pushing a cone with projection area 10 cm2 and 60o
angle and standard velocity 20 mm per-second.
2 measurement parameters each 20 cm of depth:
• Cone Resistance (qc)
• Local Friction (fs)
• Electric friction-cone penetrometer
measure the cone pressure and continuously friction with better
accuracy level

CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)
• ADVANTAGES
• Continuous Soil strength profile
• Give fast description of soil
• Simple
• LIMITATIONS
• Bad accuracy for soil with some stones
• Mechanical friction-cone penetrometer is less sensitive when
applied in very soft clay

CPT CONE SIZE (ASTM D 3441)

ELECTRIC FRICTION-CONE PENETROMETER TIP

EXAMPLE OF CPT GRAPH
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FIELD VANE SHEAR TEST (FVT)
• Measure undrained shear strength of soil

• Suitable for very soft clay to medium stiff clay
• Principle of equipment operation : vane pushed and rotated
• The vane shear equation :
T
s fv 
    D 2 H   D 
   x 
 2  x 1  
     
6
10 3 H
• Correlation between vane shear and shear strength of soil

su  .sfv

FIELD VANE SHEAR TEST (FVT)
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PRESSUREMETER TEST (PMT)
• Measure the strength and deformation of soil

• Recommended use for the soil which need elastic settlement
prediction
• Equipment mechanism : expanding the rubber cylinder of water by
using air pressure 2
Soil Types Limit Pressure (kN/m ) EM/pl
Soft clay 50 – 300 10
Firm clay 300 – 800 10
Stiff clay 600 – 2,500 15
Loose silty sand 100 – 500 5
Silt 200 – 1,500 8
Sand and gravel 1,200 – 5,000 7
Till (Tanah liat berbatu) 1,000 – 5,000 8
Old fill 400 – 1,000 12
Recent fill 50 – 300 12
PRESSUREMETER TEST (PMT)
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DILATOMETER TEST (DMT)
• Have similar purpose and

equipment mechanism with
Pressuremeter
• The difference is in the
pressure direction :
• DMT  one direction
• PMT  radial

DILATOMETER TEST (DMT)
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PLATE LOAD TEST
• Measure strength and deformation of soil

• Use to determine bearing capacity of soil and its settlement especially
for shallow foundation
• Work mechanism : push the circle/square plate at the certain depth
with load of 2 – 3x design load until rupture
• Loading influence : 1.5 – 2x plate width
• Relationship to undrained shear strength:
Su = (qu - t.H)/Nc
qu = rupture load
t = unit weight of soil
H = thickness of soil on the sample surface
Nc = bearing capacity factor

GROUND WATER INVESTIGATION
• Purpose:
• Ground water elevation
• Seepage behaviour
• Method:
• Ground water elevation
• Observation at bore hole
• Observation at observation well
(standpipe)
• Measure using piezometer
• Seepage behaviour
• Seepage test at bore hole
• Pump test at bore hole
• Large scale of pump test

PIEZOMETER
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PUMPING TEST

LABORATORY TESTS
• Soil Index (, , e, GS etc.)

• Measurement of soil volume and mass
• Sieve analysis test
• Atterberg test
• Shear Strength (c, )
• Triaxial Test (UU, CU, CD)
• Direct Shear
• Unconfined Compression Test
• Compresibility (Cc, Cv)
Consolidation test
• Permeability (k)
• Constant Head
• Falling Head
EMPIRICAL CORRELATION
• N-SPT value
Sandy Soil Clayey or Silty Soil

N-SPT Value Relative Density N-SPT Value Consistency
0–4 Very loose 0–2 Very soft
4 – 10 Loose 2–4 Soft
10 – 30 Medium 4–8 Medium stiff
30 – 50 Dense 8 – 15 Stiff
> 50 Very dense 15 – 30 Very stiff
> 30 Hard

• CPT value

• Between soil properties

• Cc = 0.009 (LL – 10)
• C = qu/2
• C = (19 – 23) CBR (C in kN/m2)

THANK YOU
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01 Soil Mechanics

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01 Soil Mechanics

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SOIL MECHANICS

• mostly for weak soils or heavy loads

• retain soils from spreading laterally

Deriner Dam Artvin-Turkey Hoover Dam Nevada-Arizona ,USA

Soils The final products

Soil is a natural body comprised of minerals and organic matter, liquid,

Soil is formed over a long period of time.

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In physical weathering it breaks down the rocks,

STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3

• SHAPE, SIZE AND STRUCTURE OF SOIL

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Carried out by direct observation (visual

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Solid Semi Plastic Liquid

The liquid limit is that moisture content at which

TESTING PROCEDURES (continued):

• Per definition as water content at 25 blows

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Test Standard : ASTM D 427

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• Plasticity Index (PI)

• Liquidity Index (LI)

• Consistency Index (CI)

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A < 0.75  non-active clay

A sieve analysis can be

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s   w D 2 γ : unit weight of sphere

18 D: diameter of sphere

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• Carried out on saturated soil

Plasticity Index for sub

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GI  ( F  35){0.2  0.005( LL  40)}  0.01( F  15)(PI 10)

F = The percentage of soil pass sieve no. 200

Subgrade Group Index Value

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Run LL and PL on minus No.

Run sieve analysis, also LL

Less than 15% PI equal to or less

• Diameter of soil particle

• Coefficient of soil uniform

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• O = Organic Silt or Clay Clay C LL < 50% L

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Make visual examination of soil to determine

HIGHLY ORGANIC SOIL (Pt)

Run sieve analysis

GRAVEL (G) SAND (S)

Run LL and PL on Run LL and PL on

Run LL and PL on minus No.40

Limits plot in hatched

Color, odor, possibly LL Color, odor, possibly LL

Organic Inorganic Inorganic Organic

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Sieve Size Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3

No. 4 990 gram 970 gram 1000 gram