Aircraft Systems

Hydraulic Systems
Topics:
 Principles concerning hydraulic systems
 Hydraulic Fluids
 Basic components in hydraulic systems

Basic Hydraulic Concepts

 When talking about hydraulic systems, we must first understand that hydraulic systems use
fluids, specifically oil, in order to transfer energy (or movement) from one place to another. Hydraulic
systems use oil in its operation, due to the fact that liquids are near incompressible when compared to
gases. Because of this, we must know about two key concepts, that is Pascal’s Law and the inner
workings of Bramah’s Press.

*Note: Fluids in general are any substance that conforms to it’s vessel and has the ability to flow
(e.g. liquids and gases). However, for the sake of simplicity, we will use the term fluid to refer to
liquids used in hydraulic systems.

Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s Law states that if you exert a force on a fluid confined in a vessel,
that fluid will exert an equal force on all of the sides of the vessel. A visualization
of Pascal’s Law is shown by the figure on the right.

Given this condition, we can now start to analyze Bramah’s Press. The Bramah’s Press is a
simple hydraulic system that let’s us harness the natural characteristics of fluids. Let’s imagine a
cylindrical vessel filled with fluid with a plunger on one end, and is open on the other end. It can be
observed that when the plunger is pushed, the fluid within the vessel exerts a force on all sides of the
vessel. However, because the vessel has an opening on the other end, the fluid escapes through that as
shown below.

When we place another plunger to the opening at the end of the vessel, we can then expect that
the movable plunger will react to the push of the water as shown below.

In addition to this characteristic of fluids, it is also possible for us to measure the internal
pressure felt by the fluid during the application of force on the fluid. If we measure the force we apply
on the fluid we can divide that force by the cross-sectional area of our vessel.

Equation: P=F / A

Pressure
 Now that we know that the fluid experiences an internal pressure, we can reasonably assume
that the fluid will also exert the same pressure towards the end plunger. By applying the same equation
over the other side, we can get the force that the fluid, and by extension, the force that we have applied
on the input side of our syringe.

Equation: P A =PB
F A / A A =F B / A B

With this, we can adjust the area of the vessel at the output end of our syringe to get our desired
force output. This is how the Bramah’s Press was designed, and is now the working principle of the
hydraulic system we use today. Seen below is a representation of Bramah’s press with differing areas
for each end of the vessel.

Shown below is what a simple hydraulic system. A simple hydraulic system is composed of a
reservoir, a master cylinder, and a slave cylinder. The reservoir contains the hydraulic fluid and is
placed close to the master cylinder. It also provides space for the fluid to expand whenever it heats up
due to pressure during operation. The master cylinder is the main controlling unit of our hydraulic
system. The master cylinder contains a piston or a plunger which is controlled by a foot pedal or a
lever. The slave cylinder is what translates the movement of the fluid into useful work, which in this
example is pushing a piston the contains a brake lining that aids in braking.
Hydraulic Fluids

Every hydraulic system uses certain fluids in its operation. You may be asking, why not just use
air or water? Since both of them are examples of fluids. Using air might be a bit more convenient,
however air, like most gases, is highly compressible. Air’s high compressibility is derived from the fact
that, unlike liquids, their molecules are farther apart than those of liquids. Because of this, air
molecules can be moved a further distance than the much more compact liquid molecules.

This leads us to our next question. Why not just use water? Water is a liquid, which means that
it is not as compressible as gasses and it is readily available, making it convenient. Water is not suitable
for hydraulic systems plainly because it can cause corrosion. One of the main cause of corrosion comes
from oxidation, where oxidizers like oxygen and hydrogen causes the metal to loose electrons, thus
breaking down its components. This is what causes rust. So what fluids do we use in hydraulic
systems? We mainly use three types, vegetable-based, mineral-based, and phosphate-ester based.

Vegetable Based Fluids

Vegetable based hydraulic fluids primarily use castor oils as a base. Castor oils come from
castor seeds, hence the classification vegetable-based. Castor oil is a great fluid for hydraulic systems
because it is naturally inert, meaning it is not reactive to nearly all materials that might be used in
hydraulic systems. It is also very bio-degradable because it comes from organic materials. One
downside to using castor oil as a hydraulic fluid is that it has a high pour point, this means that the fluid
congeals at higher temperature than what is desirable. This makes operation of hydraulic systems at
low temperatures (temperatures lower than 2°C) difficult. Another downside is that it lacks miscibility
with diluent, meaning it tends to separate from additives at low temperatures. Because of this, castor oil
can be seen as obsolete by modern standards, and can only be found in older hydraulic systems.
 Castor Oil As Engine Oil Castor Plant and Seeds

Mineral-Based Fluids

Mineral based fluids use the widely popular petroleum oil or crude oil. This oil comes from
dead organisms buried underneath rock formations and are subjected to prolonged heat and pressure.
The oil is extracted through drilling and then refined into multiple products, some of which are
gasoline, diesel, kerosene and lubricants.

Mineral oils have a much lower pour point, meaning the viscosity, or the resistance of the fluid
to flow, is stable along a wide range of temperatures. A commonly used mineral oil is MIL-O-5606,
which has a really low pour point of -59.4°C making it usable even in winter conditions. They are also
able to inhibit oxidation of materials, and are naturally hydrophobic. One downside of petroleum based
fluids is that they have a low flash point, this is the temperature where a fluid can form ignitable
vapors. Because of this a more stable version has been developed, the MIL-PRF-83282D, which offers
a higher flash point. Petroleum oils can also breakdown certain rubbers, like butyl rubbers. Because of
this, nitrile rubbers are used as sealants.

Oil derrick AeroShell Fluid 31 Hydraulic Fluid

Phosphate-ester Based Fluids

These fluids are synthetic oils that offer great fire-resistant capabilities which makes them
suitable for hydraulic systems. These fluids are the most commonly used type of hydraulic fluids in
aviation, they are also able to work with a lot of sealants used in hydraulic systems. One of the
downsides of using this type of fluid is that they are hygroscopic, meaning they can absorb moisture
from the atmosphere which might cause the hydraulic system to not respond properly to inputs, or
corrode the material in the system.
 One of the more common brands of hydraulic fluids used in aviation

Common Hydraulic System Components

Simple hydraulic system

Reservoir

The reservoir is a component that provides space for the fluid to be stored and be able to expand
when heat during operation causes the fluid to ‘swell up’. It can be categorized into two types, in-line
and integral.

In-line reservoirs are a standalone component in hydraulic systems, unlike integral reservoirs
where the hydraulic fluid is stored at the same component where the pump or a master cylinder is
located. In-line reservoirs contain several outlets for the main pump to be used during normal
operation, and an outlet connected to a manual pump for emergency operations.

Image left, diagram of an in-line reservoir. Top right, in-line reservoir

example. Bottom right, integral reservoir example.
Filters

Filters are an integral part of any circulating system. Even a closed system such as a hydraulic
system will eventually be filled with contaminants which may come from the pump wearing down over
time, and the fluid lines eroding.

Hydraulic filters come in two forms, micronic filters and porous metal filters. Micronic filters
are made from treated paper that contains holes for fluids to pass through. These filters blocks
contaminants larger than 3μm in size. Porous metal filters, also called sintered powder metal filter, are
made from powdered metals compressed to form its shape. These filters can block contaminants larger
than 5μm in size. Comparing these types of filters, it may become apparent that micronic filters are
much better at filtering contaminants. However, porous metal filters have the advantage of being
washable, meaning they can be usable as long as the material is still able to filter contaminants small
enough so as to not affect the longevity of other components.

Micronic Filter Porous Metal Filter

These filters are fitted into a bowl which has fittings that forces the fluid to pass through the
filtering element. The filter also has a bypass valve in order for the fluid to skip the filtering process
whenever the filtering element becomes too clogged for the fluid to travel through effectively. A
diagram of a filter can be seen on the image below

Heat Exchangers
 Hydraulic systems also contain heat exchangers in order for the heat developed by the fluid
during pressurization. Much like how a pneumatic system’s heat exchanger works, a hydraulic heat
exchanger also forces the fluid to travel through channels within the heat exchanger, allowing the heat
within the fluid to be transferred to the metal channels and vanes, where the cool outside air absorbs the
heat radiated. The only difference between the pneumatic heat exchanger and its hydraulic counterpart
is that it contains a thermal relief valve. Because, hydraulic fluids are much denser than air and they
have a high viscosity, being forced through the small channels of the heat exchanger will create a
considerable resistance within the system.

Heat Exchanger Diagram

The thermal relief valve allows the fluid to by-pass the component altogether whenever the
hydraulic fluid’s temperature is not that high. The relief valve utilizes the natural characteristics of
metal that causes them to expand whenever they experience heat. The thermal relief valve contains a
poppet valve attached to a spring which is expanded whenever the fluid temperature is high, forcing
fluid to pass through the channels, and it would retract whenever the fluid is cool enough for normal
operations.

Hydraulic Pumps

Hydraulic pumps come in multiple different forms, the simplest of which being the hand pump.
Hand pumps operate in the same way as a syringe, wherein a plunger or a piston pushes hydraulic fluid
out of the master cylinder which in turn pushes a slave cylinder.

Other types of pumps come into to main categories, constant displacement and variable
displacement. Constant displacement pumps deliver a fixed amount of fluid per revolution. Several
examples can be seen on the images on the next page. They may all look different however, all of them
operate on the same principle. A rotating surface ‘scoops’ the fluid along the chamber and is then
deposited on the other end.
 Gear Type Pump Vane Type Pump

Gerotor Pump
Cessna Gear Type Hydraulic Pump

Variable displacement pumps, on the other hand, has the ability to change the amount of fluid it
can deliver per revolution. An example is the multiple piston pump shown in the image below. It can
change the amount of fluid being delivered by changing the inclination of the swash-plate or yoke, thus
effectively changing the stroke or travel of the piston within the cylinder.
Hydraulic Pressure Control Devices

Because excessive hydraulic pressure within the system can cause damage to components, it is
necessary to have safety measures within our system. The most common pressure control devices are,
pressure switches, pressure regulators and relief valves.

Pressure Switches

Pressure switches use a component called the bourdon tube, this is a curved tube that has an
elliptical cross section that when subjected to pressure will want to straighten out. The end of the
bourdon tube is then attached to a segment lever with a rack at the end at it is coupled to a pinion gear
connected to a dial. This dial can then be attached to an electric contact that activates a solenoid valve
that can release excess pressure in the system.

Bourdon Tube Type Switch

Pressure Regulators

Pressure regulators work in the same way faucets works. It limits the
amount of fluid passing through it and thus limiting the amount of pressure the
fluid can exert. An example can be seen on the image in the right.

Relief Valve

Relief valves let the excessive pressure built up within the system and
travel through the return line, returning the excess fluid back into the reservoir.

Another type of a relief valve is the thermal relief valve. Its main
function is to release fluids that is causing the system to overheat. Much like
how the thermal bypass valve of the heat exchanger works, the thermal relief
valve also harnesses the characteristic of metals that causes it to expand when it experiences high
temperature.
Accumulators

Accumulators smooth out the flow of the fluid that is traveling from the pump in order to
prevent damage to components due to vibration, and to increase the responsiveness of the actuators.
 Accumulators come in different forms, however, their operating principle remains the same.
The accumulator contains a fluid chamber and an air chamber which is separated by either a flexible
diaphragm or a free moving piston. The air chamber acts as a spring that stores energy when the
hydraulic fluid is pressurized and it then releases that energy whenever the fluid’s pressure is not that
high, releasing the fluid inside the hydraulic chamber. Shown below are the different types of
accumulators. From left to right, diaphragm type, bladder type, and piston type.

Selector Valves

A selector valve’s main function is to direct the flow the fluid from one component to another,
or to reverse the direction of the fluid flowing inside a component. Selector valves come in multiple
forms, rotary, poppet, spool and open center.

Rotary Selector Valves

Rotary selector valves contain two channels

inside it with each channel connected to two ports.
The fluid can be redirected by rotating the selector
valve thus redirecting the pathway the fluid takes. A
simple diagram can be seen on the left.

Poppet Selector Valves

Poppet selector valves employ multiple chambers and poppets to route the fluid to it’s proper
destination. A cam can be slid under the poppet valve to control which path the fluid takes. A diagram
of a poppet selector valve can be seen on the image below.
Spool Selector Valves

This selector typically contains one input port and two output ports.
The path the fluid takes can be decided by sliding the spool and allowing
the fluid to enter one of the previously blocked ports. The opposite can be
done by sliding the spool forward. The image on the right shows a diagram
of a spool selector valve.

Open-Center Valves

Open-Center valves work the same way as a spool selector with the
main difference being after interaction with the pilot, the selector returns to its
normal position via a spring loaded cam follower. A diagram can be seen on
the right side.

Automatic-Operating Valves

Automatic operating valves allow for the hydraulic system to operate smoothly without constant
interference from the user. It also allows for fluid regulation without needing a complicated system to
achieve it.

Primary automatic-operating valves include, restrictor valves, check valves, shuttle valves, and
sequence valves.

Restrictor Valves

Restrictor valves uses a small orifice within the fitting to act as a fluid flow restrictor. By doing
so, the actuators can be slowed down to a desirable amount.

Check Valves
 Check valves contain a ball valve inside held close by a spring. During normal operation, the
ball valve is pushed open by the flow of the fluid and whenever the fluid is starting to equalize, the
spring closes the valve shut to avoid the backwards flow of the fluid.

Sequence valve

Sequence valve act like regular valves the main difference being the opening of the valve is
controlled by a pin that pushes a ball valve inside the component. This makes the sequence valve
suitable for actuating components in sequence through mechanical means.

Shuttle Valve

Shuttle valves automatically select a pressure source through a spring that opens when sufficient
pressure is coming from the main pumps during normal operation. In the event of an emergency
wherein the main pump stops functioning properly, the shuttle valve spring closes the previous
connection and open the port that is connected to the emergency hand pump.

Hydraulic Actuators

Hydraulic Actuators are the primary form of movement for hydraulic systems. This is what
allows the landing gears to retract, and the flight controls to move. Actuators are composed of a
cylinder and the piston that is connected to a rod. Two ports on opposite ends can be seen on a lot of
actuators, this is where the hydraulic fluid travels through in order to force the piston to move much
like how a syringe’s plunger moves. An example can be seen on the image below.

Hydraulic Plumbing Components

 Hydraulic systems require seals in order to retain the hydraulic fluid within the system. Shown
below are common examples of sealants used in hydraulic systems. From left to right, top to bottom, o-
ring, v-ring, universal gaskets and crush washers.

*Note:
Because
commercial aircrafts employ multiple hydraulic systems as a means of redundancy and isolation
whenever faults occur in the system, they use a component called the PTU or the Power Transfer Unit,
which transfers the power of a hydraulic system to another through the use of impellers and pumps.
The power transfer occurs purely mechanically, this means that the pressure and fluid from one
hydraulic system does not come into contact with another system.