Appl Phys A (2013) 111:509–516
DOI 10.1007/s00339-013-7569-7
Control of droplet formation by operating waveform for inks
with various viscosities in piezoelectric inkjet printing
Yu-Feng Liu · Ming-Hsu Tsai · Yen-Fang Pai ·
Weng-Sing Hwang
Received: 21 November 2012 / Accepted: 16 January 2013 / Published online: 26 January 2013
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract Inkjet printing has adopted several new materials
as inks for the fabrication of devices. In order to improve
the printability, the droplet formation behavior of inks with
various physical properties must be determined. This study
investigates the effect of viscosity on the droplet formation
process with fluids with various Ohnesorge numbers. Strobe
photography is employed to observe droplets ejected from
the nozzle. Experimental results show that the driving wave-
form parameters can significantly alter jetting behavior, and
one should not be considering the fluid properties only. In
addition, the proper driving waveforms for inks with various
viscosities in squeeze-mode piezoelectric inkjet printing are
proposed.
1 Introduction
Inkjet technology has been applied to electronics, mechan-
ical engineering, and life sciences [1]. In addition, inkjet
printing has emerged as the most attractive direct pattern-
ing technique for versatile designs and fully digitally driven
with a computer. However, the limitation of ink printabil-
ity has restrained the application for some new approaches,
such as high-concentration suspension inkjet printing for
three dimensional structures and high-viscosity functional
materials (e.g., PDMS, SU-8) for polymer MEMs [2].
The key ink property is the ability to generate droplets [3].
Ink properties such as viscosity, surface tension, and density
Y.-F. Liu · M.-H. Tsai · Y.-F. Pai · W.-S. Hwang ()
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National
Cheng Kung University, 1 Ta-Hsueh Road, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
e-mail: wshwang@mail.ncku.edu.tw
Fax: +886-6-2344393
have great influence on droplet formation behavior, veloc-
ity, and size. Generally, the fluid property requirements for
drop-on-demand (DOD) mode inkjet printing are a viscosity
of 1 to 10 cP, and a surface tension of 20 to 70 dyne/cm [4].
Low viscosities usually lead to satellite formation and resid-
ual pressure wave interaction between droplets. In contrast,
high viscosities cause energy dissipation and hinder the for-
mation of droplets.
Many studies have attempted to estimate the droplet for-
mation process response to piezoelectric actuation. Bogy
and Talke investigated the behavior of droplet formation by
a theory to show that the generation of sufficient pressure
at the nozzle by the constructive interference of acoustic
waves inside the printhead tube [5]. The jetting mechanism
involves the generation of pressure waves which act against
the surface tension of the fluid, allowing a small droplet to
be ejected from the nozzle.
Several studies have been conducted on the jetting behav-
ior of liquids with various viscosities and surface tensions
[6, 7]. Droplet formation is influenced by the surface ten-
sion (γ ), viscosity (η), and density (ρ) of the fluid. The rel-
ative magnitudes of interfacial, viscous, and inertial forces
are captured by the Reynolds number (Re) and the Weber
number (We), respectively defined as:
υaρ υ 2 aρ
Re = , We = ,
η γ
where ν, ρ, γ , and η are the average velocity, density, sur-
face tension, and viscosity, respectively, and a is a charac-
teristic dimension (the radius of the printing orifice). The
Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial to viscosity forces,
and the Weber number is the ratio of the fluid’s inertia to its
surface tension [8].
Fromm obtained an approximate solution to the Navier–
Stokes equations for the case of droplet ejection. He used a
510 Y.-F. Liu et al.

Table 1 Physical properties of inks used in previous studies

Reference Waveforms Nozzle diameter (µm) Liquid Z(Oh−1 )

Seerden et al. [22] – 35 Wax-based Al suspension 2.56–17.75

Szczech et al. [23] Bipolar 60 Nanoparticle suspension 23.1–47.9
Wu et al. [24] Square 40 Computational fluid dynamics 17.39–53.7
de Gans et al. [25] Square 30–100 Polystyrene nanoparticle inks 21–91
Dong et al. [26] Single/double 53 Water 62.2
Son et al. [27] Bipolar 50 Water 58.8
Jang et al. [11] Bipolar 50 Ethylene glycol/glycerol mixture 1.43–17.32
Gan et al. [14] Square + Bipolar 50 Water 60.4
Jo et al. [28] Square 50 Water/glycerol mixture 3.03–41.67
Perelaer et al. [29] Square 70 Polystyrene in toluene 23.5–66.8
Shin et al. [6] Square 50 Ethylene glycol/water mixture 35.5
Double Water 105.3

characteristic dimensionless grouping of physical constants
that is representative of the influence of the viscous, inertial,
and surface-tension forces on fluid [9]:
Re (γρa)1/2
Z= 1/2
= .
We η the driving waveform shape on the droplet formation pro-
He proposed the value Z that is the inverse of the Ohne-
sorge number and which is defined as the ratio between the
Reynolds number and the square root of the Weber num-
ber. Z > 2 is required to obtain single-droplet ejection in
a DOD system with no satellite droplets. Derby found that
in most commercial DOD inkjet printing systems, a print-
able fluid should have a Z value between 1 and 10. If the Z
value is small, the viscosity is the dominant parameter and a
large pressure pulse is required to eject a droplet [10]. Jang
et al. investigated the relationship between inkjet printabil-
ity and physical properties, and experimentally defined the
printable range as 4 ≤ Z ≤ 14 by considering characteristics
such as single-drop formability, position accuracy, and max-
imum allowable jetting frequency [11]. They found that the
upper limit of Z is determined by the point at which a satel-
lite forms instead of a single droplet, and that the lower limit
of Z is governed by the dissipation of the pressure pulse
by fluid viscosity. A high value of Z leads to long liquid
column extensions before the droplet formation. Such long
columns can also lead to satellite droplet formation. On the
other hand, when the Z value is too small, the viscous term
is dominant and a large pressure pulse is required to eject a
droplet.
The above-mentioned studies used the Z number to de-
fine the printability of a fluid under specific conditions, in-
cluding orifice size and the viscosity, surface tension, and
density of the fluid. However, several groups reported stable
inkjet printing even for Z > 14 and 1 < Z < 4, as shown in
Table 1.
Inkjet printing behavior results from the combined effect
of the waveform and the ink properties. Droplet formation
is significantly affected by the operating conditions of the
piezoelectric actuator, such as driving voltage, pulse width,
and waveform. Many researchers have studied the effect of
cess in inkjet printing. Chen and Basaran applied a wave-
form which consists of three square pulses. In their wave-
form, satellite droplets were suppressed by the second neg-
ative voltage [12]. Sakai reported that a waveform with two
driving pulses in one cycle could control the meniscus mo-
tion and change the droplet volume [13]. Gan et al. designed
several driving waveforms, including unipolar, bipolar, M-
shaped, and W-shaped waveforms, to reduce droplet vol-
ume [14].
In order to extend the application of inkjet printing, it is
important to understand the mechanism of droplet genera-
tion. It is essential to clearly comprehend how liquid prop-
erties such as viscosity and surface tension affect droplet for-
mation. The objective of the present study is to investigate
the effect of control parameters in the driving waveform on
the behavior of DOD droplet formation in fluids with vari-
ous viscosities. The effect of the driving waveform shape on
kinetics of droplet formation is also discussed.
2 Experimental procedure
2.1 Observation system
In order to understand the process of inkjet printing, an ob-
servation system was established on the inkjet equipment
platform to observe and record the evolution and move-
ment of droplets. The piezoelectric inkjet system consisted
of a jetting driver (voltage–pulse-generating system) and an
inkjet nozzle (MJ-AT-01, MicroFab Technologies Inc.). The
Control of droplet formation by operating waveform for inks with various viscosities in piezoelectric inkjet printing 511

inkjet nozzle was fabricated based on a squeeze-mode de-

sign, with a radical polarized lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
transducer rigidly bonded on a glass capillary tube. The
aperture diameter of the nozzle was 30 µm.
To visualize the droplet formation, a charge-coupled de-
vice (CCD) camera with a microscope objective lens and a
strobe LED was used. To obtain a sequence of images dur-
ing droplet formation, the droplet images were recorded by
the CCD camera with an interframe time of 1 µs.
A slightly negative backpressure of about 0.2 kPa was
applied at the reservoir to control the liquid level near the
orifice. All printing experiments were carried out at room
temperature and in the ambient atmosphere.

2.2 Operating liquids and driving waveforms

In the present study, glycerin–water mixtures whose mate-

rial parameters were changed by varying the mass friction
were used. By changing the mass fraction, the density ρ
was varied by 18 %, the surface tension γ was varied by
7.8 %, and the dynamic viscosity η was varied by a factor
of 20. Viscosity was the main parameter in this study. The
viscosity and surface tension were measured with a Brook-
filed DV-II + Pro viscometers and a Kyowa CBVP-A3 sur-
face tensiometer, respectively. The physical properties and
dimensionless Z number for each fluid are summarized in
Table 1.
Figure 1 depicts three types of waveform, namely sin-
gle, double, and bipolar. The single waveform is a square
wave defined by a rising time Trise , a pulse width Tdwell , and
a falling time Tfall . When a rising voltage is applied to the
piezotransducer, the piezoelectric materials surrounding the
glass capillary tube contract and enlarge the channel cross-
section. The period Tdwell is the time duration for which the
voltage is maintained, and the final period Tfall of the driving
wave corresponds to the driving voltage being removed.
Many studies have focused on determining the dwell time
[5, 15–17]. With a proper dwell time, the pressure can be
amplified, maximizing the jetting speed. In order to optimize
the driving waveform, the dwell time was fixed at the opti-
mal calculated dwell time [5]. In addition, a slow rising time Fig. 1 Three driving waveforms used in experiments: (a) single wave-
was used to prevent air from being sucked into the tube and form, (b) double waveform, and (c) bipolar waveform
a sufficient interval time between droplet formations was set
for meniscus oscillations to dissipate completely.
The double waveform is the combination of two single the driving signal was fixed at 1000 Hz for all cases. The low
waveforms, with one interval time Tinterval between them. operating frequency ensured enough time to dampen out the
The bipolar waveform contains a single waveform and a re- traversing pressure wave inside the nozzle, and thus elimi-
versed single waveform. The reversed part contains a Techo nate interference between signals.
for the reversed waveform dwell time and Tfinal for the PZT
return to the initial position. The bipolar waveform allows a
high voltage difference without the application of an exces- 3 Results and discussion
sive voltage.
In order to capture high-quality images and generate Prior to the testing of the effect of the driving waveform
droplets with regularity and repeatability, the frequency of on the droplet formation behavior, the characteristics of the
512
Fig. 2 Experimental
observation of droplet formation
for (a) 0G-100W, (b) 20G-80W,
(c) 40G-60W, (d) 60G-40W, and
(e) 70G-30W with single-pulse
waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and
voltage = 12 V)
droplet formation for the various fluids under a given set
of driving conditions (single pulse, Trise = 5, Tdwell = 14,
Tfall = 5 µs, voltage = 12 V) were obtained, as shown in
Fig. 2. The droplet formation process of low-viscosity flu-
ids, 0G-100W and 20G-80W, is accompanied by satellite
droplets. When the viscosity increased, as shown for 40G-
60W and 60G-40W, single droplets were obtained. When
the viscosity was further increased, as shown for 70G-30W,
no droplets were generated.
It is know that a higher Z value results in more pro-
nounced satellite droplets in inkjet printing. During the
droplet formation process, the viscosity damping effect is
weak and the resulting higher pressure causes a longer fluid
thread. Dong et al. studied the breakup mechanism of liquid
threads and found that for low-viscosity fluid, the breakup
of the filament is due to the capillary waves [18].
Figure 3(a) shows the droplet head distance from the
nozzle exit of various fluids. The fluid speed decreased
with increasing viscosity. This is due to the pressure per-
turbance generated by the change of piezoelectric material
dimensions which was dissipated due to the fluid viscos-
ity. The relationship between the droplet size and the fluid
Y.-F. Liu et al.
viscosity is shown in Fig. 3(b). For low-viscosity fluids,
the primary drop size decreases with increasing viscosity,
whereas the satellite drop size increases. This is due to var-
ious droplet breakup phenomena during the jetting process.
After the liquid thread detaches from the nozzle, the liq-
uid is dominated by inertia, surface tension, and gravity.
The effect of gravity can be estimated by the Bond num-
ber, Bo (= ρga 2 /σ , the ratio of gravity to surface tension
force) [19] which was significantly less than 1 for all cases,
and thus the effect of gravity can be neglected. The sur-
face tension effect of the liquid thread can be estimated
by the Weber number, We (the ratio of inertia to the sur-
face tension). The Weber numbers for the fluids are listed
in Table 2. The Weber number decreases with fluid vis-
cosity. Hence, the contraction of the liquid thread in high-
viscosity fluid is stronger than that in low-viscosity flu-
ids.
The above results agree with those reported by Shi-
moda [4], who proposed that the viscosity for inkjet print-
ing should be between 1 to 10 cP. Furthermore, the Z value
is consistent with that reported by Jang [11]. Low-viscosity
fluids lead to long liquid thread extensions. Rayleigh insta-
Control of droplet formation by operating waveform for inks with various viscosities in piezoelectric inkjet printing 513

Table 2 Liquid properties at

25 °C and Z value for Property 0G-100W 20G-80W 40G-60W 60G-40W 70G-30W
30-µm-diameter nozzle Glycerol content (wt.%)
0% 20 % 40 % 60 % 70 %

Density, ρ (g/cm3 ) 0.99823 1.04690 1.09930 1.15308 1.17830

Viscosity, η (cP) 1 1.76 3.72 10.8 22.5
Surface tension, γ (dyne/cm) 71.68 70.93 69.86 67.64 66.45
Z (Oh−1 ) value 46 26.7 12.9 4.44 2.15
Bond number 1.228E−4 1.302E−4 1.388E−4 1.504E−4 1.648E−4
Weber number 0.706 0.606 0.576 0.486 0.208

Fig. 4 Diagram of droplet formation process: (I) meniscus retraction,

(II) extrusion, (III) liquid thread necking and breaking, and (IV) retrac-
tion of droplet tail and oscillation

The process of droplet formation is a continuous change

Fig. 3 Droplet behavior under single-pulse waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and voltage = 12 V): (a) droplet head dis-
tance from the nozzle exit of various fluids and (b) droplet size versus
fluid viscosity
bility governs the droplets, causing the formation of satel-
lite droplets. In contrast, in high-viscosity fluids, the vis-
cosity is dominant and hinders the formation of satellite
droplets [20].
of pressure with time. In addition to ink properties, the inkjet
waveform can significantly alter the jetting behavior.
Figure 4 shows the processes of droplet formation for
a single driving waveform, namely (I) meniscus retrac-
tion, (II) extrusion, (III) liquid thread necking and break-
ing, and (IV) retraction of droplet tail and oscillation. First,
the meniscus around the orifice is drawn back by a nega-
tive pressure generated by a rising pulse. After the dwelling
time for pressure wave propagation, the falling pulse creates
a positive pressure and pushes the liquid outward.
For high-Z-value fluids, the low viscous dissipation and
lack of fluid retraction force leads to the formation of satel-
lite droplets. However, if the driving pulse voltage is de-
creased, it would be difficult to form a new surface and trans-
form the remaining energy into kinetic energy to eject the
fluid. Therefore, the key parameter for generating a single
droplet in high-Z-value fluids is to control the liquid thread.
Figure 5 shows the experimental observation of droplet
formation processes in 0G-100W fluid under a single wave-
form (Trise = 5, Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and voltage =
20 V) and a double waveform (Trise = 5, Tdwell = 14,
Tfall = 5, Tinterval = 7 µs, and voltage = 20 V). The single-
pulse driving waveform leads to a long liquid thread, caus-
ing the formation of satellite drops. This is due to the low
viscous damping in the fluid, and the flow inside the noz-
zle belonging to the inviscid regime; the higher pressure
wave pushes the liquid outward. The double waveform can
514 Y.-F. Liu et al.

Fig. 5 Experimental
observation of droplet formation
processes in low-viscosity fluid
(0G-100W) for (a) single
waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and
voltage = 20 V) and (b) double
waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5,
Tinterval = 7 µs, and
voltage = 20 V)

Fig. 6 Experimental
observation of droplet formation
processes in low-viscosity fluid
(0G-100W) with
(a) Tinterval = 1, (b) Tinterval = 7,
and (c) Tinterval = 11 (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and
voltage = 20 V)

generate a single droplet by creating an additional negative
pressure to avoid satellite droplets arising from long liquid
threads.
It is noteworthy that the interval time between the first
pulse and the second pulse in the double pulse waveform
is the critical parameter for generating single droplets. Fig-
ure 6 shows the droplet formation of 0G-100W fluid with
a double waveform (Trise = 5, Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs,
voltage = 20 V) with various interval time values. Single
droplets were obtained with Tinterval = 7–10 µs, as shown in
Fig. 6(b). If Tinterval is too short, no droplets are generated.
This is due to the first and the second pressure waves can-
celing each other’s effect, as shown in diagram in Fig. 6(a).
However, if Tinterval is too long, a second droplet will be gen-
erated during jetting, as shown in Fig. 6(c). Kown [21] also
proposed a self-sensing method to investigate the effect of
second waveform in terms of its starting time.
A higher fluid viscosity leads to more energy dissipation,
and thus smaller kinetic energy. Therefore, as the value of
Z decreased, the travel velocity of the fluid in the nozzle
Control of droplet formation by operating waveform for inks with various viscosities in piezoelectric inkjet printing 515

Fig. 7 Experimental
observation of droplet formation
processes in high-viscosity fluid
(70G-30W) for (a) single
waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and
voltage = 20 V) and (b) bipolar
waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5,
Techo = 14, Tfinal = 5 µs, and
voltage = ±20 V)

Fig. 8 Experimental
observation of droplet formation
processes in high-viscosity fluid
(70G-30W) for bipolar
waveforms with (a) Trise = 2,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 2,
Techo = 14, Tfinal = 2 µs,
(b) Trise = 3, Tdwell = 14,
Tfall = 3, Techo = 14,
Tfinal = 3 µs, (c) Trise = 4,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 4,
Techo = 14, Tfinal = 4 µs, and
(d) Trise = 5, Tdwell = 14,
Tfall = 5, Techo = 14,
Tfinal = 5 µs (driving voltage
fixed at ±20 V)

decreased due to increased viscosity. For producing a single
droplet for high-viscosity fluid, the liquid momentum must
be sufficiently high during the ejection process.
Figure 7(a) shows the droplet formation processes of
70G-30W fluid with the single-pulse waveform (Trise = 5,
Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 5 µs, and voltage = 20 V). In the pe-
riod of 0–50 µs, the fluid meniscus was pushed outward.
However, the generated pressure wave was insufficient to
overcome the surface tension to create a new surface and
eject the fluid. The jetting behavior of 70G-30W fluid with
the bipolar waveform (Trise = 2, Tdwell = 14, Tfall = 2,
Techo = 14, Tfinal = 2 µs, and voltage = ±20 V) is shown
in Fig. 7(b). The bipolar waveform allows a high voltage
difference without the application of an excessively high
voltage, which might damage the PZT inside the printhead.
Even though a long liquid thread is created, the contraction
force from the liquid behavior can suppress satellite droplet
formation.
The effect of PZT expansion and/or contraction speed in
the bipolar waveform for low-Z-value fluid was shown in
Fig. 8. In Fig. 8(b)–(d), the liquid thread breakups into two
parts after the thread detaches from the nozzle. This could
be due to the mass of the tail part of the liquid thread being
comparable to that of the head part, and the contraction of
the liquid thread dividing the tail part from the head part. In
Fig. 8(a), the fast expansion of PZT (short Tfinal ) causes a
higher negative pressure before the liquid thread detached,
and the negative pressure cuts the tail of the liquid thread.
Hence, the Tfinal value is also an important parameter for
low-Z-value fluid inkjet printing with a bipolar waveform.
In this study, 70G-30W fluid was properly jetted by a
bipolar waveform. However, this does not guarantee that all
516
low-Z-value fluids can be properly jetted. As the viscosity
increases, a significant damping effect is introduced. In the
inkjet printing process, the piezoelectricity, elasticity, and
free-surface fluid dynamics should be considered.
4 Conclusion
The physical phenomena in an inkjet printing process in-
volve piezoelectricity, elasticity, and free-surface fluid dy-
namics. Therefore, it is difficult to define an ink’s printabil-
ity simply by one condition. In addition to ink properties,
the inkjet waveform can significantly alter jetting behavior.
The conclusions from the experimental results were sum-
marized as follows.
1. The printability of inks is affected by orifice size, fluid
viscosity, surface tension, density and driving waveform
parameters, such as voltage value, waveform shape, and
pulse time. One should not be considering the fluid prop-
erties only.
2. A double waveform with an appropriate interval time be-
tween two pulses can generate a single droplet by cre-
ating an additional negative pressure to avoid satellite
droplets arising from long liquid threads in high-Z-value
fluid.
3. A bipolar waveform allows a high voltage difference
without the application of an excessively high voltage.
It can generate a single droplet with appropriate PZT ex-
pansion and contraction speeds for high-viscosity fluid.
In the inkjet printing process, the piezoelectricity, elas-
ticity, and free-surface fluid dynamics should be consid-
ered.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by the National Sci-
ence Council (NSC 100-2120-M-006-009 and 101-2120-M-006-007),
the Bureau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs (101-D0204-2),
and Chung Shan Institute of Science and Technology (CSIST) (CSIST-
010-V101 (101)) in Taiwan.
Y.-F. Liu et al.
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