Study Material - Module 6 - DS - SEC C

Program Name: B-Tech CSE (DS)
Semester: I
Course Name: Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (Course Code: ESCD-101)
Class: SEC - C
Academic Session: 2023 - 2024
Study Material
Name of the Course: Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Course Code: ESCD101
Table of Contents
Module Topic Page

Number(s)
M-VI The p-n diode 2
Formation of depletion zone 17
V-I characteristics of a forward and reverse biased p-n junction diode 19

Shockley's equation 21
Zener diode, Zener breakdown, Avalanche breakdown 22

load and line regulation with a Zener diode 24
Light emitting diode (LED) 26

Photo diode 28
Solar cell 30
Varactors diode 32
tunnel diode 34
Diode as a half and full-wave rectifier 36

Bridge rectifier 41
Effect of filters 45
Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Designation and Department: Assistant Professor, EE
Brainware University, Kolkata 1
Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
1.0 INTRODUCTON
1.0.1. Based on electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as
insulators,semiconductors, and conductors.
Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity
when voltage is applied. E.g.: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator
is of the order of 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in
the fig.1.1. Band structureof a material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can
occupy. Valance band is the range of electron energy where the electron remains bended too
the atom and do not contribute to the electric current. Conduction bend is the range of
electron energies higher than valance band where electrons are free to accelerate under the
influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as
forbidden band gap. It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to
conduction band i.e. the energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap greater than 5Ev.
Because of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of
insulator is poor. Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to
transfer electrons from VB to CB.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a

voltage is applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum,
Silver, Gold. The resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance
and conduction bands overlap (FIG:1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move
from valance band to conduction band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even
at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore, at room temperature when electric field is
applied large current flows through the conductor.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between

theinsulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 10 4 Ω-cm. Two of
the most commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.).
Both have 4 valance electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For e.g., the
band gap energy for Si, Ge and GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero
temperature (0K). At 0K and at low temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have
sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the
temperature increases, a large number of valance electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave
the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These are now free electrons as they can
move freely under the influence of electric field. At room temperature there are sufficient
electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable ofconducting some current at
room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge
or current. Typical resistivity values for various materials are given as follows.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

-6
10 Ω-cm (Cu) 50Ω-cm (Ge) 1012 Ω-cm
(mica)
50x103 Ω-cm (Si)
Typical resistivity values
1.0.1 Semiconductor Types
A pure form of semiconductors is called intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction

in intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most
important semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium
Antimonide (InSb) etc.
Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons.
These 4 electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of
covalent bond. Fig.1.2a shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K).
Hence a pure SC acts has poor conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute
zero temperature.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K
At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as

shown in Fig 1.2b. The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free
electrons that are available for conduction.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room temperature 0K
The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually

referred to ashole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a
manner similar to thatof free electron.
The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:
When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance
electron in the neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron
moving from a bond to filla hole moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This
hole, in its new position may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond and
the hole will correspondingly move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of
electron. Here we have a mechanism for conduction of electricity which does not involve free
electrons. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig1.3

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
1.0.1 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small
amounts of current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic
semiconductor can be increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities, it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor.

This process of adding impurities is called as doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part
in 106 atoms.
N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant
semiconductor is called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are
Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony etc.
A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.4a shows the crystal structure of
N-type semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity
atom(antimony) forms covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth
electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily.
Excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or
increasing the thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the impurity atom is very small
of the order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si. The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor
energy level in the forbidden band gap with energy level Ed slightly less than the conduction band (Fig 1.4b). The
difference between the energy levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the energy required to
free the fifth valance electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room temperature almost all the fifth electrons

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
from the donor impurity atom are raised to conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the conduction
band increases significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction electron without creating a
hole. In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to those available in
an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger no. of electrons present increases the
recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N type sc is dominated by electrons which are referred to as
majority carriers. Holes are the minority carriers in N type sc P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a
trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are
Boron, Gallium , indium etc. The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.5a. The three valance electrons of
the impurity (boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in the fourth bond
giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboring atoms. Each trivalent atom
contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces a large no. of holes in the valance band. At the same time
the no. electrons are decreased compared to those available in intrinsic sc because of increased recombination due
to creation of additional holes.
Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each
trivalent impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The following Fig
1.5b shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
 The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of electron is greater
than that of hole.
 For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an N type sc is around
twice that of a P type sc
1.0.2 CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR
In a pure sc, the no. of holes is equal to the no. of electrons. Thermal agitation
continue to produce new electron- hole pairs and the electron hole pairs disappear because
of recombination. witheach electron hole pair created , two charge carrying particles are
formed . One is negative which is a free electron with mobility µn . The other is a positive i.e.,
hole with mobility µp . The electrons and hole move in opposite direction in an electric field
E, but since they are of opposite sign, the current due to each is in the same direction. Hence
the total current density J within the intrinsic sc is given by
J = Jn + Jp
=q n µn E + q p µp E
= (n µn + p µp)qE
=ς E
Where n=no. of electrons / unit volume i.e., concentration of free
electronsP= no. of holes / unit volume i.e., concentration
of holes
E=applied electric field strength, V/m
q= charge of electron or hole I n Coulombs
Hence, ς is the conductivity of sc which is equal to (n µn + p µp)q. he resistivity of sc

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
is reciprocal of conductivity.
Ρ = 1/ ς
It is evident from the above equation that current density with in a sc is directly
proportional to applied electric field E.
For pure sc, n=p= ni where ni = intrinsic concentration. The value of ni
ni2=AT3 exp (-EGO /KT)
therefore, J= ni ( µn + µp) qE
Hence conductivity in intrinsic sc is ςi= ni ( µn + µp) q
Intrinsic conductivity increases at the rate of 5% per o C for Ge and 7% per o C for Si.
Conductivity in extrinsic sc (N Type and P Type):
The conductivity of intrinsic sc is given by ςi= ni ( µn + µp) q = (n
µn + p µp)qFor N type , n>>p
Therefore
ς= q n µn
For P type
, p>>n
Therefore
ς= q p µp
1.0.3 CHARGE DENSITIES IN P TYPE AND N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Mass Action Law:
Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the no. of holes and
the concentration of electrons is constant and is independent of amount of donor and
acceptor impurity doping.
n.p= ni 2
Where n=electron concentration

P=hole concentration
ni2= intrinsic concentration
Hence in N type sc , as the no. of electrons increase the no. of holes decreases.
Similarly in P type as the no. of holes increases the no. of electrons decreases. Thus the
product is i constant and is equal to n 2 in case of intrinsic as well as extrinsic sc.
The law of mass action has given the relationship between free electrons
concentration and hole concentration. These concentrations are further related by the law of
electrical neutrality as explained below.
Law of electrical neutrality:
Sc materials are electrically neutral. According to the law of electrical neutrality, in an

electrically neutral material, the magnitude of positive charge concentration is equal to that
of negative charge concentration. Let us consider a sc that has ND donor atoms per cubic
centimeter and NA acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter i.e., the concentration of donor and
acceptor atoms are ND andNA respectively. Therefore, ND positively charged ions per cubic
centimeter are contributed by donor atoms and NA negatively charged ions per cubic
centimeter are contributed by the acceptor atoms. Let n, p is concentration of free electrons
and holes respectively. Then according to the law of neutrality
ND + p =NA + n........................................................................................................ eq 1.1
For N type sc, NA =0 and n>>p. Therefore ND ≈ n ................................................................ eq 1.2

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Hence for N type sc the free electron concentration is approximately equal to the
concentration of donor atoms. In later applications since some confusion may arise as to
which type of sc is under consideration a the given moment, the subscript n or p is added for
N type or P type respectively. Hence eq1.2 becomes ND ≈ nn
Therefore current density in N type sc is J
= ND µn q EAnd conductivity ς= ND µn q
For P type sc, ND = 0 and p>>n. Therefore NA ≈ p
Or NA ≈ pp
Hence for P type sc the hole concentration is approximately equal to the

concentration ofacceptor atoms.
Therefore current density in N type sc is J
= NA µp q EAnd conductivity ς= NA µp q
Mass action law for N type, nn pn= ni2
pn= ni2/ ND since (nn≈ ND)
Mass action law for P type, np pp= ni2
np= ni2/ NA since (pp ≈ NA)
1.0 QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
1.1.1 PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION:
In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is doped by
n type impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called
PN junction. As shown in the fig the n type material has high concentration of free electrons,
while p type material has high concentration of holes. Therefore, at the junction there is a

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
tendency of free electrons to diffuse over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This
process is called diffusion. As the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P
type, the donor atoms become positively charged. Hence a positive charge is built on the N-
side of the junction. The free electrons that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor
ions by filing the holes. Therefore, a negative charge is developed on the p –side of the
junction. This net negative charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of electrons into
the p side. Similarly, the net positive charge on the N side repels the hole crossing from p side
to N side. Thus a barrier sis set up near the junction which prevents the further movement of
charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes. As a consequence of induced electric field across the
depletion layer, an electrostatic potential difference is established between P and N regions,
which are called the potentialbarrier, junction barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential,
Vo. The magnitude of the contact potential Vo varies with doping levels and temperature. Vo
is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for Si.
Fig 1.6: Symbol of PN Junction Diode
The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type
region tends to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p type regions
tend to drive the electrons away from the junction. The majority holes diffusing out of the P
region leave behindnegatively charged acceptor atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing a
negatives pace charge in a previously neutral region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N
region expose positively ionized donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the
junction as shown in the Fig. 1.7a

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.7a
It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority carriers
diffusing into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the double space of the
layer causes an electric field to be set up across the junction directed from N to P regions,
which is in such a directionto inhibit the diffusion of majority electrons and holes as illustrated
in fig 1.7b. The shape of the chargedensity, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the
junction region is depleted of mobile charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space
region, and transition region. The depletion region isof the order of 0.5µm thick. There are
no mobile carriers in this narrow depletion region. Hence no current flows across the junction
and the system is in equilibrium. To the left of this depletion layer,the carrier concentration
is p= NA and to its right it is n= ND.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.7b
1.1.2 FORWARD BIASED JUNCTION DIODE
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied

to the N- type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external
voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon
and 0.3 volts for germanium,the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current
will start to flow. This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the
junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in
the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point,called the "knee" on the
static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with littleincrease in the external
voltage as shown below.
Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
Fig 1.8a: Diode Forward Characteristics
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion
layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the
junction therebyallowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in
current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee"
point.
Formation of depletion zone
The term "depletion zone" is commonly used in the context of semiconductor physics, specifically in the operation
of semiconductor diodes. A depletion zone, also known as a depletion region or space charge region, is an area
within a semiconductor material where the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) is reduced,
leading to a region depleted of mobile charge carriers. This depletion zone is crucial for the operation of
semiconductor devices like diodes.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Here's how the depletion zone forms:
1. Doping: Semiconductor materials are often doped with specific impurities to alter their electrical properties.
Doping introduces extra charge carriers into the material. There are two types of doping:
- N-Type Doping: Introducing an element with more electrons (donor impurity) than the semiconductor material
(such as adding phosphorus to silicon). This results in an excess of electrons, creating a negatively charged region.
- P-Type Doping: Introducing an element with fewer electrons (acceptor impurity) than the semiconductor
material (such as adding boron to silicon). This leads to a deficit of electrons, creating a positively charged region.
2. Contact: When an N-type and P-type semiconductor are brought into contact, a junction is formed. This junction
is known as a PN junction.
3. Diffusion: Due to the difference in electron concentrations, electrons from the N-type region diffuse across the
junction into the P-type region, and holes from the P-type region diffuse into the N-type region. This process
continues until an equilibrium is reached, and a region near the junction becomes depleted of charge carriers.
4. Electric Field: As electrons from the N-type region diffuse into the P-type region, they leave behind positively
charged donor ions in the N-type region and create negatively charged acceptor ions in the P-type region. This
separation of charges creates an electric field that opposes further electron and hole diffusion.
5. Equilibrium: Eventually, the electric field generated by the immobile ions prevents further movement of charge
carriers, and an equilibrium is established. This equilibrium results in the formation of the depletion zone, which is
an area around the PN junction where there are few mobile charge carriers.
The depletion zone plays a critical role in semiconductor devices. In a diode, for example, the depletion zone acts
as a barrier to the flow of current in the reverse-biased direction. When a forward bias voltage is applied across the
diode, it reduces the width of the depletion zone and allows current to flow. Understanding the formation and

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
behavior of the depletion zone is fundamental to the operation of various semiconductor devices and electronic
circuits.
Fig 1.9: Formation of depletion region
V-I characteristics of a forward and reverse biased p-n junction diode
The V-I (voltage-current) characteristics of a p-n junction diode describe how the diode behaves under different
voltage polarities (forward and reverse bias) and the resulting current flow. Here's an overview of the V-I
characteristics for both forward and reverse biased p-n junction diodes:
Fig 1.10: Forward biased p-n junction diode

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
1. Forward Bias:
In a forward-biased p-n junction diode, the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the P-type
material (anode), and the negative terminal is connected to the N-type material (cathode). This biasing arrangement
reduces the width of the depletion zone and facilitates the flow of current through the diode.
Voltage (V) is Positive: As the forward bias voltage increases, the electric field across the depletion zone is reduced.
At a certain voltage threshold, known as the "forward voltage" or "turn-on voltage" (typically around 0.6 to 0.7 volts
for silicon diodes), the diode starts conducting significant current. Below this threshold, the diode exhibits a very
low leakage current.
Current (I) Flow: Once the forward voltage is applied, the diode begins to conduct current. The relationship between
the voltage and current is nonlinear and can be described by the Shockley diode equation:
V
I=I𝑆 exp ( − 1)
ηV𝑡
Where,
I is the diode current
IS is the reverse saturation(a constant for the diode)
V is the voltage across the diode
η is the ideality factor(a value typically between 1 and 2)

𝐾𝑇
Vt is the thermal voltage, approximately 𝑞
,where B is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin and
q is the charge of an electron.
2. Reverse Bias:
In a reverse-biased p-n junction diode, the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the N-type
material (cathode), and the negative terminal is connected to the P-type material (anode). This biasing arrangement
increases the width of the depletion zone and restricts the flow of current through the diode.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Voltage (V) is Negative: As the reverse bias voltage increases, the width of the depletion zone increases. The diode
becomes less conductive, and only a small reverse leakage current (also known as the saturation current) flows. The
reverse leakage current is typically very low, but it can increase with higher reverse bias voltages.
Reverse Breakdown: If the reverse bias voltage continues to increase beyond a certain threshold, known as the
"reverse breakdown voltage," the diode can enter a state called "avalanche breakdown" or "Zener breakdown." In
this state, the diode allows a significant reverse current to flow, and it can be damaged if the current is not limited.
Overall, the V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode demonstrate its non-linear behavior and its ability to rectify
and control the flow of current based on the direction of applied voltage. The characteristics are essential for
understanding the diode's behavior in various electronic circuits and applications.
Fig 1.11: Reverse biased p-n junction diode
Shockley's equation
Shockley diode equation, which describes the relationship between the current flowing through a semiconductor
diode and the voltage across it. The Shockley diode equation is given by:
eV
I=I𝑆 exp ( )
ηkT
IS = Reverse saturation current

e =Magnitude of electron’s charge

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
k =Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute temperature
η = Numerical constant depending on the material of the diode (for Ge, η =1 and Si, η =2)
The Shockley diode equation is a fundamental equation in electronics and is used to model the behavior of diodes
in various electronic circuits. It provides insight into how diodes conduct current and how their behavior changes
with voltage and temperature.
Zener diode, Zener breakdown, Avalanche breakdown
Zener Diode: A Zener diode is a specialized type of diode that is designed to operate in the reverse-biased
breakdown region. Unlike regular diodes, which are typically used for rectification and allow current to flow in one
direction, Zener diodes are designed to maintain a nearly constant voltage across their terminals (the "Zener
voltage") when operated in the reverse breakdown region. This makes them useful for voltage regulation and
voltage reference applications.
Fig 1.12: Symbol of a Zener diode
1. Zener Breakdown: Zener breakdown is a phenomenon that occurs in a Zener diode when it is reverse-biased
and the electric field becomes strong enough to cause the valence electrons in the semiconductor material
to break free from their atoms, creating electron-hole pairs. This leads to a sudden increase in current and
a relatively constant voltage drop across the diode. Zener breakdown is exploited in Zener diodes to
maintain a specific voltage level regardless of changes in current.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.13: Typical phenomenon of Zener breakdown
2. Avalanche Breakdown: Avalanche breakdown is another type of breakdown that can occur in diodes, including
Zener diodes. It happens when the electric field across the diode becomes strong enough to accelerate charge
carriers (electrons or holes) to high energies. These high-energy carriers then collide with other atoms, creating
additional electron-hole pairs through impact ionization. This process leads to a rapid increase in current, similar to
Zener breakdown.
Fig 1.14: Phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Both Zener and avalanche breakdown can be controlled and utilized for specific applications. Zener breakdown is
more controlled and is typically used in voltage regulation, where a specific voltage level is maintained. Avalanche
breakdown is less controlled and is often seen in high-voltage applications, such as in power electronics and high-
voltage rectifier circuits.
In summary, Zener diodes are designed to exhibit controlled breakdown behavior, either through Zener breakdown
or avalanche breakdown, in order to provide voltage regulation and reference functions in electronic circuits.
Fig 1.15: V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode
load and line regulation with a Zener diode

Load regulation and line regulation are two important parameters that describe the performance of a voltage
regulator, such as a Zener diode voltage regulator, in maintaining a stable output voltage despite changes in load
and input voltage.
1. Load Regulation: Load regulation refers to the ability of a voltage regulator to maintain a relatively constant
output voltage when the load (current drawn from the regulator) changes. In the context of a Zener diode voltage
regulator, load regulation measures how well the regulator can hold the output voltage steady as the current drawn
by the load changes.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Mathematically, load regulation is often expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the following formula:
VNL -VFL
Percentage of load regulation = 100 , where VFL is the full load resistor voltage.
VFL
2. Line Regulation: Line regulation, on the other hand, measures the ability of a voltage regulator to maintain a
stable output voltage when the input voltage (supply voltage) varies. It quantifies how well the regulator
compensates for changes in the input voltage.
Line regulation is also expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the following formula:
V0
Percentage of the line regulation can be calculated by =  100
Vi
Where V0 is the output voltage and Vi is the input voltage. V0 is the change in output voltage for a particular
change in input voltage Vi .
In both load and line regulation, a lower percentage indicates better performance. A well-regulated voltage
regulator, such as a Zener diode voltage regulator, should exhibit minimal changes in output voltage due to
variations in load or input voltage.
Zener diode voltage regulators can provide relatively good load regulation due to their ability to maintain a nearly
constant output voltage in the breakdown region. However, their line regulation may not be as strong, as they are
sensitive to changes in input voltage. To enhance line regulation, additional circuitry, such as an emitter follower
configuration or a voltage regulator IC, can be used in conjunction with the Zener diode.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Light emitting diode (LED)
A Light Emitting Diode, commonly known as an LED, is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric
current passes through it. LEDs have become immensely popular due to their energy efficiency, long lifespan, and
versatility. They are used in a wide range of applications, from indicator lights on electronic devices to lighting for
homes, buildings, displays, and even automotive lighting.
Key characteristics and features of LEDs include:
1. Emission of Light: LEDs emit light in a process called electroluminescence. When electrons and holes recombine
within the semiconductor material of the LED, energy is released in the form of photons, which creates visible light.
2. Energy Efficiency: LEDs are highly energy-efficient compared to traditional incandescent and fluorescent lights.
They convert a significant portion of the electrical energy into light, resulting in less energy wastage as heat
3. Long Lifespan: LEDs have a much longer operational lifespan compared to conventional light sources. Properly
designed and driven LEDs can last tens of thousands of hours, reducing the need for frequent replacements.
4. Instant Lighting: LEDs reach full brightness almost instantly when powered on, unlike some other lighting
technologies that may require a warm-up period.
5. Color Variety: LEDs can emit light in a wide range of colors, covering the entire visible spectrum. This versatility
is achieved by using different semiconductor materials with specific energy bandgaps.
6. Small Size and Flexibility: LEDs are compact and can be easily integrated into various designs and applications.
They can also be arranged in arrays to create displays or to achieve specific lighting effects.
7. Solid-State Technology: LEDs are solid-state devices, meaning they have no moving parts, making them more
durable and resistant to mechanical shock and vibration.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
8. Dimmability: Many modern LEDs are dimmable, allowing for control over the brightness level and energy
consumption.
9. Environmental Benefits: LEDs are environmentally friendly due to their energy efficiency, longer lifespan, and
lack of hazardous materials like mercury (which is found in some fluorescent lamps).
Fig 1.16: Light Emitting Diode
LEDs are commonly used in various applications, such as:
- General lighting in homes, offices, and outdoor spaces.
- Automotive lighting, including headlights, taillights, and interior lighting.
- Backlighting for displays and screens (TVs, monitors, smartphones, etc.).
- Indicator lights on electronic devices and appliances.
- Decorative and architectural lighting.
- Streetlights and outdoor area lighting.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
As technology advances, LEDs continue to evolve with improvements in efficiency, color accuracy, and cost-
effectiveness, leading to even broader adoption in diverse fields.
Photo diode
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. It operates based on the
principle of the photoelectric effect, where incident photons (light particles) are absorbed by the semiconductor
material, generating electron-hole pairs and causing a flow of current. Photodiodes are widely used in various
applications for light detection and optical signal conversion.
Key features and characteristics of photodiodes include:
1. Light Sensitivity: Photodiodes are highly sensitive to light, even at low levels. They can detect a wide range of
light wavelengths, from ultraviolet (UV) to infrared (IR), depending on the specific type of photodiode and the
semiconductor material used.
2. Fast Response Time: Photodiodes can respond to changes in light intensity quickly, making them suitable for
applications that require high-speed detection, such as optical communication systems.
3. Reverse Bias Operation: Photodiodes are typically operated in reverse bias mode, where a voltage is applied in a
direction that opposes the normal flow of current. This arrangement enhances the photodiode's sensitivity to light.
4. Linear Response: The current generated by a photodiode is proportional to the intensity of the incident light,
assuming the light intensity is within the photodiode's linear range.
5. Low Noise: Photodiodes exhibit low noise characteristics, making them suitable for applications that require
accurate detection of weak optical signals.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
6. Avalanche Photodiodes: Some photodiodes, known as avalanche photodiodes (APDs), are designed to operate
in the avalanche breakdown region. This allows for internal multiplication of electron-hole pairs, resulting in higher
sensitivity and improved signal-to-noise ratios.
7. Applications: Photodiodes have a wide range of applications, including:
- Light sensors in automatic lighting control systems.
- Optical communication systems, such as fiber-optic communication networks.
- Remote control receivers.
- Barcode readers and scanners.
- Smoke and flame detectors.
- Photovoltaic energy generation (solar cells).
8. Variety of Types: There are different types of photodiodes designed for specific applications, such as PIN
photodiodes, PN photodiodes, and APDs. Each type has its own characteristics and advantages, making them
suitable for various scenarios.
It's important to note that photodiodes produce a photocurrent that needs to be properly amplified and processed
in many applications. Signal conditioning circuitry, such as trans impedance amplifiers, is often used to convert the
small photocurrent into a usable voltage signal.
Overall, photodiodes play a crucial role in modern technology, enabling light detection and conversion across a wide
range of industries and applications.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.16: Construction of Photo Diode
Solar cell
A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) cell, is a semiconductor device that converts sunlight directly into
electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells are a key component of solar panels and solar arrays, which
are used to generate renewable energy from sunlight. They play a significant role in the field of solar power
generation and have gained widespread adoption as a clean and sustainable energy source.
Key features and characteristics of solar cells include:
1. Photovoltaic Effect: Solar cells operate based on the photovoltaic effect, where photons (light particles) from the
sun strike the semiconductor material of the cell and create electron-hole pairs. This generates an electric current
within the cell.
2. Energy Conversion Efficiency: Solar cells have an energy conversion efficiency that determines the percentage of
sunlight that is converted into usable electrical energy. Different types of solar cells have varying efficiencies, and
researchers continue to work on improving this parameter.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
3. Sunlight Spectrum: Solar cells are most efficient at converting sunlight in specific wavelengths, typically in the
visible and near-infrared range. Some advanced solar cell technologies aim to capture a broader spectrum of light.
4. Types of Solar Cells: There are several types of solar cells, including:
- Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Made from a single crystal structure, these cells have high efficiency and are
commonly used in residential and commercial installations.
- Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Made from multiple crystal structures, these cells are less expensive to produce
but have slightly lower efficiency than monocrystalline cells.
- Thin-Film Solar Cells: These cells use thin semiconductor layers and can be more flexible and lightweight.
Examples include amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) cells.
- Multijunction Solar Cells: These cells stack multiple layers of semiconductors to capture a broader range of
wavelengths and achieve higher efficiency.
5. Applications: Solar cells are used primarily to generate electricity from sunlight. They are commonly used in:
- Solar power plants: Large installations that generate electricity for the grid.
- Residential and commercial rooftop installations.
- Portable solar chargers for devices like smartphones and laptops.
- Remote power systems, such as for telecommunications equipment and weather stations.
- Space applications, where solar cells are used to power satellites and spacecraft.
6. Net Metering: In grid-connected systems, excess electricity generated by solar panels can be fed back into the
grid, and the owner may receive credit for the surplus energy through a process called net metering.
7. Environmental Benefits: Solar cells produce electricity without emitting greenhouse gases or other pollutants,
contributing to reduced environmental impact and combating climate change.
Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
As technology advances and research continues, solar cell efficiency and manufacturing processes are improving,
making solar power an increasingly viable and cost-effective source of clean energy.
Fig 1.17: Construction of a Solar Cell
Varactors diode
A varactor diode, also known as a varicap diode or tuning diode, is a type of semiconductor diode that exploits the
voltage-dependent capacitance of a reverse-biased p-n junction. Varactor diodes are used primarily for voltage-
controlled capacitance and frequency-tuning applications in electronic circuits. They play a crucial role in various RF
(radio frequency) and microwave devices.
Key characteristics and features of varactor diodes include:
1. Voltage-Dependent Capacitance : Varactor diodes have a capacitance that varies with the reverse-bias voltage
applied across their terminals. As the reverse voltage increases, the width of the depletion region in the diode
changes, resulting in a corresponding change in capacitance.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
2. Nonlinear Behavior: The capacitance-voltage relationship of a varactor diode is nonlinear. This characteristic
makes varactors suitable for voltage-controlled oscillators, frequency multipliers, and other applications where
nonlinear behavior is desired.
3. Tuning Applications : Varactor diodes are commonly used in electronic circuits for frequency tuning, such as in
voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) found in radio and communication systems. By changing the bias voltage across
the varactor, the resonant frequency of the oscillator can be controlled.
4. Voltage-Controlled Filters : Varactors are also used in voltage-controlled filters, where the capacitance of the
varactor is utilized to tune the center frequency of the filter.
5. Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs) : Varactors are essential components in phase-locked loop circuits, which are widely
used for frequency synthesis, clock generation, and synchronization in communication systems.
6. Radio and TV Tuners : Varactor diodes are found in the tuning circuits of radio and television receivers. By
adjusting the voltage across the varactor, users can change the frequency to select different channels.
7. Microwave and RF Applications : Varactors are commonly used in microwave and RF circuits for frequency
modulation, tuning, and filtering.
8. Parasitic Effects : Varactors are sensitive to parasitic capacitances, inductances, and resistances, which can impact
their performance at higher frequencies.
9. High-Quality Factor (Q) : Some varactor diodes have a high Q factor, indicating their ability to store and release
energy efficiently. This can be advantageous in resonant circuits.
10. Variety of Materials : Varactor diodes can be fabricated using various semiconductor materials, such as silicon
(Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and silicon carbide (SiC), depending on the specific application and frequency range.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Overall, varactor diodes are important components in RF and microwave electronics, enabling precise voltage-
controlled tuning and frequency modulation. Their voltage-dependent capacitance behavior makes them versatile
tools for designing various types of frequency-dependent circuits and systems.
Fig 1.17: Varactor Diode
Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode, also known as an Esaki diode, is a unique type of semiconductor diode that exhibits a phenomenon
called tunneling, which allows it to conduct current in reverse bias. Tunnel diodes are used in specific applications
where their negative differential resistance (NDR) characteristics are advantageous. They were first introduced by
Leo Esaki in 1958, and their operation is based on quantum mechanical effects.
Key characteristics and features of tunnel diodes include:
1. Negative Differential Resistance (NDR): The most distinctive feature of a tunnel diode is its NDR region in its
current-voltage characteristic. Unlike typical diodes, which have positive differential resistance (as voltage increases,
current also increases), tunnel diodes exhibit a region where increasing voltage leads to decreasing current. This
behavior allows them to amplify signals and function as oscillators at microwave frequencies.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
2. Tunneling Phenomenon: Tunneling is a quantum mechanical effect where electrons can pass through a thin
energy barrier that they do not have sufficient energy to overcome classically. In a tunnel diode, electrons "tunnel"
through the narrow depletion region of the diode, enabling reverse-bias current flow.
3. High-Speed Switching: Tunnel diodes can switch extremely quickly due to their NDR behavior, making them useful
in applications requiring high-speed switching and amplification.
4. Microwave Oscillators: Tunnel diodes can generate microwave signals in oscillator circuits due to their ability to
self-sustain oscillations in the NDR region. They were historically used in early microwave applications before more
advanced technologies became available.
5. Amplification: Tunnel diodes can be used for amplification in specific frequency ranges. The NDR characteristic
allows for gain control and amplification over a narrow voltage range.
6. Low Power Consumption: Tunnel diodes are relatively low-power devices, making them suitable for applications
where power efficiency is important.
7. Limited Voltage Range: Tunnel diodes have a limited operating voltage range; beyond which they transition into
their normal diode behavior.
8. Applications: While modern semiconductor technologies have largely superseded tunnel diodes in many
applications, they still find niche uses in areas like high-frequency signal generation, microwave amplification, and
pulse generation.
It's worth noting that while tunnel diodes were once quite popular for specific applications, their usage has
diminished over time due to advances in semiconductor technology. Other devices like field-effect transistors (FETs)
and more advanced semiconductor materials now offer similar or improved performance in many applications.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.18: Tunnel Diode
Diode as a half and full-wave rectifier
A diode can be used as a half-wave or full-wave rectifier to convert an alternating current (AC) input signal into a
direct current (DC) output signal. Rectifiers are essential components in power supplies and various electronic
circuits where a steady DC voltage is required.
1. Half-Wave Rectifier:
In a half-wave rectifier, only one half (either the positive or negative half) of the AC input waveform is allowed to
pass through while the other half is blocked. This is achieved using a single diode. The basic setup of a half-wave
rectifier consists of an AC voltage source, a diode, and a load resistor.
During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, the diode is forward-biased and allows current to flow through the
load resistor. This creates a positive voltage across the load resistor. During the negative half-cycle, the diode is
reverse-biased and prevents current from flowing, resulting in zero output voltage.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
The output of a half-wave rectifier is characterized by a pulsating DC waveform with gaps during the negative half-
cycles. It is less efficient and not suitable for applications requiring a stable and smooth DC output.
Fig 1.19: Half-wave rectifier
Vrms = Vmax/2 = 0.5Vmax.
Idc=Vdc/R ; P=I2dc/R
Ripple factor:

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Rectification Efficiency:
2. Full-Wave Rectifier:
In a full-wave rectifier, both halves of the AC input waveform are utilized, resulting in a more efficient conversion of
AC to DC. There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers: the center-tapped full-wave rectifier and the bridge
rectifier.
Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier: This configuration uses a center-tapped transformer secondary winding and two
diodes. The center tap serves as the common connection, while the diodes are connected to the ends of the
winding. During each half-cycle of the AC input, one diode conducts, allowing current to flow through the load
resistor. This produces a continuous DC output with reduced ripple compared to a half-wave rectifier.
Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier uses four diodes arranged in a bridge configuration to rectify both halves of the
AC input waveform. This eliminates the need for a center-tapped transformer. During each half-cycle of the AC input,
two diodes conduct, resulting in a continuous and smoother DC output with even less ripple compared to the center-
tapped full-wave rectifier.
The output of a full-wave rectifier, whether center-tapped or bridge, is a pulsating DC waveform, which can be
further smoothed using capacitors or other filtering components to achieve a more stable DC voltage.
In summary, diodes are key components in rectifier circuits, which convert AC to DC. Half-wave rectifiers use one
diode and provide a pulsating DC output, while full-wave rectifiers use two or four diodes and offer a more efficient
and smoother conversion of AC to DC.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.20: Full-wave rectifier
PIV rating
PIV stands for "Peak Inverse Voltage," and it is a critical parameter for diodes and other semiconductor devices that
are used in rectifier circuits. PIV rating refers to the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without
breaking down and allowing significant reverse current to flow through it.
In a rectifier circuit, the diode is typically reverse-biased during the negative half-cycle of the AC input voltage. The
PIV rating is important because if the reverse voltage across the diode exceeds its PIV rating, it can lead to a
phenomenon known as "avalanche breakdown" or "reverse breakdown," where the diode's insulating properties
break down, and a large reverse current flow through the diode. This can damage the diode and other components
in the circuit.
When selecting a diode for a specific rectifier circuit, it's essential to ensure that the diode's PIV rating is higher than
the maximum peak reverse voltage that the diode will experience in the circuit. This provides a safety margin and
prevents the diode from entering the breakdown region.
For example, in a full-wave rectifier circuit using a bridge rectifier, the PIV rating of the diodes should be at least
twice the peak value of the AC input voltage. This is because each diode in the bridge rectifier is subjected to the
full peak value of the AC voltage during the negative half-cycle.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
In summary, the PIV rating of a diode is a crucial parameter that ensures the safe operation of rectifier circuits by
preventing avalanche breakdown. It is important to select diodes with PIV ratings that are appropriate for the
specific application and the peak reverse voltage they will experience in the circuit.
Ripple factor
The ripple factor is a measure of the amount of fluctuation or "ripple" in the output voltage of a rectifier circuit. It
quantifies the level of AC component present in the rectified DC output. A lower ripple factor indicates a smoother
and more stable DC output voltage, which is generally desirable for many applications.
The ripple factor is typically expressed as a percentage or in decibels (dB) and is calculated using the following
formula:
For Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers:

𝑉
Ripple Factor=𝑉 𝑟 × 100%
𝐷𝐶
Where:
 Vr is the root-mean-square(RMS) value of the AC component(ripple voltage) in the rectified output.

 VDC is the average DC value of the rectified output.
For Bridge Rectifiers:

𝑉
𝐷𝐶
Where:


Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
For a Smoothing Capacitor Filtered Output:
𝑉
𝐷𝐶
Where:

In all cases, a smaller ripple factor indicates a more stable and less fluctuating DC output voltage. The ripple factor
depends on various factors, including the type of rectifier circuit, the load resistance, and the smoothing
components (such as capacitors) used in the circuit.
For practical applications, it's important to keep the ripple factor as low as possible, especially in cases where a
steady DC voltage is required for sensitive electronic devices or components. Smoothing techniques, such as using
larger filter capacitors, can help reduce the ripple factor and improve the quality of the rectified DC output.
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier is a type of rectifier circuit used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It
provides full-wave rectification, meaning it allows both halves of the AC input waveform to be utilized in generating
a continuous DC output. Bridge rectifiers are widely used due to their efficiency and ability to produce a smoother
DC output compared to half-wave rectifiers.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
Fig 1.21(a): Bridge rectifier circuit without filter
Fig 1.21(b): Bridge rectifier circuit with filter
Ripple factor:
As mentioned in the half wave rectifier the ripple factor is a measure of purity of
the d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
In case of a full-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/√2 = 0.707Vmax. The ripple frequency is

nowtwice the supply frequency (e.g., 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).
Rectification Efficiency:
Rectification efficiency, η, is given by
where rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode

loss (rd<<), the rectification efficiency in case of a full-wave rectifier is approximately
81.1%, which is twice the value for a half-wave rectifier.
Key features and characteristics of a bridge rectifier include:
1. Configuration: A bridge rectifier consists of four diodes arranged in a bridge or diamond configuration. The AC
input is connected to the two diagonally opposite points of the bridge, and the DC output is taken from the
remaining two points.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
2. Operation: During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, diodes D2 and D3 are forward-biased and allow current
to flow through the load resistor, producing a positive voltage across it. During the negative half-cycle, diodes D1
and D4 become forward biased, allowing current to flow in the opposite direction through the load resistor. This
results in a continuous DC output with reduced ripple compared to a half-wave rectifier.
3. Advantages:
- Full-wave rectification: Both halves of the AC input waveform are used, resulting in a more efficient conversion
of AC to DC.
- Smoother output: The continuous switching between diodes helps reduce the ripple content in the output,
leading to a smoother DC voltage.
- No center-tapped transformer required: Unlike the center-tapped full-wave rectifier, a bridge rectifier doesn't
require a center-tapped secondary winding on the transformer.
4. Ripple Frequency: The ripple frequency in the output of a bridge rectifier is twice the frequency of the AC input,
which is the same as the ripple frequency in a center-tapped full-wave rectifier.
5. Applications:
- Power supplies for electronic devices and appliances.
- Battery chargers.
- DC motor drives.
- LED driver circuits.
- Rectification in various industrial and automotive applications.
6. Output Filtering: While a bridge rectifier reduces ripple compared to a half-wave rectifier, additional filtering may
be applied using capacitors or inductors to further smooth the DC output.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
7. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): Diodes in the bridge rectifier should have a PIV rating at least twice the peak value of
the AC input voltage to prevent reverse breakdown.
In summary, a bridge rectifier is a versatile and widely used circuit for converting AC to DC, providing full-wave
rectification and a smoother output compared to a half-wave rectifier. It is a fundamental building block in power
supply circuits, enabling a steady and usable DC voltage for various applications.
Effect of filters
Filters are essential components in electronic circuits that are used to modify the amplitude, phase, or frequency
response of signals. They can attenuate unwanted frequencies, enhance desired frequencies, or provide smoothing
effects. Filters are commonly used in a variety of applications, such as audio systems, communication systems,
power supplies, and more. The effects of filters depend on their type and design.
Here are some of the main effects of filters:
1. Frequency Selection or Rejection: Filters can be designed to allow certain frequencies to pass through while
attenuating or rejecting others. This is particularly useful in applications where specific frequency components need
to be isolated or removed.
2. Smoothing and DC Removal : Filters, especially low-pass filters, can be used to smooth out signals by reducing
high-frequency noise or fluctuations. They are also used to remove unwanted DC offset from AC signals.
3. Signal Enhancement : Filters can amplify or emphasize specific frequency components of a signal. For example,
equalization filters in audio systems can boost or cut certain frequency bands to tailor the sound.
4. Noise Reduction : Filters can be employed to reduce unwanted noise or interference from a signal. High-pass and
band-reject filters are commonly used for noise reduction.

Semester: I
Class: SEC - C
5. Phase Shift : Filters can introduce phase shifts to signals. This property is often utilized in applications where
phase relationships between different signals are important.
6. Group Delay : Filters can introduce group delay, affecting the time delay of different frequency components in a
signal. This property is crucial in applications like signal processing and communication systems.
7. Attenuation : Filters can attenuate or reduce the amplitude of certain frequencies. This is useful when unwanted
frequencies need to be suppressed.
8. Crossover Networks: Filters are used in crossover networks to direct different frequency ranges to appropriate
speakers in audio systems, ensuring accurate sound reproduction.
9. Resonance: Filters can exhibit resonance effects, where the amplitude response is enhanced at a particular
frequency. This phenomenon is used in applications like tuned circuits and oscillators.
10. Signal Isolation : Filters can be used to isolate signals in multiplexing and demultiplexing applications, ensuring
that different signals do not interfere with each other.
There are various types of filters, including low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-reject (notch), and all-pass filters,
each with its own specific characteristics and effects. The choice of filter type and design depends on the particular
requirements of the circuit or system and the desired effects on the signal.


Study Material - Module 6 - DS - SEC C

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Study Material - Module 6 - DS - SEC C

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Program Name: B-Tech CSE (DS)

Module Topic Page

Formation of depletion zone 17

V-I characteristics of a forward and reverse biased p-n junction diode 19

Zener diode, Zener breakdown, Avalanche breakdown 22

Light emitting diode (LED) 26

Diode as a half and full-wave rectifier 36

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

50x103 Ω-cm (Si)

Typical resistivity values

1.0.1 Semiconductor Types

A pure form of semiconductors is called intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room temperature 0K

The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually

The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

1.0.1 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities, it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor.

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

1.0.2 CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR

Where n=no. of electrons / unit volume i.e., concentration of free

electronsP= no. of holes / unit volume i.e., concentration

E=applied electric field strength, V/m

q= charge of electron or hole I n Coulombs

Hence, ς is the conductivity of sc which is equal to (n µn + p µp)q. he resistivity of sc

For pure sc, n=p= ni where ni = intrinsic concentration. The value of ni

ni2=AT3 exp (-EGO /KT)

Hence conductivity in intrinsic sc is ςi= ni ( µn + µp) q

Conductivity in extrinsic sc (N Type and P Type):

The conductivity of intrinsic sc is given by ςi= ni ( µn + µp) q = (n

µn + p µp)qFor N type , n>>p

1.0.3 CHARGE DENSITIES IN P TYPE AND N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

Mass Action Law:

Where n=electron concentration

Law of electrical neutrality:

Sc materials are electrically neutral. According to the law of electrical neutrality, in an

ND + p =NA + n........................................................................................................ eq 1.1

For N type sc, NA =0 and n>>p. Therefore ND ≈ n ................................................................ eq 1.2

Therefore current density in N type sc is J

For P type sc, ND = 0 and p>>n. Therefore NA ≈ p

Hence for P type sc the hole concentration is approximately equal to the

Therefore current density in N type sc is J

Mass action law for N type, nn pn= ni2

pn= ni2/ ND since (nn≈ ND)

Mass action law for P type, np pp= ni2

np= ni2/ NA since (pp ≈ NA)

1.0 QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

1.1.1 PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION:

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Fig 1.6: Symbol of PN Junction Diode

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Suryendu DasGupta