KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL

(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT 21-Introduction to mechatronics, and examples

of mechatronic systems

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student
should be able to…
⚫ Describe the mechatronics,
⚫ illustrate the examples of mechatronic
systems

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 Mechatronics

The name [mechatronics] was coined by Ko Kikuchi, now

president of Yasakawa Electric Co., Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo.

The word, mechatronics is composed of mecha from

mechanics and tronics from electronics. In other words,
technologies and developed products will be
incorporating electronics more and more into
mechanisms, intimately and organically, and making it
impossible to tell where one ends and the other begins.
 ⚫ Integration of electronics, control engineering, and
mechanical engineering. – W. Bolton, Mechatronics:
Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical Engineering,
Longman, 1995.
⚫ Synergistic use of precision engineering, control theory,
computer science, and sensor and actuator technology to
design improved products and processes.” – S. Ashley,
“Getting a hold on mechatronics,” Mechanical
Engineering., 119(5), 1997.
⚫ Field of study involving the analysis, design, synthesis,
and selection of systems that combine electronics and
mechanical components with modern controls and
microprocessors. – D. G. Alciatore and M. B. Histand,
Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems,
McGraw Hill, 1998.
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Mechatronics: Working Definition for us
Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of sensors,
actuators, signal conditioning, power electronics, decision and
control algorithms, and computer hardware and software to
manage complexity, uncertainty, and communication in
engineered systems

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 Disciplinary Foundations of Mechatronics
⚫ Mechanical Engineering
⚫ Electrical Engineering
⚫ Computer Engineering
⚫ Computer/Information Systems

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SYSTEM
A system can be thought of which has an input and an output
and where we do not consider what input but only the
relationship between the output and input.
A motor may be thought of as a system which has as its input
electric power and as output the rotation of a shaft.

An example of a system

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 The mechatronic system is made of several systems like

• Measurement system
• Drive and actuation system
• Control system, microprocessor system
• Computer system.

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Measurement System
⚫ A measurement system is a system which is used for

making measurements. It has as its input the quantity

being measured and its output the value of that
quantity.
⚫ For example, a temperature measurement system, i.e.

a thermometer, has an input of temperature and an

output of a number on a scale.
⚫ The system can be purely mechanical, electrical or

electronic requiring compatible inputs. But the

mechatronic system is the combination of these
systems.

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 Sensor which responds to the quantity being measured
by giving as its output a signal which is related to the
quantity.
Example: a thermocouple is a temperature , sensor.
Signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and
manipulates it into a condition which is suitable for
either display or in the case of a control system, for use
to exercise control.
Display system where the output from the signal
conditioner is displayed

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 Control systems
A control system can is a system which is used to control its
output to some particular value or particular sequence of
values.
Example, an air conditioner, we can set particular
temperature and it works based on sensing the atmospheric
temperature

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Control systems may be classified

Open loop control system.

Closed loop or feedback control system.

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 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
Its operation is very simple, when an input signal
directs the control element to respond, an output
will be produced.
Examples of the open loop control systems include
washing machines, light switches, gas ovens, etc

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 OPEN LOOP SYSTEM: ADVANTAGES
Simplicity and stability: they are simpler in their
layout and hence are economical and stable too
due to their simplicity.
Construction: Since these are having a simple
layout so are easier to construct.
DISADVANTAGES:
Accuracy and Reliability: since these systems do
not have a feedback mechanism, so they are very
inaccurate in terms of result output and hence
they are unreliable too.
Due to the absence of a feedback mechanism, they
are unable to remove the disturbances occurring
from external sources.
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 ⚫ CLOSED LOOP OR FEEDBACK CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Sometimes, we may use the output of the control system to adjust the
input signal. This is called feedback. “Feedback is a special feature of a
closed loop control system’’
A closed loop control system compares the output with the expected
result, then it takes appropriate control actions to adjust the input
signal.
Therefore, a closed loop system is always equipped with a sensor,
which is used to monitor the output and compare it with the expected
result

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CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM: ADVANTAGES
Accuracy: They are more accurate than open loop
system due to their complex construction. They are
equally accurate and are not disturbed in the presence
of non-linearities.
Noise reduction ability: Since they are
composed of a feedback mechanism, so they
clear out the errors between input and output
signals, and hence remain unaffected to the
external noise sources

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 DISADVANTAGES:
Construction: They are relatively more complex in
construction and hence it adds up to the cost making it
costlier than open loop system.
Since it consists of feedback loop, it may create oscillatory
response of the system and it also reduces the overall gain
of the system.
Stability: It is less stable than open loop system but
this disadvantage can be striked off since we can
make the sensitivity of the system very small so as
to make the system as stable as possible

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
MECHATRONCIS
Lesser working hours for the same production
Reduced lead time
Elimination of set up time
Safer working conditions
Better product quality
Increased standard of living
Greater extend of machine utilization
Wide area of application
Possibility of controlling remotely
Greater productivity in case of manufacturing organization

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 Disadvantages:
⚫ Lower skill levels of workers.

⚫ High initial investment.

⚫ Retrenchment or unemployment.

⚫ Not suitable for short product life cycle

⚫ Not economically justifiable for small scale

production.
⚫ Multi-disciplinary engineering background required
to design and develop.
⚫ complexity in identification and correction of
problems

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 ⚫ Mechatronics Applications • Smart consumer products:
home security, camera, microwave oven, toaster, dish
washer, laundry washer-dryer, climate control units, etc.
⚫ Medical: implant-devices, assisted surgery, haptic, etc.
⚫ Defense: unmanned air, ground, and underwater vehicles,
smart munitions, jet engines, etc.
⚫ Manufacturing: robotics, machines, processes, etc. •
Automotive: climate control, antilock brake, active
suspension, cruise control, air bags, engine management,
safety, etc.
⚫ Network-centric, distributed systems: distributed robotics,
telerobotics, intelligent highways, etc

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 KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL
(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT22: Introduction to basic system models,

Mechanical building blocks

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student
should be able to…
⚫ Describe the basic system models
⚫ illustrate the Mechanical building
blocks

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 Mathematical Models

Think how systems behave with time when subject to some

disturbances

In order to understand the behavior of systems,

mathematical models are required

Mathematical models are equations which describe the

relationship between the input and output of a system.

The basis for any mathematical model is provided by the

fundamental physical laws that govern the behavior of the
system.
 Building Blocks
⚫ Systems can be made up from a range of building
blocks.
⚫ Each building block is considered to have a single
property or function.
⚫ Example: an electric circuit system which is made up
from blocks which represent the behavior of resistance,
capacitance, and inductor, respectively.
⚫ By combining these building blocks a variety of
electrical circuit systems can be built up and the overall
input- output relationship can be obtained.
⚫ A system built in this way is called a lumped parameter
system

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Mechanical System Building Blocks

⚫ Basic building block: Spring, dashpots, and masses

⚫ Spring represent the Stiff ness of a System

⚫ Dashpots represent the forces opposing motion, for example frictional

or damping effects.

⚫ Masses represent the inertia or resistance to acceleration.

⚫ Mechanical systems does not have to be really made up of springs,

dashpots, and masses but have the properties of stiffness, damping, and
inertia.

⚫ All these building blocks may be considered to have a force as an input

and displacement as an output

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 Rotational Systems
⚫ The mass, spring, and dashpot are the basic building blocks
for mechanical systems where forces and straight line
displacements are involved without any rotation.

⚫ If rotation is involved, then the equivalent three building

blocks are a torsional spring, a rotary damper and the
moment of inertia (i.e. the inertia of a rotating mass).

⚫ With a torsional spring the angle q rotated is proportional to

the torque: T = kq.

⚫ With a rotary damper a disc is rotated in a fluid and the

resistive torque T is proportional to the angular velocity w.

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The moment of inertia block exhibit the property that the
greater the moment of inertia J the greater the torque needed
to produce an angular acceleration.
⚫ T = cw = c dq ; T dt= Ja

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 Stiffness of a Spring

Stiffness of a spring is described as the relationship between

the force F used to extend or compress a spring and the
resulting extension or compression x.
In the case of spring where the extension or compression is
proportional to the force (linear spring): F= kx, where k is a
constant, the bigger the value of k the greater the forces have
to be to stretch or compress the spring and so the greater the
stiffness

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Translational Spring, k (N)
⚫ Appied force Fa (t) in Newton

Linear velocity v(t) (m/sec)

⚫ Linear position x(t) (m)

Fa (t) = ks x(t)

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 ⚫ Rotational Spring, ks (N-m-sec/rad)
Appied torque Ta (t) (N - m)
Angular velocity w(t) (rad/sec)
Angular displacement q (t) (rad)
Ta (t) = Bmq (t)

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 KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL
(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT23: Introduction to basic system models,

Mechanical building blocks

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student
should be able to…
⚫ illustrate the Mechanical building
blocks

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 Dashpot
⚫ The dashpot block represents the types of forces
experienced when pushing an object through a fluid or
move an object against frictional forces. The faster the
object is pushed the greater becomes the opposing forces.
⚫ The dashpot which represents these damping forces that
slow down moving objects consists of a piston moving in
a closed cylinder.
⚫ Movement of the piston requires the fluid on one side of
the piston to flow through or past the piston. This flow
produces a resistive force. The damping or resistive force
is proportional to the velocity v of the piston:
F = cv or F = c dv/dt

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 Translational Damper, Bv (N-sec)
Applied force Fa (t) in Newton
Linear velocity v(t) (m/sec)
Linear position x(t) (m)
Fa (t) = Bmv(t)

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 Rotational Damper, Bm (N-m-sec/rad)
Applied torque Ta (t) (N – m)
Angular velocity w(t) (rad/sec)
Angular displacement q (t) (rad)
Ta (t) = Bmw(t)

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 Mass
The mass exhibits the property that the bigger the
mass the greater the force required to give it a
specific acceleration.
The relationship between the force F and
acceleration a is Newton’s second law as shown
below.
Energy is needed to stretch the spring, accelerate the
mass and move the piston in the dashpot. In the case
of spring and mass we can get the energy back but
with the dashpot we cannot.

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 Mechanical Building Blocks
Building Block Equation Energy representation

Translational
Spring F = kx E = 0.5 F2/k
Dashpot F = c dx/dt P = cv2
Mass F = m d2x/dt2 E = 0.5 mv2
Rotational
Spring T = kq E = 0.5 T2/k
Damper T = c dq/dt P = cw2
Moment of inertia T = J d2q/dt2 P = 0.5 Jw2

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 Building Mechanical Blocks

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 Electromechanical Analogies
From Newton’s law or using Lagrange equations of
motions, the second- order differential equations of
translational-dynamics and torsional- dynamics are found
as

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 KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL
(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT24: Electrical building blocks

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student should be
able to…
⚫ illustrate the Electrical building blocks

⚫ Building up a model for an electrical system

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 Electrical system building blocks
The basic building blocks of electrical systems are
resistance, inductance and capacitance.

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 Inductance, L (H)
For an inductor the potential difference v across it at any instant
depends on the rate of change of current through it:

where L is the inductance. The direction of

the potential difference is in the opposite
direction to the potential difference used to
drive the current through the inductor,
hence the term back e.m.f.

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 Capacitance, C (F)
For a capacitor, the potential difference across it depends on the
charge q on the capacitor plates at the instant concerned

where C is the capacitance. Since the current i to or

from the capacitor is the rate at which charge moves
to or from the capacitor plates,

The total charge q on the plates is given by

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 Resistance, R (ohm)
For a resistor, the potential difference v across it at any instant
depends on the current i through it

v = iR
where R is the resistance

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 Energy Stored in Building blocks
⚫ Both the inductor and capacitor store energy which can
then be released at a later time.
⚫ A resistor does not store energy but just dissipates it.
⚫ The Energy stored by an inductor when there is a current i
is

• The Energy stored by a capacitor when there is a potential

difference v across it is

• The Power P dissipated by a resistor when there is a potential

difference v across it is

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 ⚫ The summarizes the equations defining the characteristics of
the electrical building blocks when the input is current and the
output is potential difference

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Building up a model for an electrical system
Kirchhoff ’s laws, as outlined below
Law 1: the total current flowing towards a junction is equal
to the total current flowing from that junction, i.e. the
algebraic sum of the currents at the junction is zero.

Law 2: in a closed circuit or loop, the algebraic sum of the

potential differences across each part of the circuit is equal
to the applied e.m.f.

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 Resistor–capacitor system
Consider a simple electrical system consisting of a resistor and capacitor
in series. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the circuit loop gives

where VR is the potential difference across

the resistor
VC that across the capacitor.

If the output from the circuit is the potential difference across the
capacitor, VC, since VR = iR , and i = C(dVC/dt),

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 Resistor–inductor–capacitor system
If Kirchhoff’s second law is applied to this circuit loop

where vR is the potential difference across the resistor,

vL that across the inductor and
vC that across the capacitor.
If the output from the circuit is the potential difference across the
capacitor, vC, then since

vR = iR and vL = L(di/dt)
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 ⚫ But i = C(dvc/dt) and so

Hence

This is a second-order differential equation

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 Resistor–capacitor–inductor system
Consider the relationship between the output, the
potential difference vC across the capacitor and the input
v for the circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s law 1 to node A gives

i1 = i2 + i3

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 Electrical and mechanical analogies
⚫ The building blocks for electrical and mechanical systems
have many similarities.
⚫ For example, the electrical resistor does not store energy
but dissipates it, with the current i through the resistor
being given by i = v/R, where R is a constant.
⚫ The power P dissipated by P =v2/R.
⚫ The mechanical analogue of the resistor is the dashpot.
⚫ It also does not store energy but dissipates it, with the force
F being related to the velocity v by F= cv, where c is a
constant, and the power P dissipated by P = cv2.
⚫ The current as being analogous to the force, then the
potential difference is analogous to the velocity and the
dashpot constant c to the reciprocal of the resistance, i.e.
(1/R).

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 ⚫ These analogies between current and force, potential difference
and velocity, hold for the other building blocks.
⚫ The spring being analogous to inductance and mass to
capacitance.

Analogous systems

The analogy between current and force is the one most often used.
However, another set of analogies can be drawn between potential
difference and force
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 ⚫ For a series RLC circuit, find the characteristic
equation and define the analytical relationships
between the characteristic roots and circuitry
parameters.

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 KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL
(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT25: Fluid System Building Blocks

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student
should be able to…
⚫ Describe the Fluid System Building Blocks

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 Fluid System Building Blocks
• In fluid flow systems there are three basic building
blocks which can be considered to be the equivalent of
electrical resistance, capacitance and inductance.
• Fluid systems can be considered to fall into two
categories:
• Hydraulic, where the fluid is a liquid and is deemed to
be incompressible.
• Pneumatic, where it is a gas which can be compressed
and consequently shows a density change.

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 ⚫ Hydraulic resistance : The resistance to flow which
occurs as a result of a liquid flowing through valves or
changes in a pipe diameter.

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 • The relationship between the volume rate of flow of liquid
q through the resistance element and the resulting
pressure difference (p1- p2) is
• p1 - p2 = Rq
• where R is a constant called the hydraulic resistance.
• The bigger the resistance, the bigger the pressure
difference for a given rate of flow.
• Hydraulic linear resistances occur with orderly flow
through capillary tubes and porous plugs.

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 Hydraulic capacitance
⚫ Term used to describe energy storage with a liquid
where it is stored in the form of potential energy.
⚫ A height of liquid in a container i.e. a so-called pressure
head, is one form of such a storage.

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 For such a capacitance, the rate of change of volume V in
the container, i.e. dV/dt, is equal to the difference between
the volumetric rate at which liquid enters the container q1
and the rate at which it leaves q2.

But V = Ah,
where A is the cross-sectional area of the container and
h the height of liquid in it.

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But the pressure difference between the input and output is p,
where

the liquid density and

g the acceleration due to gravity.

Thus, if the liquid is assumed to be incompressible, i.e. its

density does not change with pressure

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 The hydraulic capacitance C is defined as being

Integration of this equation gives

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 ⚫ Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of inductance in
electrical systems or a spring in mechanical systems.
⚫ To accelerate a fluid and so increase its velocity, a force
is required
⚫ Consider a block of liquid of mass m. The net force
acting on the liquid is

where ( p1- p2 ) is the pressure difference and A the

cross-sectional area.
This net force causes the mass to accelerate with an
acceleration a, and so

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 But a is the rate of change of velocity dv/dt, hence

But the mass of liquid concerned has a volume of AL,

where L is the length of the block of liquid or the distance between

the points in the liquid where the pressures p1 and p2 are measured.

If the liquid has a density then then m = AL and so

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 Inertance.

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 Pneumatic systems building blocks
⚫ With pneumatic systems the three basic building
blocks are, as with hydraulic systems, resistance,
capacitance and inertance.
⚫ Pneumatic resistance R is defined in terms of
the mass rate of flow dm/dt
⚫ and the pressure difference (p1 - p2) as

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Fluid System Building Blocks
The basic building blocks of fluid systems are the volumetric
rate of flow q and the pressure difference.
⚫ Fluid system can be divided into two types: hydraulic and
pneumatic. Hydraulic resistance is the resistance to flow of
liquid as the liquid flow through valves or changes in pipe
diameter takes place.
⚫ p1 - p2 = Rq
p1 - p2 is pressure difference
R is the hydraulic resistance
q is the volumetric rate of flow

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 Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe
energy storage with a liquid where it is stored in the
form of potential energy.
A height of liquid in a container is one form of such a
storage. For such capacitance, the rate of change of
volume V in the container (dV / dt) is equal to the
difference between the volumetric rate at which liquid
enters the container q1 and the rate at which it leaves q2
p = liquid density ,
g =acceleration due to gravity

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 Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of
inductance in electrical systems or a spring in
mechanical systems. To accelerate a fluid and so
increase its velocity a force is required.

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 With pneumatic systems the three basic buildings blocks
are as withhydraulic systems, resistance, capacitance,
and inertance. However,gasses differ from liquids in
being compressible

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 A fluid system
⚫ p is the liquid density

⚫ g is the acceleration due to gravity

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 KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL
(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT26: Thermal System Building Blocks

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student
should be able to…
⚫ Describe the Thermal System Building
Blocks

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 With pneumatic systems the three basic building
blocks are, as with hydraulic systems, resistance,
capacitance and inertance.
However, gases differ from liquids in being
compressible, i.e. a change in pressure causes a
change in volume and hence density.
Pneumatic resistance R is defined in terms of the
mass rate of flow dm/dt and the pressure
difference (p1 - p2 ) as

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 Pneumatic capacitance C is due to the compressibility of the gas,
and is comparable with the way in which the compression of a
spring stores energy.
If there is a mass rate of flow dm/dt entering a container of volume
V and a mass rate of flow of dm/dt leaving it, then the rate at which
the mass in the container is changing is (dm1/dt 2 - dm2 /dt2).
If the gas in the container has a density r then the rate of change of
mass in the container is

Since (dV/dt2 ) = (dV/dp) (dp/dt) and, for an ideal gas

pV = mRT with consequently p =(m/V) RT = ρRT and d ρ /dt =(1/RT) (dp/dt),

then

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 ⚫ The pneumatic capacitance due to the change in volume of the
container C1 is defined as

and the pneumatic capacitance due to the compressibility of the gas C2

as

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 ⚫ Pneumatic inertance is due to the pressure drop
necessary to accelerate a block of gas.
⚫ According to Newton’s second law, the net force is
ma = d(mv)/dt. Since the force is provided by the
pressure difference (p1- p2), then if A is the cross-
sectional area of the block of gas being accelerated

But m, the mass of the gas being accelerated, equals ρLA with ρ being
the gas density and L the length of the block of gas being accelerated.
And the volume rate of flow q =Av, where v is the velocity. Thus

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88 U18ME703A CIMS 10/14/2023
 ⚫ Building up a model for a fluid system
⚫ Figure shows a simple hydraulic system, a liquid
entering and leaving a container. Such a system can be
considered to consist of a capacitor, the liquid in the
container, with a resistor, the valve.

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 ⚫ Inertance can be neglected since flow rates change only
very slowly. For the capacitor we can write

The rate at which liquid leaves the container q2 equals the rate
at which it leaves the valve. Thus for the resistor

The pressure difference (p1 - p2 ) is the pressure due to the height

of liquid in the container and is thus hρg. Thus q2 = hρg /R and so
substituting for q2 in the first equation gives

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 This equation describes how the height of liquid in the container
depends on the rate of input of liquid into the container.

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 ⚫ A bellows is an example of a simple pneumatic system
⚫ Resistance is provided by a constriction which restricts the
rate of flow of gas into the bellows and capacitance is
provided by the bellows itself.
⚫ Inertance can be neglected since the flow rate changes only
slowly
⚫ The mass flow rate into the bellows is given by

where p1 is the pressure prior to the constriction and p2 the

pressure after the constriction, i.e. the pressure in the bellows.
All the gas that flows into the bellows remains in the bellows,
there being no exit from the bellows. The capacitance of the
bellows is given by

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 Hence

This equation describes how the pressure in the bellows p2 varies

with time when there is an input of a pressure p1. The bellows
expands or contracts as a result of pressure changes inside it.
Bellows are just a form of spring and so we can write F = kx for
the relationship between the force F causing an expansion or
contraction and the resulting displacement x, where k is the
spring constant for the bellows.

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the force F depends on the pressure p2, with p2= F/A where A is
the cross-sectional area of the bellows. Thus p2A =F =kx. Hence
substituting for p2 in the above equation gives

This equation, a first-order differential equation, describes how the

extension or contraction x of the bellows changes with time when
there is an input of a pressure p1. The pneumatic capacitance due
to the change in volume of the container C1 is ρdV/dp2 and since
V =Ax, C1 is ρ A dx/ dp2. But for the bellows p2A = kx, thus

C2, the pneumatic capacitance due to the compressibility of

the air, is V/RT 5 =Ax/RT.

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95 U18ME703A CIMS 10/14/2023
 KAKATIYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, WARANGAL
(An Autonomous Institute under Kakatiya University)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

U18ME703A COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CDT27A: System model for Electro Mechanical Systems

Dr. S.CHANDRAMOULI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 After completion of this lecture, Student
should be able to…
⚫ Describe the system models
⚫ Develop model for Rotational-
translational system

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 Electro Mechanical Systems
⚫ Electromechanical devices, such as potentiometers, motors
and generators, transform electrical signals to rotational
motion or vice versa.

⚫ A potentiometer has an input of a rotation and an output

of a potential difference.

⚫ An electric motor has an input of a potential difference and

an output rotation of a shaft.

⚫ A generator has an input of rotation of a shaft and an

output of a potential difference

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 Potentiometer
⚫ The rotary potentiometer is a potential divider

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⚫ Potentiometer

⚫ where V is the potential difference across the full length of

the potentiometer track.

⚫ θmax is the total angle swept out by the slider in being

rotated from one end of the track to the other.

⚫ The output is vo for the input θ.

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0
 Direct current motor
⚫ The d.c. motor is used to convert an electrical input signal
into a mechanical output signal,
⚫ Current through the armature coil of the motor resulting in
a shaft being rotated and hence the load rotated

Motor driving a load.

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 Direct current motor
⚫ The motor basically consists of a coil, the armature coil,
which is free to rotate.
⚫ This coil is located in the magnetic field provided by a
current through field coils or a permanent magnet.
⚫ When a current ia flows through the armature coil, then,
because it is in a magnetic field, forces act on the coil and
cause it to rotate.
⚫ The force F acting on a wire carrying a current ia and of
length L in a magnetic field of flux density B at right
angles to the wire is given by F = BiaL
If N wires is used, then F = NbiaL.
⚫ The forces on the armature coil wires result in a torque T,
where T = Fb, with b being the breadth of the coil. Thus

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 Direct current motor

The forces on the armature coil wires result in a torque T, where T = Fb,
with b being the breadth of the coil. Thus

The resulting torque is proportional to (Bia), the other factors all being
constants. Hence it can write as

Back e.m.f. vb is proportional to the rotation of the armature and the flux
linked by the coil, hence the flux density B.

where ω is the shaft angular velocity and k2 a constant

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 Armature-controlled motor

• Consider a D.C. motor which has the armature and field

coils separately excited the field current if is held constant
and the motor controlled by adjusting the armature voltage
va.

• A constant field current means a constant magnetic flux

density B for the armature coil

• Vb= 𝑘2B ω = k3 ω

• where k3 is a constant. The armature circuit a resistance Ra

in series with an inductance La

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 ⚫ Armature-controlled motor

If va is the voltage applied to the armature circuit then, since there

is a back e.m.f. of vb,

𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝑉𝑎 -𝑉𝑏 = 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎
𝑑𝑡

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 Direct current motors: armature-controlled

The input to the motor part of the system is va and this is summed with
the feedback signal of the back e.m.f. vb to give an error signal which is
the input to the armature circuit.
The above equation thus describes the relationship between the input
of the error signal to the armature coil and the output of the armature
current ia.Substituting for vb,
𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝑉𝑎 -𝑘3 ω= 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎
𝑑𝑡

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 ⚫ The current ia in the armature generates a torque T. Since,
for the armature-controlled motor, B is constant we have
T=𝐾1 B 𝑖𝑎 = 𝐾4 𝑖𝑎
where k4 is a constant.
⚫ This torque then becomes the input to the load system.
The net tType equation here.orque acting on the load will
be.
net torque = T – damping torque
⚫ The damping torque is cω, where c is a constant.

⚫ Hence, if any effects due to the torsional springiness of

the shaft are neglected
net torque = 𝐾4 𝑖𝑎 − cω

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 ⚫ This will cause an angular acceleration of
dω/dt, hence
𝑑ω
I 𝑑𝑡 =𝐾4 𝑖𝑎 - cω

⚫ The two equations for that describe the conditions

occurring for an armature –controlled motor, namely

𝑑𝑖𝑎
⚫ 𝑉𝑎 -𝑘3 ω= 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ω
⚫ I 𝑑𝑡 =𝐾4 𝑖𝑎 - cω

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8
 Field-controlled motor
In Field-controlled motor the armature current is held constant
and the motor controlled by varying the field voltage.

In the field circuit inductance Lf in series with a resistance

Rf. Thus for that circuit
𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓 + 𝐿𝑓 𝑑𝑡

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 • The input to the system is vf. The field circuit converts this into a
current if.
• This current leads to the production of a magnetic field and
hence a torque acting on the armature coil, as given by T 5 k1Bia.

T = 𝐾1 B 𝑖𝑎 =𝐾5 𝑖𝑓

• But the flux density B is proportional to the field current if and ia

is constantand K5 is constant
• This torque output is then converted by the load system into an
angular velocity ω.
• The net torque acting on the load will be

net torque = T – damping torque

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 ⚫ The damping torque is cω, where c is a constant.
⚫ Hence, if any effects due to the torsional springiness of the
shaft are neglected
net torque = 𝐾5 𝑖𝑓 − cω

⚫ This will cause an angular acceleration of dω/dt, hence

𝑑ω
I 𝑑𝑡 =𝐾5 𝑖𝑓 - cω
⚫ The two equations for that describe the conditions occurring
for an armature –controlled motor, namely

𝑑𝑖𝑎
⚫ 𝑉𝑎 -𝑘3 ω= 𝐿𝑎 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎
𝑑ω
⚫ I 𝑑𝑡 =𝐾4 𝑖𝑎 - cω

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