An-Najah National University

Department of English Language and Literature

Reading 1 (10306111)
Self-Study Texts

Instructors:
Dr Nabil Alawi, Yousef Abu Zaid, and Yameen Itaiwi (Jabr)
Contents
Text One: Figurative Language: The Art of Expression ................................................................... 1

Text Two: Can you remember things forever? .................................................................................. 4

Text Three: Why do we Touch Strangers so Much? A History of the Handshake Offers Clues ...... 6
Text One:
Figurative Language: The Art of Expression
1. Figurative language is a rich and captivating aspect of human communication. It elevates ordinary
speech and writing by infusing it with creativity, depth, and nuance. At its core, figurative language relies
on the use of words and phrases that deviate from their literal meanings to convey a particular image,
emotion, or idea. In this essay, we will explore the various forms of figurative language, its importance in
literature and everyday communication, and how it enhances our ability to express complex thoughts and
emotions.
2. Figurative language encompasses a wide array of literary devices, each serving a distinct purpose in
communication. Metaphor, perhaps one of the most common forms, draws a parallel between two unrelated
concepts to highlight their shared characteristics. For instance, when we say, "Time is a thief," we employ a
metaphor to convey that time, like a thief, steals moments from our lives. Simile, on the other hand, uses
"like" or "as" to make comparisons more explicitly, as in the phrase, "He was as brave as a lion." Both
metaphors and similes invite readers and listeners to see familiar things in new and imaginative ways.
3. Another essential element of figurative language is personification, which attributes human
characteristics to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. When we say, "The wind whispered through the trees,"
we breathe life into the wind, allowing it to engage in a human-like action—whispering. This device adds
depth and emotion to our descriptions, making them more vivid and relatable.
4. In addition to metaphors, similes, and personification, figurative language encompasses a wide
array of literary devices, each serving a distinct purpose in communication. One such device is hyperbole, a
powerful tool that involves the deliberate exaggeration of a statement for emphasis. When hyperbole is
employed, it magnifies a concept to a degree far beyond reality, aiming to grab the audience's attention and
evoke a strong emotional response. For instance, the phrase "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse" takes hunger
to an extreme level, emphasizing the speaker's ravenous appetite. This form of figurative language enables
writers and speakers to create a vivid impression, making their message more memorable and engaging.
5. Figurative language plays a pivotal role in literature, enabling authors to craft evocative imagery,
convey complex emotions, and engage readers on a deeper level. It allows writers to paint vivid mental
pictures that transport readers to different worlds and times. Literary giants like Shakespeare, with his
masterful use of metaphors and similes, or Emily Dickinson, renowned for her poignant personification,
have left an indelible mark on literature through their skillful application of figurative language. These
devices serve as powerful tools for storytelling, making narratives more engaging and memorable.
6. Beyond literature, figurative language is a vital component of everyday communication. We use it
to express ourselves, adding depth and color to our conversations. A simple "I'm feeling blue" can convey
sadness more poignantly than a straightforward statement of one's emotional state. Figurative language
helps us connect with others on an emotional level, fostering empathy and understanding. It is also essential
in persuasive communication, as it allows us to appeal to people's emotions and beliefs, making our
arguments more compelling.
7. In conclusion, figurative language is a captivating and indispensable aspect of human
communication. It encompasses a wide range of literary devices that enrich our ability to express thoughts
and emotions creatively. From metaphors and similes to personification and hyperbole, figurative language
enhances our writing and speech, making them more engaging and powerful. It serves as a bridge between
the realms of literature and everyday communication, allowing us to connect with others on a deeper level.
In essence, figurative language is not merely a linguistic tool; it is the art of expression that enriches our
lives and interactions.

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Questions:
Question One: Match the following main ideas with the corresponding paragraph number.

Main idea Paragraph number

1. Hyperbole, characterized by exaggeration, grabs attention, evokes emotions,
and leaves a lasting impact on the audience.

2. In everyday communication, figurative language adds depth and emotion,

fosters empathy, and enhances persuasion.

3. Figurative language, including metaphors and similes, offers fresh

perspectives on familiar concepts through creative comparisons.

4. Figurative language is a cornerstone of literature, enabling authors to convey

emotions, create vivid imagery, and engage readers.

5. Personification brings inanimate objects and abstract ideas to life, enhancing

descriptions and making them relatable.

Question Two: Decide whether the following statements are True, False, Not Given according to the
text.

Statement True / False / Not Given

1. Metaphors and similes both use "like" or "as" to create comparisons
between unrelated concepts.
2. Personification involves attributing human characteristics to animate
objects.
3. Hyperbole aims to downplay concepts rather than exaggerate them
for emphasis.
4. Authors like Shakespeare and Emily Dickinson are mentioned in the
text as masters of figurative language.
5. Shakespeare lived at a time when the use of figurative language was
very common.
6. Emily Dickinson is known for her skillful use of personification.
7. Figurative language is exclusively confined to the realm of literature.
8. Figurative language primarily serves to disconnect people from their
emotions.
9. Figurative language enhances our ability to express complex thoughts
and emotions in both literature and everyday communication.
10. Figurative language is mainly useful in storytelling but lacks
relevance in persuasive communication.
11. People who use figurative language in their everyday
communication are creative and articulate.

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Question Three: Choose the correct answer based on the text.
1. What is the primary purpose of figurative language, as mentioned in the text?
a. To disconnect people from their emotions
b. To convey literal meanings in communication
c. To engage readers on a deeper level and express thoughts and emotions creatively
d. To limit the use of literary devices in communication

2. Which literary device in figurative language involves exaggeration for emphasis?

a. Simile
b. Metaphor
c. Personification
d. Hyperbole

3. According to the text, who is known for their skillful use of metaphors and similes?
a. Shakespeare
b. Emily Dickinson
c. Authors of contemporary literature
d. Unknown writers

4. Why are “Shakespeare” and “Emily Dickinson” mentioned in the text?

a. They are literary giants whose writings played a key role in literature.
b. They are examples of authors who skillfully used figurative language in their writings.
b. They painted expressive pictures depicting complex feelings.
c. Their messages were powerful that only readers who think deeply can comprehend.

5. In what areas does figurative language find application, according to the text?
a. Literature only
b. Everyday communication only
c. Literature and everyday communication
d. Figurative language has limited practical use

6. What would be the best alternative title for the text "Figurative Language: The Art of Expression"?
a. "The Influence of Metaphors and Similes in Communication"
b. "Exploring the Depth of Human Expression"
c. "The Limitations of Literal Language"
d. "The Evolution of Figurative Language in Literature"

7. What is the author’s main purpose?

a. To amuse and entertain the reader
b. To argue that people who use figurative language are manipulative
c. To persuade the reader to admire great writers like Shakespeare and Dickinson
d. To discuss and clarify the power of figurative language

8. What is the tone of the passage?

a. Straightforward and factual
b. Sentimental and irritated
c. Boastful and arrogant
d. Critical and disapproving

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Text Two:
Can You Remember Things Forever?

Do you remember everything that you learnt at school? Everybody knows that the human brain
cannot remember everything. (4) _______________________________. We do not have a
complete picture of human memory.

Forgetting is a natural process. In Figure 1, the red line on the graph shows that, within 24 hours of
learning, you have forgotten nearly 80 per cent of the new information. ( ) _______________
__________________. In education, we need to consider how to stop this loss of information.

Research shows that revision is the key. You must take the information out of your memory, use it,
and store it again, several times. Then it will become fixed, and it will stay in your memory for
years. ( ) _______________________________. Mace’s theory was later used to design a new
system of flashcards for learning languages (Leitner, 2003).

In everyday life, we repeat this cycle of retrieval–use–storage without thinking. ( ) ___________

_____________________. You have retrieved that information hundreds of times so you have not
forgotten it. In the field of academic study, the repetition comes from recall. In other words, the
student needs to recall something, so he/she finds the information in their memory, brings it out
and reviews it. Then he/she stores it again. ( ) _______________________________.

( ) _______________________________. Each retrieval should

happen at a longer interval, or gap in time, according to the idea of
‘spaced repetition’ (Mace, 1932). The first review is very important
and should be after only ten minutes. As the blue line on the graph
shows, this review actually increases memory to 100 per cent.
However, if you do not look at the information again, you still forget
nearly everything. ( ) _______________________________.
Review the information again after, say, one day, one month and then
six months (see the green line on the graph). You will then remember
the information forever.

Since the 1960s, new research has indicated that information is

connected in our memory. The connections have two important
features. Firstly, we can retrieve groups of connected ideas more easily
than single ideas. ( ) _______________________________.
Secondly, if you retrieve and store information often, the connections
become stronger. So it is better to spend a short time on retrieval every
few weeks rather than a long time on retrieval every few months.

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Questions:
Question One: Read the text and fill in the gaps in the text with these statements.
1. The need to repeat this process many times was first described in the 1930s by Cecil Mace.
2. After a month, only about ten per cent remains.
3. Note that the same line is at a level of only 20 per cent after six months.
4. However, science has not discovered the exact reason for this.
5. Take, for example, how to ride a bicycle, a very happy event in your life, or the way to your
home.
6. So make connections with other pieces of knowledge when you review information.
7. You must continue to retrieve information if you want to remember it forever.
8. We call this ‘revision.’

Question Two: Mark these statements true (T) or false (F).

a. ( ) Modern scientists understand how human memory works.

b. ( ) Reviewing information helps you remember it.
c. ( ) We review information about our lives without thinking.
d. ( ) A student needs to review the same information every day.
e. ( ) Without review, you will forget about 90 per cent of the information in a month.
f. ( ) It is not possible to remember 100 per cent of information for six months.
g. ( ) You should pay attention to connections between ideas when you study.

Question Three: Mark each sentence below general facts (GF), past facts (PF), predictions
(P), or advice (A).

a. ( ) We do not have a complete picture of human memory.

b. ( ) Then it will become fixed, and it will stay in your
memory for years.
c. ( ) Each retrieval should happen at a longer interval.
d. ( ) The need to repeat this process many times was first
described in the 1930s by Cecil Mace.
e. ( ) You will then remember the information forever.
f. ( ) Make connections with other pieces of knowledge
when you review information.

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Text Three:

Why do we Touch Strangers so Much? A History of the Handshake Offers

Clues
A. There is a lot that can be conveyed in a handshake. Throughout history, such a greeting was
used to signal friendship, finalize a business transaction, or indicate religious devotion.
Touching strangers, however, can also transmit other, less beneficial shared outcomes—like
disease outbreaks. When swine flu became a concern, the French Health Minister advised
against social contacts as the coronavirus cases increased. “The reduction in social contacts of a
physical nature is advised,” he said.

B. A popular theory on the handshake’s origin is that it began as a gesture of peace. Grasping
hands proved one was not holding a weapon—and shaking them was a way to ensure a partner
had nothing hiding up their sleeve. So far, there has not been any reliable evidence to prove this
assumption. Throughout the ancient world, the handshake appears on vases, gravestones, and
stone slabs in scenes of weddings, young warriors departing for war, and the newly dead’s
arrival to the afterlife.

C. The handshake’s catch-all utility, used in friendship, romance, and business alike, makes
interpretation difficult. “The handshake continues to be a popular image today because we too
see it as a complex and ambiguous motif,” writes art historian Glenys Davies in an analysis of
its use in classical art.

D. In America, it is likely that the handshake’s popularity was propelled by 18th century Quakers.
In their efforts to eschew the hierarchy and social rank, they found the handshake a more
democratic form of greeting to the then-common bow, curtsy, or hat doffing. “In their place,
Quakers put the practice of the handshake, extended to everyone regardless of station, as we
still do,” writes historian Michael Zuckerman.

E. There may be a scientific explanation for its lasting power. In a 2015 study, some researchers
filmed handshakes between hundreds of strangers and found nearly a quarter of participants
sniffed their hands afterwards. They theorized that a handshake might be unconsciously used to
detect chemical signals, and possibly as a means of communication—just as other animals do
by smelling each other.

F. In her book Don’t Look, Don’t Touch, behavioural scientist Val Curtis of the London School of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, says that one possible reason for the kiss and handshake as a
greeting is to signify that the other person is trusted enough to share germs with. Because of
this, the practice can go in and out of style depending on public health concerns.

G. In a 1929 study, a nurse named Leila Given wrote an article in the American Journal of Nursing
lamenting the loss of the last generation’s “finger-tipping and the high handshake” customs in
favour of a handshake. She warned that hands “are agents of bacterial transfer” and cited early
studies showing that a handshake could easily spread germs. In conclusion, she recommended
that Americans adopt the Chinese custom at the time of shaking one’s own hands together when
greeting a friend. “At least our bacteria would then stay at home,” she wrote.

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Questions:
Question One: Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text,
choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT GIVEN if there is
no information on this.
1. ( ) Evidence showed that the handshake started as a sign of peace.
2. ( ) When shaking hands, people often rolled up their sleeves.
3. ( ) In America, handshakes became prevalent because they represented equality and
freedom.
4. ( ) A research conducted in 2015 showed that exactly 25% of participants smelled their
hands after a handshake.
5. ( ) People often smell their hands to spot poisonous chemicals.

Question Two: Complete the summary below. Choose no more than THREE WORDS from
the passage for each answer.

The handshake, as a form of (1)________________, has a lengthy history and has been used to
signify friendship, close economic deals, and show religious piety. However, it can also transmit
(2)________________ and spread germs. There is disagreement on the handshake's beginnings;
however, some theories suggest that it started as a sign of (3)________________. It can be
(4)________________ to comprehend the handshake because of its versatility. The handshake
might have gained popularity in America thanks to (5) ________________who saw it as a more
(6)________________ manner of greeting in the 18th century. After a handshake, roughly a
quarter of participants in a 2015 study (7)__________________, raising the possibility that this is
an unconscious method of identifying (8)__________________ and communication. According to
behavioral scientist Val Curtis, greetings such as a kiss and handshake signify trustworthiness to
(9)___________________. Depending on concerns for public health, the practice may change.

Question Three: Choose the correct answer based on the text.

1. What are some of the purposes historically served by greetings like handshakes, kisses, and
hugs as mentioned in the text?
a. Expressing surprise and excitement
b. Promoting social distancing
c. Demonstrating religious commitment and indicating friendliness
d. Demonstrating authority and dominance

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2. According to the French Health Minister, why did they advise reducing physical social contacts
during the swine flu outbreak?
a. To promote more expressive and affectionate greetings
b. To stop the spread of disease
c. To encourage traditional customs
d. To increase business transactions

3. According to the text, why is the interpretation of the handshake difficult?

a. Because it is widely used in different social contexts
b. Because it has a single, universally accepted meaning
c. Because it is no longer used in modern society
d. Because it is a recent invention in human culture

4. Why does the practice of handshakes go in and out of style, according to Val Curtis in the text?
a. It depends on the weather
b. It is a random cultural trend
c. It is entirely dependent on personal preference
d. It is influenced by public health concerns and trust

5. What alternative greeting custom did Nurse Leila Given recommend in the text to reduce the
spread of germs?
a. Embracing and kissing on the cheeks
b. Shaking hands more firmly
c. Bowing to each other
d. Shaking one's own hands together