A

42
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
a1.Cathode ray oscilloscope. The cathode ray is an instrument which can record
eouS values oscilloscope
of rapidly varying voltages. It is used to observe
here is no mechanical moving part in the various alternating current wave
There
ons
is no inertia and the electron oscilloscope but the 'moving' is done by a beam of
beam serves as an ideal indicator for any
Mnging voltag
age. The electron beam is focused
rapidiy
on a fluorescent
where it produces a fine,
ht sDotof light. By applying an electrostatic (or magnetic) field screen
in the vicinity of the beam it can
ected and the spot of light made to move over the face of the screen tracing out a visible pattern
chich is determined by the potential producing the electrostatic field (or the current producing the
agnetic field).
Acathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.) essentially consists of a cathode ray tube (C.R.T), a sweep
iruit or time base circuit, a synchronisation circuit, high and low voltage supplies, and horizontal
ad vertical amplifiers.
1.Cathode ray tube. The cathode ray tube is an evacuated tube of the shape shown in Fig. 42.1
(ol. Its main parts are an electron emitter called the cathode (K), a device to control the intensity
dled the grid (G% accelerating and focusing electrodes (A,, Az Az) known as anodes: deflecting
pjacs vertical (Y, Y) and horizontal (X, X) and a screen which fluoresces when electrons impinge
anit.
() Electron emitter. The method of obtaining electrons is similar to that used in a thermionic
ave. The cathode K is îndirectly heated by passing a suitable current through the filament FF. It is
iNcally insulated but thermally connected to the filament. The cathode is oxide coated type (with
material like MgO ) and when heated gives out a copious supply of electrons.
i)Jotensity control, The cathode is surrounded by a metal shield in the form of a cylinder with
hole at the end farther from the cathode. The cylinder is given a negative potential with respect to
cathode so that the electrons are repelled from it and any off axis electrons join the axial stream
uOm a fine beam which passes through the hole. This electrode is called the grid (or shield or
or). By varying the negative potential of the grid, the emission of electrons from the cathode
modulate
Ontrolled and thus the brightness of the spot on the sereen can be varied. This control is usually
abrightness. 'brilliance' or intensity' on the C.R.O. panel board.
The beam of electrons from the grid passes through a series of electrodes known as
ocus.
econd or third anode (A, Az and Az) all of which are at positive potentials with respect to
hehe first, seco
de.These electrodes act like an electron lens system and bring about a sharp focusing of the
tlectronbeam on the fluorescent screen. Generally, the anodes A and Ag are connected together and
a
ave the hghestpositive potential with respect to the cathode while the anode Az has potential lower.
a oT A, and A, but higher than that of the cathode. The potential of the anode Aq can be varied
429
430 B.Sc.
Practtcal Ph
and thus the spot of light brought to a fine focus on the scrtecn. 1he potentiometer
meter knob
the potential of A, usually labelad focus
is
The whole system consisting of the cathode,
the grid and the anode sh0ots
called an electron gun.
a oul fine
. contrslitg
rast
moving electrons and is therefore,
(i) Deflection of electan beam. The common tom or a cathode ray tube use pencil uo
penil
deflection arangement. For this purpose two sets of plates X1 Xz and Y, Y
Y are
final anodeAy and the sreen. As shown in Fig. 42.1. (a) the plates Y, Y2 are horizontalw
mounted
ectrostatit
ontal andeween
represennthe
a parallel plate capacitor in utich an electnc field in the vertical (Y) direction is set un
nena polentia
difference is applied to the plates thereby causing the electron beamito move up or
dov
to the polarity of the plates The plates X, and X are vertical and an electric field in CCor
field in the
(X) direction is set up when the poential difference is applied these plates thereh
to horizona
elecuron beas to move from ieft to right or right to left according to the causi
olarity of the ng the
cting pplates. I
electric fieids are simuitaneously set up between the vertical and the honzontal deflectir
resultant dispiacemet of the electron will be in accordance with the vector sum of the ve
horizotal displacements. nd

Anodes Deflecting Plates

cahode Grid VERT
Horz
anen
Phosphor
Screen

Conductor
FF KG A *A.As
(a)
A2A.A

AC. (c

Cata tsy1t
Power supphy c.Dofiecting pistes shown separately

Pig 42.1
The vertical and horizRAul plates
though shown separately are at the same place.
The position of the spx on the screen can,
therefore, adjusted to a
be
applying suitable D.C. pokentiels to each of the two sets of deflecting pre-determined
plates.
o
The vanapie
f
potential for this purpo5e is Tegulated by control knobs labelled 'Horizontal positioning u
and 'Vertical positioning (Ven. Pos,)
One plate of each pair (0, and
Y,)
connected o the anode A, so that there is no
is
between the plates and the eleciron gun. Finally the anode A is carnh connected so that cic
uthe de:
plates are not in the vic:nity of high potentials which would in an e a s

behave in
cause the spot to a
 o d eR a y O s c i l l o s c o
cope
431

may
a lIso
so be dangerous. Thus the cathode and the qther
and to the carth. electrodes are at a nega
er
respect
gtia with
al is dangerous to handle the.cathode, the filament 'ater) and the focusing anode
working.
M h e nt h et u b e
ube is
the
enScreen. The
TH screen is coated
with a fluorescent material
such as zinc orthosilicate ana a
c visible
v
on the screen aue to fluorescence where the electron bearm strikes. The inside
y i l l i a n ts p o t
tube is coated with aquadag or some other conducting material thereby connecting
dthëneck
final plate Aj which keeps the electron beam fiom A, to the screen in free flight as
t h e fina
to
whichthe electron beam passes is free from all electrostatic (or magnetic) fields
throu
SCreen

deflecting nla
e
cespace
w e e n the deflectino
b e tween plates. As the electrons strike the screen these 'leak off
set up
those finally through the power supply to the cathode.
and fina
node A
base.
e
One of the great advantages of a cathode ray oscillograph is its ability to indicate
Time
2. ervals and to re-
time
hort
with time.
ery
ofvoltage
variations

aord difference
potentia
alternating
an
plates ¥, Y2, the spot To
M a n a

to thep ww
spplied plates
out a vertical
will trace
m the screen to the peak value
Kine proportional
voltage. If the
wave

of the applied is to
E
alternating voltage
fom of the
the spot must be
made
Fig. 42.2
e obtained
along the X-di-
tomove horizontally
along the Y-axis so that the pattem may spread out on the
screen.
down
han as well as move up and that rises
the horizontal detlecting plates X, Xz to a source of voltage
This is done by connecting to zero. Such a voltage
rate to a maximum value and then suddenly drops back
radually at a constant the beam to move horizontally across the screen
at a
have a saw tooth shape. It causes
is said to
back to its starting point. The electroniç circuit producing
the saw tooth
uniform speed and then snaps
base is said to be linear if it produces
is called the 'sweep circuit' or 'time base circuit'. A tdime
voltage circuit or time base enables us to obtain a pattern
on the
a uniform movement of the spot. The sweep
across the vertical deflecting
same as a curve of varying voltage applied
screen which is exactly the
condition that has to be fulfilled is that the period of the.
plates Y Y2 as a function of time. The only of the applied voltage to be
exact multiple of the period
w tooth voltage must be equal to or an
to the Y-piates is 50
sUdied. For example, suppose the frequency of
the alternating voltage applied
then one
of the tooth voltage is also 1/50 sec (frequency S0 c.p.s.),
Ps, then if the time period saw
time period of the saw tooth
will appear on the screen. If the
plele cycle of the applied voltage then two complete cycles of the applied
voltage
1/25 sec (frequency 25 c.p.s.),
svll double i.e.
appear and so on. thyratron. The circuitis
of agasfilled triode known
as
makes use
Simple form of 'time base' a high resistance
R by connecting it to a D.C.
42.2. The capacitor C is charged through
g the capacitor, the voltage
thyratron connected in parallel with
constant e.mf. V With the
d s up from zero to V, according to the equation.
V= Vo (1-e""RC)
42.3. The quantity RC is called
The cun time is shown in Fig.
C ror the voltage V. plotted against rises too
te time S 1 a n t and is defined as the time during which the voltage
= 0.63
 432
B.Sc. Practical p
Or the maximum value. When
the voltage across
C is sutficient to fire' the
discharges rapidly through the val
being limited to a safe value by
tht.

ve. (The
caPyaA
ron the caryacstn
by the

extinrctesiiostnancevp
till the capacitor potential falls to "
at to maintain the
which it is unable
0.63 V this stage the discharge stops anc
commences to recharge. discharge. N
The process he capact
and the resulting potentialvariation eats tse
pattern is similar Koss C
shown in Fig. 42.4. The

RC- X
of a saw and hence the name 'sa the edg
X-plates are connected acro the
Time
during the charging period the capacitor then
spot moves
the screen at a nearly unifo m
Fig. 42.3
rate and acioss
flies back the starting point
to during the discharge period.
The time
required for :a complete cyle suddenly
and then discharge of
the capacitorLe., the frequency of osci.le
of build up of the charge time constant The leno
RC..The ons of the
be adjusted by changing the value of of length the s
sweep circuit can and 'extinction volage'. The capacito
the value of the firing voltage' harge cur
depends upon in
small section of it, as ab Fig.
3 ocan be regarded as aln
42.3
is exponential but a sufficiently
between these two points by adjusting the firing and ost linea,
replctinction
The circuit is made to operate the
respectively. For greater linearity resistance Ris
the resist
voltages corresponding to V, and V,
a pentode valve.
different frequencies, the sweep frequency Can b
be suitably
study the wave forms of
In order to
two controls-a 'Range Firing Charging Discharging
adjusted with the help of YA
voltage
Switch' giving different ranges
of frequencies in -

coarse steps by changing

the capacitance C'and
marked frequency selector and a frequency
control switch' marked frequency vernie
resistance R per-
which by gradually varying the Extinction voltage
mits fine adjustment of sweep frequency within
switch. Time
the limits of any one setting on the range
events o c
3. Synchronisation. When two Fig. 42.4
cur simulatneously they are said
to be synchro-
if it is periodic is synchronised with the sweep signai
nised. The input signal applied to the Y-plates,
when the beginning of a pulse of the signal wave train
and will appear stationary or 'locked in step' thes
the sweep trace. If there is a slight lack of synchronisation
is caused to appear at the beginning of
screen either left to right or right
to left. To keep the trace stead
wave pattern will move across the
of the incoming signal is fed the su to
without frequent recourse to fine frequency control portion
a
with the vertical input frequency. The 'synch
tooth generator and serves to "lock the generator in step coniro
and a slight adjustment of fine 'synch'
control varies the signal fed to the sweep oscillator achievecs
screen. When synchronisation
has been
knob helps to freeze' (or lock') the pattern on the
on the screen
the trace is repeated again and again in the same position and thus appears stationary
4. Power supply. The power supply provides the high voltage for the cathode ray tube (

other valves in the Cireu

.KV), filament voltages for vacuum tubes and low voltages (1-150V) for
A simple form is shown in Fig. 42.1 (b).
5. Amplifiers. To amplify weak signals to increase the deflection in the vertical and hornzo
directions without distortion of the incoming signals, the X-and Y-plates producing the horizonn
C.RC
on ue
vertical deflections are connected to suitable amplifiers. Regulating knobs provided
 R a y
O s c i l l o s c o p e

led 433
respectivelylabelled
'Horizontal gain' (HOR.
enel
are
of
thes the gain amplifi
of GAIN) and Vertical gain'
the
nelP
for the horizonta and the
gnal

hth
maybe

tal amplifier vertical Cathode ray oscilloscope

can also
amplify the
y t e sI h ehorizon

illations and is provided with a Int.

rcan
it
that
be connected to the intemal
c a n

sweep
Ofto

Focus
so
he external signal.
aich

Experime nt 42.1. (a)To obtain the wave form Vert Pos.

d agiven oscillator
eillator using a cathode ray oscillo- Horz Pos.

obtain the wave form of A.C. mains

()To
cathode ray oscilloscope. Vert. gain
u Horiz Freq
usinga

ply
pparatus Cathode ray oscilloscope, audio os- selector Horiz. gain
enerator), a step down transforme
ilator
(sign

Procedure
Connect the output
1. Conn
(a) 1. terminal :(o): :(O).
arked
'ground
(GND) or'earth' of the oscillator to
Ext. input
he
terTninal marked 'ground or "earth' of the vertical
marked

C.R.O.
ihe

iput
ot
the C.R.O. to the A.C. mains onch AMP Fraq. vem Phase
2.
Connect
and Vert input O Horz. input
the int
the "intensity' control (or power
switch). OGND Plot lamp GNDO
ch on
position. of the 'spot as it appears on the
Notethe
and adjust
the intensity' and 'focus' controls Fig. 42.5
and fine spot. Now adjust the bias on the X
S e e n

sharpand
D
Pand vertical positioning (centering) controls so and Y deflecting plates by using the
CAUTION. See that the bright spot does not that the spot is in the centre of the screen.
remain on the screen for any
wise that area of the tube will be burmt. length of time
m3.S
Cuitch on the time base' or
'sweep circuitr' so that the spot sweeps across the screen in
ions. See that the time axis is straight horizontal and clearly rapid
defined.
Connect the oscillator to A.C. mains and switch it on. Set the oscillator
lesec. Now set the "coarse frequency control of the sweep circuit of the frequency at 1000

ctor' control to a step with 1000

d frequency selecto C.R.O. with the help
c.p.s. and adjust the 'vernier frequency' control
Hefully to 'stop' the wave pattern obtained. Adjust the oscillator gain as well as the vertical and
Nizontal gains of the C.R.0. to get a proper amplitude of the wave form on a
When the hand is taken off the "vernier large part of the screen.
frequency' control the pattern will,
probably, begin to walk
dong the sweep. If it does, adjust the "synch. amp' control to 'freere' the pattern. You will
omplete wave form of the oscillator with this adjustment. Trace the wave form. one get

AA
Sine wave Square wave
(a) ()
Fig. 42.6
5. Now set the 'COARSE'
FREQUENCY CONTROL to a step with 500 c.p.s. and again adjust
Vemier frequency' control to 'stop' the pattern. 'Freeze' the pattern with the help of
NAO, f necessary. You should now get two similar patterms. Similarly get 4, 5, and 'synch amp'
10 patterns.
ype of wave pattern i.e. sinusoidal, square wave, triangular wave or any other form. Trace
LOTm an a
tracing paper. A sine wave and a square wave is shown in Fig. 42.6 (a) and (b).
 434 and
disconnect from AC.
A.C.
B.mains.
Sc.PratDisconne
mai.
ical ph
the C.R.O.
oscillator and
6. Switch off the
terminals ofa ste
nect h
oscillator from the C.R.O.
of A.C.supply,
the secondary
-down
(6)1.To study the wave
c o n n e c t e d to the
form
'vertical input'
terminals of
the C.R.0.
and is usually
held a veryld to
small tansfom
are

The A.C. mains frequency is 50 cycles/sec

mains and
obtain a sharp and fine spot tolerance,
to the A.C. control of the sweer
2. Connect the
explained in step
C.R.O.
2. Adjust the
'coarsefrequency'
wave 1om 'locked
circuit to asstep
in on
lo a
Screen as onecomplete A.C. vit
4 to get
c.p.s. and proceed as in step
the pattern obtained. and 100 c.p.s.
set at 25 c.p.s.
3. Repeat with
time base frequency for aa ln
to remain on the screen for long time,
the spot oflight
Precautions. 1. Do
not allow
othervig
the area will be burnt controls of the C.R.O.
to tain
obtain proper amplit
no

horizontal and vertical gain

2. Adjust the screen.
the
large part of
on a diode as (a) half
diode as half wave
wave
the action ofa junction
pattern
the wave
42.2. To display rectifier (b)t
Experiment
C.R.O.
wave rectifier using a or a step down transfornmer
A sine wave signal generator ras a
Apparatus. C.R.O. two junction diodes).
full wave rectifier (using
a

rectifier (using a junction

diode), a

the trace.
butter paper for getting
Half wave
rectifier

A.C. R.B
A
mains
supply
- .

Step dowm
s
transformer or
sine wave signal
generator

(a)

Fig, 42.7(a)
the scheme of connection's a
Procedure (a) Half wave rectifier. 1 Draw a diagram showing
in Fig. 42.7(@) and make connections accordingly.
Llf instead of the step-down transformer a signal gener-
ator is

2
used, set it on 'sine wave' withfrequency switch at the
proper range.]
Select proper for the 'time base' of the
frequency
C.R.O. suitable for viewing the wave form of the given
AAA
frequency. AAA
3. Close all the three switches S. S and Sh so that half
wave rectifier is bye-passed. The C.R.0. will show the wave (i)
form of the A.C. supply from the voltage developed across R.
(b)
Synchronise the sighal being fed to C.R.O and trace it. It is
shown in Fig. 42.7 (b) (0.
Fig. 42.76)
 athook
Ray Oscilloscope

swit ch S, and
open
observe the new 435
4.
scrOss
N
un in Fig. 42.7 (6)
s shown
as shown wave form of
(i). This isis hal the trace on
cle and we get the half wave C.R.O from the voltage
Ositive output wave. The
diode
recification. Thediode
diod conducts during
does not conduct
eyle
Trace
5.Trace
the rectufied signal for
different values of load during the
he negative half
the diode and
everse again trace the signal. resistance R, from the resistance box R.
(b)
Full
wave rec 7. Draw a
r.
diagram What is the change?
a centre ansformer and make
tapped trans showing the scheme of
connections as in Fig. 42.8
c
(a)
using

Select oper frequency the time base

for connections accordingly.
h eg i v e nf r e q u e n c y ,
of the C.R.O suitable for
viewir
wing the 'wave form of
9. Trace rectified signal for different values of
shownin Fig Cio. 42.8 (b). For one half cycle the end A R, from the resistance box
R.B. The trace 1s
the centre tap of the
with
respectto C and the
diode
D, conducts. For the secondary of the transformer is
of
secondary
the transformer
of the transforr
is
positive with second half cycle the end positave
B ot the
refore get both the halves of the respect to the centre tap C
and the diode
wave form. D, conducts.

RB

(a) (b)
Fig. 42.8
0. Trace the rectified signal for different
values of load R, from the resistance box R.B.
Precautions. Same as in Expt. 42.1.
42.2. Calibration of an oscilloscope. If one
plate of a
positive potential with respect to the other,pair
of deflecting plates of a C.R.O. is
maintained at a
then electron beam will be attracted
towards the positive plate and the spot of
light will move across the
IfD.C.potential is applied to the X-plates the spot will move fromscreen.
the 'centre' position to a
either on the left or right of the centre
depending the polarity of the
point
upon plates. If the
applied to the Y-plates, the spot will move up or down for the same reason. The deflectionpotential is
will be of the spot
proportional to the difference of potential between the plates.
f
alternating voltages are applied, the spot will be drawn out into a line. The
5a measure of the peak to peak voltage applied. The D.C. voltage length of the line
coresponding
ine i.e. the sum of the deflections on either side of the centre will be equal to 212 to the length of the
times the r.m.s.
voltage.
he calibration of an oscilloscope is generally done with A.C. voltage to avoid the possibility of
g of the screen due to the electron spot having remained in one particular position for a
long
calibration purposes some oscilloscopes are provided with an in built standard 1volt A.C.
h e usual circuit for calibration is shown in Fig. 42.9. (a). Tis a step-down transformer, the
dvidi S it secondary is measured by an A.C. voltmcter V. This voltage is applied to a potential
ding arrange
angement consisting of two resistance boxesR and R. To find the vertical sensitivity
hte potential difference
phe Y difference across R is applied to the plate Y2 of the vertical deflecting plates and the
plate X,ofune
the horiza
The deflectinghorizontal deflecting platesis earthed byconnectingit to the terminal marked 'ground.
cung plates X X, and Y, Y, are shown separately in Fig. 42.9 (6). To find the horizontal
 B.Sc.
436
is applied
to the plateX2
Practcal Physe
and plate Y is earthed
difference across R
sensitivity the potenti voltmeter reading, then

cOnnecting it to the terminal marked 'ground'. If

Vis the
ned by
CR.O.

Gnd Ghd Horizontal

Vertical
(a)

Fig. 42.9

R2
P.D. across R R +R
the screen, then since it is proportional.
If L is the total length of the line traced on peak to
peak voitage, we have
R2
Peak to peak voltage 2 12 VR.+R
R+R2
212V Ra R k, L,
or
R
where k, is the vertical sensitivity.
22 VRa
K,L(R +R) the screen in the horizontal
Similarly If L, is the total length of the line traced
on direction, then
horizontal sensitivity
212 VR
kLR+R)
The vertical and horizontal sensitivity of a cathode ray oscilloscope depends upon the gain from
the respective amplifiers. The sensitivity is minimum for no gain position, maximum for full gain
the sensitivity of a
position and has an intermediate value for any other gain position. For example, vertical and
C.RO. may be 1 volt per cm for no gain position and 0.1 volt per cm for full gain. The
to be
horizontal sensiüvities may also be different. In general, the sensitivity of a C.R.O. is required
determined in aparticular gain position which may have been used in an experiment. In
such a case
and
the gain positionshould not be disturbed after the experiment. In other words, the vertical
horizontal gain control knobs should be kept fixed in position.
Experiment 42.3. To find the vertical and horizontal sensitivity of a cathode ray oscilloscope
() with no amplifier gain and (i) with full amplifier gain.
down
Apparatus. A cathode ray oscilloscope, two resistance boxes, an A.C. voltmeter, a
step
transformer ec. nect
Procedure. 1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme ofconnections as in Fig. 42.9 (a) and oa

accordingly.
2. (a) Vertical sensitivity. onnect the 'thor. input' terminal to the 'ground termina heSette
hor. freq. select' control knob to the "ext. inpur' position. Set the 'vert. gain' control k
(zero) gain position.
odeHayOscilosco
cope 437

cR.O. to the A.C. mains. Put off the time

Switch on the AC. mains supply to the base circuit and obtain a
si
and adju the
scre step down mer T
length is line transformer
on
the
2
that a vertical trace of a suitable
So
that:
Note
voltmeter, alues of R, and R2 and trace theobtained
C.R.O. screen.
on the
and

ofR the
voltn
played on the screen on a
of

eading Measure the length L, of the line

aaren

kesixsuch
adings by changing the values of R and R, and getting the line trace from a
tine
m a
ximum length.
x i n

imum
to

set
he 'vert. 8ain' control knob to the maximum (full) gain
the
'vert ition and repeat the
Now
4

MIment;
Horizont
1ontal sensitivity. Connect the 'vert. inpu' terminal to its "Ground terminal. Set the
freg control knob to the no (zero) gain position. Take at least six observations
select Control
as

steP
3 by ng the horizontal line
displayed the screen.
on
Jainedin et the hor. gain control knob to the maximum (full) gain position and repeat the
Now

m m e n t

(a) Vertical sensitivity

Record.
No gain
Full gain
RIR2 Ly 22 VR2
Voltmeter R R2L 22 VR2
aitmeter-

qding(D R+R) L Reading (V) kyR1+Re) Ly

Mean sensitivity = volt/cm Mean sensitivity = voltcm

(6) Horizontal sensitivity
No gain
Full gain
oltmeterR R L 22 VR2 Voltmeter RR2 L 2 2 VR2
k +R)LReading (V)
ading (V) h(R1+R:) Lh

Mean sensitivity Mean sensitivity volucm

=
volt/cm
Precs
recautions. 1. While finding the vertical sensitivity both the horizontal deflecting plates must
arthed and vice versa.
2.The sensitivity o the gain. The gain control knob should not be disturbed
amplifier
experiment.depends upon
ng the Svity
438
3. The A.C. voltmeter
transformer.
must be connected in parallel with the B.SC.Pratical Ph.
secondary of the
Exercise. Find the vertical and horizontal sensitiviy of a CRO. at half Rais
Hint. In each case set the 'gain control' knob midway between the zero gain.
ero and e
and proceed as in Expt. 42.3. and fullgain
Experiment 42.4. To measure A.C. voltages using a C.R.0. and to calculats.
sensitivity in m.m. per r.m.s. volt.
markang
te the delest
Apparatus. Same as in Expt. 42.3.
Theory. When an A.C. voltage is applied to the I-Y plates of a C.R.O, ken
earthed, the spot remains moving up and down due to the variation of potential g X
persistence ofvision a line is traced on the screen. The length of the line correspOndeve
value of the A.C. voltage applied and thus measures 2 12 r.m.s. voltage. If V isPeak
wever, paldueesvy
then
VL
where L is the length of the line traced.
Procedure 1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as shown in E.
make connections accordingly. The variable resistance R 1s a wire potentiometer
type uht 0a
knob having resistance in the range 2-5 KO.
2. Switch on the C.R.0 putting off the time base circuit and get a
ariadle
sharp and
spot at O the centre of theight, stationany
bright
the Brightens control screen. Ui
make the brieh
ness of the spot
A.C. minimum.
volt 3 Now apply a suitable A.C. volt
Rmetery age to the Y-Y plates
by adjusting
variable knob of the resistance R. the
the voltmeter reading. Measure Ne
length of the line O'0" traced the
Step down by te
transformer spot of light on the screen by tracing i
on
a butter paper.
4. Go on changing the
Fig. 42.10 voltage and
note the voltage as well as the
sponding length of the line traced the
core
by spot of light on the screen. Take 6-7
readings first by
increasing the voltage and then decreasing it.
5. Now apply the unknown A.C.
voltage E, to the Y-Y plates of the C.R.O and note the length
of the line on the screen traced the
by spot of light.
Observations.
S. No. Applied voltage (V) Length ofthe line
Voltage increasing Voltage decreasing Mean L + h
Length L= 00" Length La = 00"

5.
6
 RayOsciloscope 439

Caiho oltage V(r.m.s. value) along the

the volta
ph taking of the
t a k i n e

the X-axis and the mean length L

of light (in m.m.) along Y-ari
a
graph r
Plot the spot axis.
.
tracedby
straight
ine. [NOTE The deflection
a
he

o
praph

j n e
is

measures the es the peak topeak voltage whereas the

valtagemeasuredb y
by the voltmeter is the r.m.s. value].
D e f l e c t i o n s e n s i t
vity v= slope of the graph =

volt.
r.m.s.
mm
per
nknown
voltage. Length of the line for the
= l= mm
voltage
u n k n o w nA . C

A.C.
wn
Unknown voltage E,=vxl -

y o l t s( r m . s )
Same asin Expt. 42.3.
a t i o n s .

Voltmeter reading
Preaca 2.5. To measure a d.c. voltage V (r.m.s)
Experime
of a C.R.(
of.
help Fig. 42.11
the .c. source, A varíable resistance
Apparatus.
grith
50 k2, a d.c. voltmeter (of suitable range) a key, connecting wires.
of
ofthe
order
When the X-X plates of a C.R.O are earthed, its time base-circuit switched off and no
Theorlied to the Y-Y plates we get a sharp, bright spot of light at o the centre of the screen.
o l a g ei s a p p l i

fade
now
volta
by connecting to the
is and applied
to the ative of the d.c. Y positive Y,
the spot of
ligi is displaced towards the positive plate Y2 and appears at O' instead of O. The
light
displacement the spot 00 is directly proportional to the applied voltage as indicated by the
of
in parallel with Y-Y plates.
connected

V
v o l i m e t e

1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as shown in Fig. 42.12 and
ocedure. 1.
C.R.O.

a.d
Battery
0"x

L
Fig. 42.12
20-50 k2. It is a wire potentiometer
make connections accordingly. The resistance R is of the order of
ype 2.with a variable knob.
Switch on the C.R.O. putting off the time base circuit and get a sharp, bright and stationary
control to the left to reduce the brightness of
spot at O the centre of the screen. Rotate the brightness
bhe spot temporarily.
the key K in the
.Now apply a known suitable d.c. voltage to the Y Y2 plates by inserting
batte so as to increase the brightness.
The spot of
Circuit. Rotate the brightness control to the right
Note the displacement O0 in m.m. either
O diSplaced to the point O' towards the Y2 plate. screen itself if it is
to the screen or on the
of the spot on a tracing paper fixed
lrtad position
ready graduated. Y-Y plates.
voltmeter connected in parallel with
. No responding voltage from the and go on noting the voltage
to the Y-Y plates
well Change the value of the voltage applied the screen.
of the spot of light on
Oesponding displacement
 440
Practical Pmi
Always brPw
stay at one pont jor long time
a
be allowed to ne.
NOTE The spot should not

Onghtness control to minimum before taking

the next reading ingg he
and Y plates connecting Y to the
3. Now interchange the polarities of Y

negative of the battery and repeat the

observation. The displacement of O is nnow in t
ositive and Y,10te
plate Y. Note the reading of the voltmeter the dowwa
direction from O to O" towards the and
displacement of the spot of light.
6. Now apply the unknownd.c.voltage to the Y, Y2 plates ofthe and
C.R.O. and noe
note the
correspondie
first with Y positive and then with Y, positive.
Observations
displaceme
O0" in
Applied voltage in Displacement O0 in Displacement Mean displacement a
No mm. Y1 (+ve)
volis mm. Y2 (+ve)

Graph. 7. Plot a graph taking voltage v in

volts along the X-axis and the mean displacement of YA
the spot of light d along the Y-axis. The graph is a
Straight ine.
Voltage per m.m. from the graph v=

volts/mm.
Dispiacement for unknown voltage
Y (+ve) =

Y (+ve) =
Mean displacement d= X
mm. Voltage V
Unknown d.c. voltage V= vxd= volts. volts
Precautions. 1. The spot of light should not
Fig. 42.13
be allowed to stay at one point to avoid damage to
the screen
2. The variable resistance R should have a suitable value.
3. Always decrease the brightness of the spot of light to minimum before proceeding to the nem
observation.
4. The C.R.O should be handled very
carefully.
42.3. Phase difference across resistor, inductor and
capacitor. In an A.C. circuit contanns
ony a resistance the current / and e.m.f. (voltage) Vg are in phase as shown in Fig. 42.14 (a).

the A.C. circuit contains a pure inductance current ange

lags behind the e.m.f. (voltage) by a pnu the
T/2 or 90° ie. the e.mf. (voltage) V, leads the current / 90° as by shown in Fig. 42,14 (D). w
A.C. circuit contains a pure capacitor
the current leads the e.n
e.m.f. (voltage) by 90° 1e. ne
(voltage) V, lags behind the current lby 90" as shown in
Fig. 42.14 (c).
c a t h o o e
H a y
Oscilloscope
O s c
441
circuit cóntain
circuit cóntaning L and R in series the voltage across inductor L(V) leads the voltage
In
an hase angle Uz (90) so that the resultant
voltage across LR (VLR) leads tne vo ge
s R ( V a )b y a p h a s

W
C

Va
90 Vc
(a) (b) {c)
Fig. 42.14

e r o s sR ( o r t current) by a phase angle Ùgiven by tan =where

R
Low =
X, = reactance due to

e and 27f.fbeing the frequency of A.C. Fig. 42.15(a)].

inductance.

---.VCA-

O0AAATT WV
Na
Vg
(a) (b)
Fig. 42.15
In an A.C. circuit containing Cand Rinseries the voltage across the capacitor C (V)lags behind
he voltage across R (V) by a phase angle q/2 (909) so that the resultant voltage across CR (Vca) lags
tehind the voltage across R (or current) by a phase angle o given by tan o= where= X
reactance due to capacitance.
When the A.C. voltage applied to the X-X plates (V) and Y-Yplates (V,) of a C.R.O have only a
resistance in the circuit the phase difference between V, and V, is zero. In such a case the trace on the
CR.O. screen is a straight line. If out of the two we put an inductor or a capacitor in one of the circuts
there is a phase difference of 90° between V, and V, In such a case the trace on the screen is an ellipse.
lfone circuit contains an inductor and the other a capacitor the phase difference between the two
voltages V, and V, is 180 and the trace on the screen is again a straight line. If one circuit contains
apure resistance and the other a combination of inductance and resistance (L and R) or a combination
of capacitance and resistance (C and R), then there is a phase difference p * 90° between them. In
SUch a case the trace on the screen in an inclined ellipse.
For proof see Art. 42.4.]
The above results are shown in a tabular form below.

X-X plates Y-Y plates Phase dif. Trace

VR VR 0 straight line
2 ellipse
VR VL 90
VR Vc 90 ellipse
. 180 straight line
VL Vc
VR *90° inclined ellipse
VLR
6. VR #90° inclined ellipse
VCR
442
the phase
ditference in the case of r e n . .
B.SC.Praclical Phu
of resistance, inductan.
Experiment 42.6. To demonstrate values using a C.R.0.
their
Capacitance and to
measure
L(IH), C(4), a variaki
a values of R(1 kS4), able
Apparatus
K S2), a
A
sine
C.R.O,
wave
suitable

signal generator
or A.C.
down
Supply with a step transfomer 4 Tesistance 0
keys etc,
Procedure1. Draw adiagram showing
42.16
in Fig. CR.O
the scheme of connections as
and make connections accordingly.
and
2. Put in the key K. Press the key.K
resistor S so that
adjust the value ofvariable
line trace on the C.R.O
you get a straight
SCreen. The straight line
is inclined to the
horizontal at anangle of 45°. In this case the
and Y-Y plates
voltages applied to the X-X
and the un-
have a phase difference of 0°
known resistance R=Sbecause Vs= Vg. Note
R
from the
the value of S using a multimeter or wwwww wwwww
resistance box. Let this value be Sp. S
3. Lift the key K, and press the key Kz Signal generator
so that inductor L is in
circuit. In this case the
K
applied voltages across S and L ie. voltages
to X-X and Y-Y plates are 90° out of
or A.C. source
applied
phase. You will, therefore, get the trace of an
Fig. 42.16
ellipse on the C.R.O screen. Adjust the value
of variable resistor S in such a way that you
get the trace ofa circle on the C.RO screen. In such a case the inductive reactance X =S. Again noe
the value of S using a multimeter or from the resistance box. Let this value be S.
4. Lit the xey K and press ne key K3 so that the capacitor Cis in circuit. In this case the apliei
voltages ecross Sand Cie. the voltages applied to X-X and Y-Yplates are again 90° outof phase. You
will, therefore, again get the trace of an ellipse on the C.R.O. screen. Adjust the value of variable
resistor S in such a way that you again get the trace of a circle on the C.R.O screen. In such a case
the capacitative reactance Xc=5. Again note the value of S using a multimeter or from the resistane
box. Let this value be S
5. Repeat the experimeret three times.
Observations Observed value of SR = () (i) (ii)
Mean observed value of Sg =
Observed value of S ) (i)
Mean observed value of SL =
Observed value of Se = ()
(i) (ii)
Mean observed value of Sc =
Calculations Resistance R=Sg =
Inductance L S=XL
but X= 0L= 27/L
where fis the frequency of A.C. signal and ) = 2 nfis the
angular frequency
Inductance L21f henry
henry
Capacitance C. Sc=X
h o d eR a y O s c i l l o s c o p e

1 443

but
Xe OC2nfc
Capacitance C Farad.
recaution1s. Same as in Expt. 42.5.

Exercise.
calculate the frequency of A.C. mains
Hint. U s e
either an inductor L or a capacitor C of
using a C.R.O.
such a way that
at you get known value.
eISIOr
the trace of a circle on C.R.O. Adjust
just the value of variable
In such a casee screen using circuit
c connection of
42.6.
inductor is used
XL
B f an
=
Lo=2 nfL=S
2 TTL
I f a capacitor is used Ac Co 2TfCS

f=:2 T1CS
Ament 42.7. To measure the phase diierence between current and voltage for C-R
andL-RA.C. A.C. rcuit using a C.R.O.
od L-R ratus. A C.R.O, variable step down transformer, a known variable resistance or resistance
Bacitor of known capacitance, an inductor of known inductance, two keys etc.
hon, a capacitor

Theory. When the voltage applied to the X-X or Y-Y plates of a C.R.0 has a resistor and inductor
resistor and capacitor in the two circuits as shown n Fig. 42.17(a) thetrace obtained on the C.R.O.
en is an inclined ellipse. It can beshown that the phase difference is given by
screen i
b
sin =or =sin
andbare shown in Fig. 42.17(6).
here the parameter a
Procedure 1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme ofconnections as in Fig. 42.17 (a) and make
coonections accordingly.

mains

Variable
step down
transformer

(a)
Fig. 42.17
A.C. signals
signals given
given to
to the
circuit. In this case the A.C.
2. Pat in the inductor Lis in the presence of passive
t h e key K. so that the due to
X-X and Y-Y but differ in phase we inclined
of the same frequency that get the trace of an
13 plates are
Plates variable resistance R so
tlements like LLand
ements
elipge
i Adjust
and R. the value of
Blüpse onthe as shown in
Fig. 42.17(6).
C.R.O screen
 B. Practical Pho
444 measure gths a
and b.
the length lso note
clcal Phye
and th
paper Take a number of
on
3. Trace the ellipse.
a tracing
measure
m u l t h meter.
it with
a
ere
adings with divaflu
the resistance box
or
R from
theinductor put in the
and put the key
key K, so that
different values of.Rthe capacnog
values of R. disconnect

4. Take out the key A,

so as to expeniment
with different
resistance R. Repest the and note
Cis in circuit along
with
in each case. t
a and b
value of R and that of
Observations Henry
inductance L =

Value of fixed Farad

capacitance
C =

Value of fixed Hz
Freguency of A.C.
voltage
= sec
w= 2rf
Angular frequency
Compone: in cirruit
| Resistance
Length a Length b
(cm)
Observed phase diferen
Na. R (2) (cm) sin bla
Inductor L

Capacitor CC

Observed mean value ofo=

From LR circuit)
L
Thecretical calculated value of o = tan
R

Observed mean value of°=

From CR ircuit)
Theoretical caiculated value of o = tan
CwR
Precautions. Sarme as in Expt. 42.5.
424. Lissajous figures. When a particle is acted upon simultaneously by two simple harmonic
motions at righa angle to each other the resultant pa1h traced out by the particle is calleda Lisagjous
figure.
Since simple harmoníc motions piotted against time give [inusoidal configurations two sinusoi
screen. The exact
dal electrical inputs to 2 cathode ray oscilloscope will give Lissajous pattern on the
the frequencies (or period),
pattern traood out ie., the nature of the resultant path depends upon
amplitwde atd phase relationships of the two inputs.
the same
(a) Equal frequencies (or periods). Let the two simple harmonic vibrations having
period take place along the X and Yaxes respectively. These can be represented as
X = a sin or

and y = b sin (0»t + ¢)

where a and b are the respective amplitudes and the Y-vibrations is ahead of the X-vibralion y
phase angleo.
If o 0
X=a sin oi
y= b sin
or
 Osclloscop
c a t n o d oR a y

This
represents,
straightline through the 445
orígin as shown in
Fig. 42.18. (). given
tan n

2
Ind4

(iv)
Fig. 42.18
Ifo= T/2 x =
a sin or
y b sin
(or +Tu2) =b cos or

Thisrepresents a
symmetrical ellipse whose major.and minor axes
ectively as shown in Fig. 42.18 (i. coincide with
with X and Y axes
a=b the res resultant curve is a circle given by

If = T X = a sin or

y b sin (ot +Tt)= -b sin ot

y-
a
This again represents straight line through the origin as shown is
a

given by
Fig. 42.18. (v). The slope s

tan0=2
For T/4 and 3W4 we get oblique ellipses as shown in 42.18. and
=

As exceeds t the whole cycle is repeated in the reverse order.Fig. (i) (iv)
(b) Frequencies in the rations of 1:2. When the frequency
the X-vibration but the two are in of the Y-vibration is double that of
phase (0 0), the curve traced out is shown in Fig. 42.19 (ii).
=

If, however, the frequency of the X-vibration is double that of

Y-vibration, then the pattern
obtained is as shown in Fig. 42.19. (ii).

() (i') v)
Y frea 1 Yfreq 2 Yfreq Yfrea.
X freq X freq Xfreq. 2 Xfreq,
Flg. 42.19
n act, the requency ratio of the two inputs may be determined trom an analyses of the Lissajous
Fures oduced. A method is to enclose the Lissajous figures
in a rectangle whose sides
alle simple are
allel to e fornmation axes of the figure and note the number ot tangency poinis along the vertical
446

(Y-axis) and the horizontal (X-axis). The

ratio of the number or B.Sc.Prheacical h
tangency points io in:

of the two frequencies i.e inverse

Number of tangencypoints
alongX-axis
along Y-axis
Frequency ot Y-vibrai ras
Number oftangency points Frequency of X-vibratior
An altermate method is to count the
number or poinis at wnich thevertical. and horizontal ling
cross the figure. In other words
Frequency of Y-vibration Number of crossings along the X-ay
Numberof crossings along the
Frequency of X-vibration

42.19 (), (G) i n

-axis allp
Y freg 5.5 areshown in Fig.
The cases
The o y freq- are
cases of and (
Experiment 42.8. To compare roduced by two audio-
the frequencies of oscillations produced
ain
lators ustng Lissajous figures CR

OR
Given a standard oscillator of frequency 1000 Hz to calibrate an audio acei
Apparatus A standard 1000 Hz audio-oscillator, a variable frequency audio ator.
cathode ray oscilloscope.
Procedure. 1. Connect the standard frequency oscillator [1000 Hz] to the
scil ator an
terminals of an oscilloscope. Connect the audio-oSCillator whose frequencies are to he co input
CR
the standard oscillator to the horizontal input' terminals. Connect togeth
ther the 'ground' kared with
termin of
both the oscilators. yol
2. Set the C.R.O. as already explained so that a sharp, bright spot is obtained in the centr
sCTeen. Tum the 'sweep control' to of position by seting it to ext. input' pOsition.
n. Set the
audio-oscillator frequency to the marked value of 1000 cycles/-sec.
3. Suitch on both the oscillators and adjust the gain controls of the two oscillators as well.
as the
horicor and 'Verical gains of the oscilloscope so that a good size ellipse (a 1:1 Lissajousfian
appears on the screen. Adjust the necessary controls to 'stop' the ellipse. The actual oscillator freaue yer
is ow 1000 Hz Record the dial reading. Gt will, in general, have a slightly different value, say 90 OSC
By switching off the audio-oscillator allow the ellipse to change phase and note various shapas
that appear on the screen. By phase change and amplitude adjustment try to obtáin a 'circular traoe
4. Set the oscillator frequency to the marked value of 500 and adjust slowly.so that a 1:2Lissajous
figure as shown in Fig. 42.19 (i) is obtained. If possible, adjust the controls to "lock the figure.
Record the dial reading
Similarly obrain(1:3,3:1),(2:3,3:2)Lissajousfigures and so on upto (1:5,5: 1)
Observations. Verical input standard frequency = 1000 Hz,

Hor. input Shape of No. of tangency points Vert Frea. Actual Hor.Freq
Marked dia Fig. Hor. Freq.
on X-axis on Y-axis
Freg.
990 1000/1 1000

495 2/1 1000/2=500

1980 1000x2=200
1/2
Precautions. 1. The vertical and horizontal gain controls of the oscilloscope shoula D justed
to obtain a proper size of lissajous figures.
2. The frequency of the audio-0scillator should be slowly adjusted so as to lock thepaten
sencyard
Exercise. Find the phase difference between two sinusoidal voliages of the
sameJrey"
amplilude.
doA a yO s c i l o s c o
cope 447

idal voltages are

The

the shape of Lissa-

R.O.Fromthe
finls;
simultaneously fed to the horizontd
ntal and vertical plates
the phase dif.
obtained
i g u r e s

calcula
in accord-
w
c

i
a

t h
A
n
be
r t4 2 . 3 . 1
C.A.O
ce
yperlment42.9.
To deter-
Toa
of an elect
frequency
he
maintained ined tuning fork using
aratus. ectrically main
i n gfork, a battery, a
d frequency oscilla-
0 ,a na u d i o . A. Foscillator
rheostat, resistor etc,

edure.
diagram 1. Draw a Fig. 42.20
onnections as in Fig. 42.20 and make connections
scheme of conn
accordingly.
=ingch on the power supply to the C.R.O and obtain a bright, sharp and fine spot of light at
2 Switch

f the
centreof the C.R.O. screen by adjusting the intensity, focussing and positioning controls ofthe

O. he tuning fork into vibrations by inserting the key K. As the tuning fork vibrates an A.C.
Setthe
s developed aacross the resistance R, which will trace a vertical line on the screen. Keep tnis

within the scaleby adjusting the Y-amplifier gain.

Switch on the audio frequency (A.F) oscilltor and adjust its frequency so as to obtain the
fa circle on the C.R.O screen. Trace the circle. Note the frequency produced by the
e of.
eillator. This is the frequency of the tuning fork.
Now adjust the frequency of the audio-oscillator so that a figure of eight (8) appears in the
ical direction on the sereen. Trace the figure and note the frequency produced by the audio
lator. The frequency of the tuning fork will be one half the frequency produced by the
lio-osicillator.
6: Again adjust the frequency of the audio-08cillator such that a figure of cight () in the
izontal direction appears on the screen. Trace the figure and note the frequency produced by the
io-osicllator. The frequency of the tuning fork will be double the frequeney produced by the
dio-oscillator.
Observations
No. Horizontal input Frequency Shape of No. of tangency points
from audio-oscillator()
Vert.freq. Freg. of
patern
on X-axis on Y-aris Hor. freq. tuning fork.

circle

Mean frequency of tuning fork =

recautions, Same as in Expt. 42.8.
Oral Questions
Co
ha athode ray oscilloscope. () Name the various parts of a cathode ray tube. (i) How does the cathode
idelcctrons? (t)
Ajustofthethaposit
What is the function of the grid? (iv) How do the focusing electrodes work? (v) How do you
Rh o n of the fluorescent spot in the centre of the screen? (vi) Why is the last anode and one plate of
e u d Ypairs earth connected? (vii) What is the material used on the fluorescentsCreen? (vii) How

uorescent nt screen connected to the final plate and why? (i) What i5 the function of time base circuit? (y
 B.SC. ractica
cical Pnysics
lamn be
lamp
Can
ii) C
(xi). an a neon
neon
used in
What isa
thyratron?
pla
448 triode (xi) Do
filled oscilloscope?
(in es the sensiüvi
gas
circuit using a of a n
Draw a time base
its draw
backs?
D.C. for
calibration

A.C. to h o r i z o n t a l / v e r t i c a l
amplifier? (ii) When is the sensit
What are to stay
do we prefer
allowed
of thyratron? not be
(i) Why of the light nev.Poin
2.
Calibration

3. Phase (i) What is upon

the gain
the phase differenceshould
of the spot taking
between two sinusoidal oscillations
the
ext OServi
which nro observaion?
before
ot
depend Why
minimum

full gain? (iv)

of an
oscillosope to a
brought
or at control be
maximum; at
no gain
the intensity the e.m.f. lead
e Pate
should does
long time (v)
? Why
A.C. circuit
containing
a pure
a pure
inductance

capacitor does the e m gbehind

screen? (i) In
an containing
and inductance i
C.R.O. A.C. circuit
ofa circle on
what angle ? (ii)
In an
circuit
c o n t a i n s a
resistance

in
th.Do
Does the e
series. Does
Does
the c u r r e n t and by

c u r r e n t and by
what angle? (iv)
An A.C.
e s i s t a n c e and
resistance
r
contains a
anda a capacitance
capacitance
what ic
lead e.m.f.
behind the
A.C. circuit other a pure capacitance, s the ph
lead or lag? (v) An and the
inductance
red to the second circuit?.
thee.m.f. An A.C. circuit
contains a pure
first circuit
and other
or lag? (vi) vibrations, one fed tothe A.C. circuit when
does the e.m f. alag behind
ifference between two A.C. (vii) In an
the current by 90°?
does the e.m.f. lead
A.C. circuit when
the c u r e n t by 90°? Draw the Lissajous figures for frequencyn atio l:
() What is a Lissajous figure? (ii) Lissajous figure v
4. Lissajous figures. to show how the shape of the
phase difference n/2.(i) Draw diagrams the condition that the fn
1,2:1, for a
1:2 ratio is 1: 1 (iv) What is
from 0 to 2 n and the frequency
whenthe phase changes of Lissajous figure?
How will you calculate the frequency ratio from the shape
may be circle? (v)