GENERAL LINGUISTICS

for Master Students

SEMINARS ONE-TWO

Study questions and tasks (to be done in writing)

1. Compare the speculations on words by well-known novelists, essayists, and

philosophers given below. What functions of language do they highlight?
Give your reasoning. Comment on theoretical and applied aspects of
Linguistics.

Worry about words, Bobby. Your grandmother is right. For, whatever else you may
do, you will be using words always. All day, and every day, words matter. Though
you live in a barrel and speak to nobody but yourself, words matter. For words are
the tools of thought, and you will find often that you are thinking badly because you
are using the wrong tools, trying to bore a hole with a screwdriver, or draw a cork
with a coal-hammer.
(A.P. Herbert, What a Word! Methuen, 1935)

 In this passage by A.P. Herbert, the author emphasizes the significance of

words and their role in human thought and communication. Several functions
of language are highlighted in this passage:
o Tools of Thought: The author describes words as "the tools of thought."
This highlights the cognitive function of language, suggesting that
language is not merely a means of communication but a fundamental
tool for thinking and processing information.
o Communication: The passage acknowledges that words matter even if
one lives in isolation. This underscores the communicative function of
language.
o Metaphorical Expression: The use of metaphors like "trying to bore a
hole with a screwdriver" or "draw a cork with a coal-hammer" illustrates
the creative and metaphorical function of language. Metaphors can help
convey complex ideas or emotions by drawing comparisons to familiar
experiences.
 From a theoretical perspective in linguistics, this passage aligns with several
linguistic concepts:
o Semantics: It emphasizes the importance of word choice and how words
convey meaning.
 o Pragmatics: The passage indirectly refers to the pragmatic aspect of
language, as it highlights that using the "wrong tools" can lead to
ineffective communication
o Cognitive Linguistics: The idea that words are tools of thought aligns
with the cognitive linguistic perspective
 From an applied perspective, this passage reminds us of the practical
implications of linguistics in everyday life.

Words are the works of art that make possible science.

Words are the abstractions that make possible poetry.
Words signify man's refusal to accept the world as it is.
With words man has been able to create a world, and it is fitting that the author of
Genesis should have proposed that the world of sense experience, too, was created with
words.
(Walter Kaufmann, Critique of Religion and Philosophy, 1958)

 It highlights the multifaceted and powerful role of words in various aspects of

human experience, including science, poetry, philosophy, and the creation of
the world.
 From a theoretical perspective in linguistics, this passage touches upon various
linguistic concepts:
o Semiotics: The passage emphasizes the symbolic nature of words, which
is a central concept in semiotics.
o Pragmatics: It suggests that words have pragmatic functions beyond
mere communication, as they play a role in shaping our perception of
reality and our philosophical inquiries.
 From an applied perspective, this passage underscores the profound influence
of language on human thought, culture, and creativity. It highlights the
importance of language in fields as diverse as science, literature, philosophy,
and theology.

The "engaged" writer knows that words are action. . . . He knows that words, as
Brice-Parain* says, are "loaded pistols." If he speaks, he fires.
(Jean-Paul Sartre, "What Is Writing?" What Is Literature? and Other Essays,
1966)
 It emphasizes the notion that words are not passive tools of communication but
active instruments that can have a profound impact. The passage highlights the
dynamic and transformative functions of language:
 o Words as Action: Sartre suggests that an "engaged" writer recognizes
that words are a form of action.
o The metaphor that "words are 'loaded pistols'" implies that words carry
power and potential consequences.
 From a theoretical perspective in linguistics:
o Pragmatics: The passage reflects the pragmatic aspect of language,
emphasizing that words have real-world effects and can lead to action.
 From an applied perspective:
o The passage highlights the importance of understanding rhetoric and
persuasion in language use.
o The metaphor of words as "loaded pistols" raises ethical considerations
regarding the responsible use of language. It prompts us to consider the
potential harm that words can cause and encourages ethical reflection in
communication.
o The idea that words are action has significant implications for fields
such as journalism, politics, and activism.

I am, by calling, a dealer in words; and words are, of course, the most powerful
drug used by mankind. Not only do words infect, ergotise, narcotise, and
paralyse, but they enter into and colour the minutest cells of the brain, very much
as madder mixed with a stag's food at the Zoo colours the growth of the animal's
antlers. Moreover, in the case of the human animal, that acquired tint, or taint, is
transmissible.
(Rudyard Kipling, speech to a gathering of surgeons, delivered on February 14,
1923)
 It underscores the idea that words are potent and influential tools that can
have a profound impact on individuals and society.
 From a theoretical perspective in linguistics:
o Psycholinguistics: The passage touches on the psychological aspects
of language, highlighting how words can affect cognition and
behavior.
o Sociolinguistics: The notion that words can be transmissible suggests
a sociolinguistic perspective, as it implies that language plays a role
in shaping culture and society.
 From an applied perspective:
o Media and Communication: The passage underscores the importance
of responsible and ethical communication.
 o Education: The passage emphasizes the role of education in teaching
individuals how to critically evaluate and respond to the words they
encounter.

Words, as is well known, are the great foes of reality. . . . To a teacher of

languages there comes a time when the world is but a place of many words and
man appears a mere talking animal, not much more wonderful than a parrot.
(Joseph Conrad, Under Western Eyes, 1911)
 It touches on the idea that language, while a powerful tool of
communication, can also distance us from the direct experience of reality.
 From a theoretical perspective in linguistics:
o Semiotics: The passage alludes to the idea that words are symbols
that represent reality.
o Philosophy of Language: It touches upon philosophical questions
about the relationship between language and reality, a topic often
discussed in the philosophy of language.
 From an applied perspective:
o Education and Language Teaching: The passage may prompt
educators to reflect on the role of language in shaping students'
perceptions of the world.
o Media and Communication: In the age of mass media and digital
communication, this passage serves as a reminder of the potential for
language to distort or manipulate reality.
o Literature and Art: It invites reflection on the creative power of
language in literature and art.

Words and the meanings of words are not matters merely for the academic
amusement of linguists and logisticians, or for the aesthetic delight of poets; they
are matters of the profoundest ethical significance to every human being.
(Aldous Huxley, "Words and Their Meanings." The Importance of Language, ed.
by Max Black, 1940)
 It underscores the significant role that words and their meanings play in
human life, emphasizing their ethical and practical importance.
 From a theoretical perspective in linguistics:
o Semantics: The passage touches on the field of semantics, which
studies the meaning of words and how words convey information and
convey values.
  From an applied perspective:
o Education: The passage underscores the importance of teaching
language and semantics in educational settings. It suggests that
understanding the ethical and practical dimensions of language is
crucial for personal development and responsible communication.
o Communication and Ethics: It highlights the role of language in
ethical communication and encourages individuals to use words with
care, precision, and consideration for the impact they may have on
others.

A word leaves a smoke trail behind it that curls into the past. Every word is
surrounded by complex energies. There are meanings underneath a word as well
as its obvious meaning.

Think of a word as a pendulum instead of a fixed entity. A word can sweep by

your ear and by its very sound suggest hidden meanings,
preconscious association. Listen to these words: blood, tranquil, democracy. You
know what they meanliterally but you have associations with those words that are
cultural, as well as your own personal associations.
(Rita Mae Brown, Starting From Scratch, 1988)
 This passage delves into the complexity and richness of language

Summary
The quotes provided by various authors collectively highlight several key functions
and aspects of language:

1. Language as a Tool of Thought and Communication:

 A.P. Herbert emphasizes that words are "the tools of thought." This
highlights the cognitive function of language, suggesting that language is a
fundamental tool for thinking and processing information.
 Jean-Paul Sartre describes words as "action" and "loaded pistols,"
emphasizing the active and influential role of language in communication
and persuasion.
 Rudyard Kipling metaphorically refers to words as "the most powerful drug
used by mankind," emphasizing their transformative and persuasive
capabilities.
  Aldous Huxley asserts that words and their meanings have "profoundest
ethical significance," underlining the moral and ethical function of language
in guiding human behavior and values.
 Rita Mae Brown delves into the complexity of words, highlighting their
multilayered meanings and associations, as well as their role in conveying
cultural and personal nuances.

2. Language as a Symbolic System:

 The passages frequently touch upon the concept that words are symbols that
represent reality, which is a central notion in semiotics, the study of signs and
symbols.

3. Language as a Dynamic and Fluid Entity:

 Several passages emphasize the dynamic and flexible nature of
language. Words can have multiple layers of meaning, change over
time, and evolve based on context and interpretation.
 The idea of words leaving a "smoke trail" and being like a "pendulum"
suggests that language is not static but continually in motion.

4. Language as a Cultural and Personal Experience:

 The quotes acknowledge that words carry both cultural and personal
associations. Cultural associations are shared by a community, while personal
associations are unique to individuals based on their experiences.

From a theoretical perspective in linguistics:

 Semiotics: The passages align with semiotics by highlighting the symbolic

nature of words and their ability to represent and convey meaning.
 Pragmatics: Several passages touch on pragmatics, emphasizing how context,
shared knowledge, and associations influence the interpretation of language.

From an applied perspective:

 Communication and Ethics: The passages underscore the ethical

responsibilities associated with the use of language. They encourage
responsible and ethical communication and highlight the potential impact of
words on individuals and society.
  Education and Language Teaching: The passages emphasize the importance of
teaching language in a way that encourages critical thinking, cultural
sensitivity, and ethical communication.
 Media and Communication: They raise awareness of the potential for language
to shape public opinion, impact behavior, and influence ethical considerations
in journalism, politics, and advertising.
 Literature and Writing: The passages underscore the creative potential of
language in literature, encouraging writers to explore the richness of words to
evoke emotions, imagery, and cultural nuances.

In summary, these quotes collectively emphasize the multifaceted and powerful

nature of language. They underscore language's role in thought, communication,
persuasion, ethics, and culture, while also highlighting its dynamic and symbolic
qualities. From theoretical and applied perspectives in linguistics, they invite
exploration of semiotics, pragmatics, communication ethics, and the cultural
dimensions of language.
2. Talk on overlapping branches of linguistics. Compare and contrast
J. Aitchison’s and S. Zhabotynska’s charts representing the scope of present-
days Linguistics. Mark the difference, if any? Explain the difference.

Both charts offer a similar perspective on the scope of linguistics.

Both passages provide a comprehensive overview of the scope of linguistics,

covering similar branches and subfields. They both emphasize the centrality of
phonetics, phonology, syntax, and semantics, while also recognizing the importance
of interdisciplinary branches and the dynamic nature of linguistic terminology. The
passages complement each other in their presentation of the diverse aspects of
linguistics and its connections to various fields of study.
3. Consider the following extracts from the textbooks on neuro- and cognitive
linguistics. Determine which is which and give your reasoning:
a) What about our brains makes human language possible – why is our
communication system so elaborate and so different from that of other animals?
If you know two languages, how do you switch between them and how do you keep
them from interfering with each other? If you learn two languages from birth, how is
your brain different from the brain of someone who speaks only one language, and
why? Is the left side of your brain really ‘the language side’? If you lose the ability to
talk or to read because of a stroke or other brain injury, how well can you learn to
talk again? What kinds of therapy are known to help, and what new kinds of
language therapy look promising?
b)… is a modern school of linguistic thought and practice. It is concerned with
investigating the relationship between human language, the mind and socio-physical
experience.… has emerged in the last twenty-five years as a powerful approach to
the study of language, conceptual systems, human cognition, and general meaning
construction.

Based on the content and focus of the two extracts:

a) The first extract is likely from a textbook on neurolinguistics or cognitive

neuroscience. It addresses questions related to the brain's role in language processing,
bilingualism, brain injuries, and language therapy. These are topics commonly
studied in neurolinguistics, which explores how the brain processes and produces
language.

b) The second extract is likely from a textbook on cognitive linguistics. It

describes cognitive linguistics as a modern school of linguistic thought that
investigates the relationship between language, the mind, and socio-physical
experience. Cognitive linguistics is concerned with the study of conceptual systems,
human cognition, and meaning construction, which aligns with the content of this
extract.

In summary, the first extract focuses on questions related to the brain's role in
language, bilingualism, and language recovery after brain injuries, suggesting a
connection to neurolinguistics. The second extract introduces cognitive linguistics as
a field concerned with the study of language, cognition, and meaning, aligning with
the content typically found in cognitive linguistics textbooks.
4. What would you call the variety of Linguistics the conference below is
devoted to? Comment on your choice.

… Lingustics: Exploring Connections between Linguistics and the Environment

Call for Papers
… issues have long been investigated by scholars across sciences and the
humanities; more recently, after the devastating effects of climate change, they have
also come to the attention of politicians, policy-makers and the wider public.
Inspired by a lively debate among linguists as well as scientists, journalists and
activists, PALA 2023 aims to investigate connections between style and the natural
environment broadly conceived as the air, water, and land inhabited by people,
animals, and plants. PALA
2023 will explore such connections in a wide range of historical, geographical and
cultural contexts, across different text-types and genres and from the point of view of
single disciplines, as well as from multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and multimodal
perspectives.

 The variety of linguistics that the conference "Linguistics: Exploring

Connections between Linguistics and the Environment" is devoted to is likely
"Ecolinguistics."
 Ecolinguistics is a subfield of linguistics that explores the relationship between
language and the environment, with a focus on how language both reflects and
shapes our perceptions of the natural world. Ecolinguistics investigates how
language is used to discuss environmental issues, how linguistic choices
influence environmental awareness and attitudes, and how language can be a
tool for promoting environmental conservation and sustainability.
 In this conference, the focus on exploring connections between style and the
natural environment, including the air, water, and land inhabited by people,
animals, and plants, aligns with the concerns and interests of ecolinguistics.
Additionally, the consideration of linguistic analysis in the context of
environmental issues and climate change reflects the interdisciplinary nature of
ecolinguistics, as it often involves collaboration with scholars from various
fields, including environmental science, anthropology, and sociology.
 Therefore, the choice of "Ecolinguistics" as the variety of linguistics for this
conference is suitable given its focus on the interplay between language and
the environment and its potential to contribute to broader discussions about
environmental sustainability and awareness.