Linguistics and Translation

GUNILLA ANDERMAN

Throughout the ages, translation as well as linguistics, the formal study of

language, have attracted comments and speculation. The need for prac-
tising translators is acknowledged as early as the Old Testament where, in
the Book of Daniel 1:4, reference is made to the need for mastery of 'the
tongue of the Chaldeans' for use in 'the king's palace'. And since time
immemorial the nature and origin of human language has invited specula-
tion. As late as the 17th century one view held that the primitive language
of mankind was Chinese, which was spoken by Noah and his family in the
Ark and survived the flood (Aitchison, 1996:4). It was to take until the latter
half of the 18th century before linguistics, then known as philology, started
to emerge as a discipline in its own right; for translation studies to become
an independent academic subject with established interdisciplinary links
to other fields of study including linguistics was to take close to the dawn of
a new millennium.
In 1786, the first step was taken, nudging the study of language closer
towards becoming a discipline in its own right. In a paper presented to the
Royal Asiatic Society in Calcutta, Sir William Jones (1746-1794) of the East
India Company declared that no philologist could examine the Sanskrit,
Greek and Latin languages without believing them to have sprung from
some common, Indo-European source which perhaps no longer existed
(Jones, 1970). Comparative and historical linguistics now became the focus
of the attention of philologists, and, by the possession of distinctive, shared
characteristics, languages were successively grouped together genealogi-
cally into families. While the similarity of cognates such as 'hand' in
English, Hand in German and hand in Dutch, Danish, Norwegian and
Swedish points to a related Germanic group of languages, French main,
Spanish mano and Italian mano constitute some of the languages belonging
to the Romance language family while ryka, reka and ruka in Russian, Polish
and Czech respectively suggest membership of the Slavonic group of
languages. The implications for translation arising from the ground-
breaking work of philologists of the 19th century in grouping together into

45
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Linguistics and Translation 47

backs as lomos and their necks as pescuezos. These observations tell a

different story of the place of animals in Hispanic culture from that of the
dog as beloved pet and man's best friend in English-speaking parts of the
world.
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Linguistics and Translation 49

are more easily detectable in the early language of children, prior to the
acquisition of the transformations subsequently learnt by speakers in order
to gain syntactic and grammatical mastery of their language (Chomsky,
1957, 1965).
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50 A Companion to Translation Studies

technique of explicitation ( Klaudy, 1998: 83) – as in the case of expanding the

reference to Vilnius in a text written in Lithuanian into 'Vilnius, the capital
of Lithuania' in translation into English for ease of reader comprehension.
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JH7DIB7JEHI J 7D 7D EL;H7BB CEH; 9BEI;BO IOD9 HED?I;: 7FFHE79 ;L;HJ ;
B;II ?:7 I B?D K?IJ?9 JH7?D?D 7D: ?I :7J7 9EBB;9J;: HEC BED ;NF;H?;D9;
7I 7 FH79J?I?D JH7DIB7JEH ?D 9EC8?D7J?ED M?J ?I 7JJ;CFJ JE EHC7B?I; ?I
?D:?D I M?J ?D 7 B?D K?IJ?9 H7C;MEHA I;J J ; 9EKHI; EH JH7DIB7J?ED J ;E
H?IJI JE KHJ ;H 7:L7D9; J ; ?DJ;HH;B7J?EDI ?F 8;JM;;D JH7DIB7J?ED 7D:
B?D K?IJ?9I ?D J ; O;7HI JE 9EC;
/ ?B; ECIAO I 7FFHE79 JE J ; EHC7B IJK:O E B7D K7 ; H; B;9J;: ?I
9E D?J?L;BO 87I;: ?DJ;H;IJ ?D J ; - 7B?DEMIA? I B; 79O I;J D B?I
B?D K?IJ?9I ED 7 :? ;H;DJ 9EKHI; I :;L;BEF;: 8O " ?HJ
7B?DEMIA? I 9ED9;FJ E 9EDJ;NJ E 9KBJKH; M7I JKHD;: ?DJE C;7D?D 7I
KD9J?ED ?D 9EDJ;NJ 7D: 7I KHJ ;H 7:L7D9;: 8O J ; D;E ?HJ ?7D ?9 7;B
7BB?:7O J ; DEJ?ED 8;97C; 7 KBB I97B; B?D K?IJ?9 J ;EHO ADEMD 7I 86A:
6C9 6I: DGN G6BB6G EH NHI:B 8 G6BB6G !D 7 7BB?:7O7D J ;EH;J?97B
H7C;MEHA J ; DEJ?ED E 9EDJ;NJ ?I L?;M;: 7I J ; KD9J?ED E B7D K7 ;
EF;H7J?D ED 7 DKC8;H E :? ;H;DJ B;L;BI 99EH:?D JE 7BB?:7O 7 FHE8B;C
IK9 7I IODJ79J?9 7C8? K?JO ?D:I 7D ;NFB7D7J?ED ?D J ; DEJ?ED E H7DA I ? J
7I ?D , ; C7D 97C; HEC J ; FEB?9; IJ7J?ED !D ED; H;7:?D J ; 7:L;H8?7B
HEC J ; FEB?9; IJ7J?ED H7DAI 7I HEKF 7DIM;H?D J ; GK;IJ?ED / ;H;
:?: J ; C7D 9EC; HEC !D 7DEJ ;H ?DJ;HFH;J7J?ED EM;L;H ?J 7I 8;;D
I ? J;: HEC J ; H7DA E 9B7KI; M E M7I ;CFBEO;: 7J J ; FEB?9; IJ7J?ED
7D: ?D ?JI 9EDJH79J;: EHC 8;9EC;I 7 C?HHEH ?C7 ; E J ; KDI ? J;: 7:L;H
8?7B H7DA?D 7I HEKF
I ?D J ; -D?J;: J7J;I J ; ;C;H ;D9; E 7 D;M B?D K?IJ?9 J ;EHO J 7J
7JJH79J;: 7 EBBEM?D 7CED B?D K?IJI M7I GK?9ABO EBBEM;: 8O 7JJ;CFJI JE
7FFBO ?JI J ;EH;J?97B H7C;MEHA JE JH7DIB7J?ED !D C J HI 8 , :DGN D;
,G6CHA6I DC " 7J EH: :H;M ED 7BB?:7O I B?D K?IJ?9 H7C;MEHA
7D: 7FFB?;: ?J JE JH7DIB7J?ED ?D9BK:?D J ; DEJ?ED E I ? J JE 799EKDJ EH J ;
:;F7HJKH; HEC EHC7B 9EHH;IFED:;D9; J 7J J7A;I FB79; M ;D J ; EH? ?D7B
J;NJ ?I JH7DIB7J;: ?DJE J ; J7H ;J B7D K7 ; / ?B; ?D D B?I J ; I;DJ;D9;
"E D BEL;I 7HO C7O 8; I;GK;DJ?7BBO :;I9H?8;: 7I IK8 ;9J FH;:?97JEH 7D:
7: KD9J ( ?D JH7DIB7J?ED ?DJE 7;B?9 ?J 9EHH;IFED:I JE J ; IJHK9JKH;
( , 7 G69 6 A6 C 6 G 6 G ?I BEL; 7J "E D ED 7HO M ;H; IJ7D:I
EH 9ECFB;C;DJ , ?I ?D JKHD O?;B:I J ; JH7DIB7J?ED ;GK?L7B;D9; D B?I
( 7;B?9 ( 7J EH:
The notion of equivalence was of paramount importance, not only to
Linguistics and Translation 51

Catford, but also to other early translation theorists attempting to formu-

late a linguistically-based theory of translation. In Nida the concept was
accounted for by giving formal correspondence second place in importance to
dynamic equivalence, achieved if the impact of the translation produced the
appropriate response from the receptor in the target language. Catford's
theoretical framework carefully eschewed Nida's somewhat cavalier
treatment of a concept of crucial importance to the development of auto-
mated translation, and Catford's shifts bear real similarity to notions of
complex transfer in machine translation (MT), where formal correspondence
continues to hold pride of place (Kenny, 1998: 78).
!D 7::?J?ED JE ?:7 7D: 7J EH: J ;H; M7I DE I EHJ7 ; E 7JJ;CFJI 8O
EJ ;H JH7DIB7J?ED J ;EH?IJI ?D J ; I 7D: I JE :; ?D; J ; 9ED9;FJ E
;GK?L7B;D9; 7D: ?JI FB79; ?D JH7DIB7J?ED J ;EHO !D J ;?H :;J7?B;: 9EDJH7IJ?L;
7D7BOI?I E D B?I 7D: H;D9 .?D7O 7D: 7H8;BD;J FHEFEI;:
7 I;J E FHE9;:KH;I EH J ; JH7DIB7JEH JE KI; ?D EH:;H JE 799EKDJ EH J ; D;;:
EH ?D:?H;9J JH7DIB7J?ED ?DLEBL?D ?DIJ7D9;I M ;D ;GK?L7B;D9; ?D J ; J7H ;J
B7D K7 ; 97DDEJ 8; ;IJ78B?I ;: D; IK9 FHE9;:KH; 8 6HH: 8GD H: JKHDI
B;H?EJ B;M 79HEII J ; 7DD;B ?DJE A:G DI IG6K:GH6 A6 6C8 : :C 6K DC
.?D7O 7H8;BD;J / ?B; ?D D B?I CEJ?ED 7D: C7DD;H
7H; 8EJ 9EDJ7?D;: ?D J ; L;H8 B;M ?D JH7DIB7J?ED ?DJE H;D9 J ; JME
;7JKH;I 97DDEJ 8; ;NFH;II;: J HEK J ; KI; E ED; L;H8 !DIJ;7: J ;
DEJ?ED E CEJ?ED ?I 9EDL;O;: J HEK J ; L;H8 IG6K:GH6 9HEII;: 7D: J 7J
E C7DD;H ;NFH;II;: I;F7H7J;BO ?D :C 6K DC 8O FB7D;
H7M?D 7 :?IJ?D9J?ED 8;JM;;D 7 DKC8;H E :? ;H;DJ ;GK?L7B;D9; JOF;I
J ; 7FFHE79 JE J ; FHE8B;C E 799EKDJ?D EH J ; B79A E ;GK?L7B;D9;
8;JM;;D IEKH9; 7D: J7H ;J J;NJ ?D JH7DIB7J?ED J 7J ?I 7LEKH;: 8O ;HC7D
JH7DIB7J?ED J ;EH?IJ /;HD;H EBB;H ?CFB?9?JBO 79ADEMB;: ;:
J 7J J ; DEJ?ED ?I DEJ 7D KD:? ;H;DJ?7J;: ED; / ?B; 8DCCDI6I K: :FJ K6A:C8:
;DJ7?BI 7 9 E?9; 8;JM;;D IODEDOCEKI ;NFH;II?EDI I:MI CDGB6I K: :FJ K6
A:C8: 9ED9;HDI J ; KI7 ; DEHCI EH 7 ?L;D J;NJ JOF; EG6 B6I 8 :FJ K6A:C8:
?DLEBL;I J ; H;9;?L;H JE M EC J ; JH7DIB7J?ED ?I :?H;9J;: 7D: ;DGB6A :FJ K6
A:C8: 9ED9;HDI EHC7B 7;IJ ;J?9 ;7JKH;I IK9 7I MEH: FB7O
!D J ; H7C;MEHA KI;: 8O (;J;H ;MC7HA ;GK?L7B;D9; 97C; ?D
EH O;J 7DEJ ;H EHC E JH;7JC;DJ JE 799EKDJ EH :;F7HJKH;I HEC EHC7B
9EHH;IFED:;D9; 8;JM;;D IEKH9; 7D: J7H ;J J;NJ (;J;H ;MC7HA ?DJHE
:K9;: J ; 9ED9;FJI E H:B6CI 8 7D: 8DBBJC 86I K: JH7DIB7J?ED / ?B; J ;
H;D9 :;:CH: 9: B6G8 :G HI G A6 6ODC ?D I;C7DJ?9 JH7DIB7J?ED ?DJE D B?I
O?;B:I /7BA?D ED J ; JKH ?I EH8?::;D ?D 9ECCKD?97J?L; JH7DIB7J?ED ?J ?I
DEHC7BBO H;D:;H;: 7I J ; CEH; 7C?B?7H ;;F E J ; H7II ?C?B7HBO ?D
JH7DIB7J?ED HEC ;HC7D G H8 6C :HIG 8 :C H;7:I ?D I;C7DJ?9 JH7DIB7J?ED
 CAD5B CB HC F5BG 5H CB HI8 9G

?DJE D B?I 7I ;9;DJBO F7?DJ;: M ?B; ?D 9ECCKD?97J?L; JH7DIB7J?ED ?J

JKHDI ?DJE J ; CEH; ;7I?BO H;9E D?I78B; /;J F7?DJ ;MC7HA
BJ EK L7HO?D ?D J ; KI; E J;HC?DEBE O 7D: 7FFHE79 J ; DEJ?ED E
;GK?L7B;D9; 7D: :;F7HJKH; HEC 9BEI; 9EHH;IFED:;D9; 8;JM;;D IEKH9; 7D:
J7H ;J J;NJ H;C7?D;: 7D ?IIK; E FH?C; 9ED9;HD JE ;7HBO JH7DIB7J?ED J ;EH?IJI
, ?I 97D 8; ;NFB7?D;: ?D F7HJ 8O J ; ?CFEHJ7D9; E J ; DEJ?ED ?D J ; :;L;B
EFC;DJ E 7KJEC7J;: JH7DIB7J?ED 7D: ?D F7HJ 8O J ; ?HCBO ;IJ78B?I ;: HEB;
E JH7DIB7J?ED 7I 7 C;7DI E B7D K7 ; B;7HD?D 7D: J;79 ?D ?D 7 M?:;H
KHEF;7D ;:K97J?ED7B 9EDJ;NJ
J J ; ;D: E J ; J 9;DJKHO J ; H7CC7H JH7DIB7J?ED C;J E: 7: 8;;D
:;L?I;: EH KI; ?D I;9ED:7HO I9 EEB J;79 ?D ?D (HKII?7 EM7JJ
87I;: ED J ; FH?D9?FB;I ;CFBEO;: EH J ; J;79 ?D E H;;A 7D: 7J?D !D
J ; IJK:O E J ; 9B7II?97B B7D K7 ;I JH7DIB7J?ED 7: 7BM7OI EHC;: 7D
?CFEHJ7DJ F7HJ H7DA?D ? ?D FEFKB7H?JO 7I 7 J;79 ?D ;N;H9?I; I
IFEA;D L7H?;J?;I E 7J?D 7D: H;;A DE BED ;H ;N?IJ;: J ; IEB; E9KI M7I ED
J ; MH?JJ;D CE:; E B7D K7 ; 7D: J ; HEB; E JH7DIB7J?ED M7I H;GK;DJBO
J 7J E ;N7C?D?D ?D MH?J?D J ; 79GK?I?J?ED E LE978KB7HO B;7HDJ 8O C;CE
H?I?D HEC MEH:B?IJI D;M B;N?97B ?J;CI ?D J ; J7H ;J B7D K7 ; JE ;J ;H
M?J J ;?H ;GK?L7B;DJI ?D J ; IEKH9; B7D K7 ; / ;D ?D J ; C?: J
9;DJKHO J ; IJK:O E CE:;HD B7D K7 ;I M7I ?HIJ ?DJHE:K9;: 7I 7 I;H?EKI
FKHIK?J J ; ? FH;IJ? ; ?D M ?9 H;;A 7D: 7J?D M;H; ;B: 97KI;: J ;
J;79 ?D F7JJ;HD JE 8; H;FB?97J;: , ; ;CF 7I?I M7I ED J ; MH?JJ;D
B7D K7 ; 7D: H7CC7H M7I B;7HDJ 8O C;7DI E JH7DIB7J?ED ?DJE 7D: EKJ E
J ; EH;? D B7D K7 ; ,H7DIB7J?ED 7I 7 H;IKBJ 97C; JE 8; 7IIE9?7J;: M?J J ;
FHE9;II E J;IJ?D J ; ADEMB;: ; E H7CC7H 7D: LE978KB7HO ?D J ; EH;? D
B7D K7 ; 7D: J ; ;GK?L7B;DJI EKD: ?D :?9J?ED7H?;I 7D: LE978KB7HO B?IJI
M;H; L?;M;: 7I 9EDIJ?JKJ?D J ; 7KJ EH?J7J?L;BO 9EHH;9J 7DIM;HI 7I;: ED
J ; CE:;B E 7 9EKHI; ?D H;D9 8O "E 7DD .7B;DJ?D ;?:?D ;H
J ; ?HIJ IE 97BB;: H7CC7HZJH7DIB7J?ED 9EKHI; 7FF;7H;: ?D D B?I ?D
:;L?I;: 8O "E 7DD H?IJ?7D ?9A ;?:;D ;H EM7JJ
7BCA 7;H 8 !D 7 IOIJ;C E FK8B?9 ;N7C?D7J?EDI M7I
?DJHE:K9;: CED?JEH;: 8O J ; KD?L;HI?J?;I E N EH: 7D: 7C8H?: ; J ?I
KHJ ;H I7D9J?ED;: J ; C;J E: J 7J M7I JE H;C7?D J ; FH;L7?B?D 7FFHE79
JE EH;? D B7D K7 ; J;79 ?D ?D KHEF; HEC J ; B7J; J 9;DJKHO KDJ?B J ;
I I B7H ; DKC8;HI E ?CC? H7DJI IJ7HJ;: JE 7HH?L; ?D J ; - HEC 7BB
EL;H KHEF; CEH; 9EDL;HI7J?ED7B C;J E:I M;H; H;GK?H;: 7D: ?D ?I
:?H;9J?L;I ?IIK;: JE J;79 ;HI IJ;;F;: ?D J ; FH?D9?FB;I E J ; D7JKH7B
C;J E: 7N?C?B?7D ;HB?JP ?HCBO HKB;: EKJ J ; KI; E JH7DIB7
J?ED ?D B7D K7 ; J;79 ?D 7BCA 7;H 8 , ; :;7J 8BEM JE J ;
H7CC7HZJH7DIB7J?ED C;J E: M7I KHJ ;H H;?D EH9;: 8O J ; D;;: :KH?D
/EHB: /7H !! EH -D?J;: J7J;I I;HL?9;C;D JE H7F?:BO 79GK?H; IFEA;D
Linguistics and Translation 53

command of foreign languages, which helped to trigger sweeping changes

in language-teaching methodology.
, ; 7FFHE79 JE JH7DIB7J?ED ?D 7D ;:K97J?ED7B 9EDJ;NJ M ;H;8O MEH:I
7D: H7CC7J?97B IJHK9JKH;I ?D J ; IEKH9; B7D K7 ; M;H; H;FB79;: M?J
J ;?H 9EHH;9J ;GK?L7B;DJI ?D J ; J7H ;J B7D K7 ; :?: DEJ 7?B JE B;7L; ?JI
C7HA ED J ; ;D;H7J?EDI E JH7DIB7JEHI H; KB7HBO IK8 ;9J;: JE J ; FHE9;II
,H7DIB7JEHI 9EDJ?DK;: JE JH7DIB7J; J ; M7O J ;O 7: 8;;D J7K J JE JH7DI
B7J; !D J ; 97I; E JH7DIB7J?ED HEC H;D9 7C?B?7H?JO ?D KHEF; M?J J ;
B7D K7 ; 7D: 9KBJKH; E H7D9; E J;D 79?B?J7J;: J ; MEHA E J ; JH7DIB7JEH
M ?B; ?D JH7DIB7J?ED HEC EJ ;H B7D K7 ;I B79A E ;GK?L7B;D9; M7I
799EKDJ;: EH J HEK J ; KI; E :;J7?B;: EEJDEJ;I , ?I M7I EH ;N7CFB;
J ; FH79J?9; E !8I;D JH7DIB7JEH /?BB?7C H9 ;H ?D JH7DIB7J?ED
HEC EHM; ?7D
ECC;DJ?D ED JH7DIB7J?EDI E 7DEJ ;H J 9;DJKHO KHEF;7D :H7C7
J?IJ FB7OMH? J ,EC JEFF7H: DEJ;I J 7J ;7HBO D B?I JH7DIB7J?EDI E
;A EL I , : :6 JAA H;L;7B M 7J ; J;HCI 7BCEIJ 7 F ?BEIEF O JEM7H:I
JH7DIB7J?ED , ;O 7H; 7I I9HKFKBEKI 7I B;: ;HI ;L;HOJ ?D ED J ; KII?7D
I?:; E J ; B?D; ?I 799EKDJ;: EH ED J ; D B?I I?:; I;DJ;D9; 8O I;DJ;D9;
7D: J ; I;DJ;D9;I J ;CI;BL;I 3 7?J KBBO 97HHO EL;H DEKDI L;H8I 7D:
GK7B? ?;HI JEFF7H: L?
!D 7::?J?ED JE J ; C?IH;FH;I;DJ7J?EDI E J ; IEKH9; J;NJ J 7J C7O 7H?I;
HEC IK9 7D EL;H H;B? ?EKI 7: ;H;D9; JE JEFF7H: I B;: ;H FH?D9?FB; J ;
7FFHE79 C7O 7BIE C7A; J ; JH7DIB7JEH CEH; IKI9;FJ?8B; JE J ; 7BBKH; E
7BI; H?;D:I !D D B?I M ;H; ?IJEH?97B 79JEHI B;: JE 7D ?D BKN E H;D9
BE7DMEH:I ?DJE J ; B;N?9ED J ; F ?BEIEF O E J ; H7CC7HYJH7DIB7J?ED
C;J E: 7I 8;;D E B?JJB; ;BF JE J ; JH7DIB7JEH ?D IJ;;H?D 9B;7H E J ; F?J 7BBI
?D H;D:;H?D EH ?DIJ7D9; EG:I:C9G: ?DJ;D: 7D: AJMJG: C7 D? ?9;D9;
?DJE D B?I 7I FH;J;D: 7D: BKNKHO 7I 7I 8;;D DEJ;: ?D D B?I 7HJH;
JH7DIB7J?EDI E J ; I ;;:
!D 7::?J?ED JE J ; F7HJ J 7J ?J FB7O;: ?D B7D K7 ; J;79 ?D C;J E:EBE O
JH7DIB7J?ED KB ?BB;: O;J 7DEJ ;H KD9J?ED EH CE:;HD KHEF;7D B?D K?IJI
EBBEM?D ?D J ; EEJIJ;FI E :; 7KIIKH; -DB?A; J ; - 7D: J ; - EH
C7DO IC7BB;H D7J?EDI ?D KHEF; ADEMB;: ; E CEH; J 7D ED; B7D K7 ;
9EDIJ?JKJ;I 7 B? ;B?D; M?J J ; EKJI?:; MEHB: 7D: 9EDJH7IJ?L; IJK:?;I E
CE:;HD B7D K7 ;I 7L; JH7:?J?ED7BBO 8;;D 7 FKHIK?J E I9 EB7HBO ?DJ;H;IJ !D
.?B;C 7J ;I?KI JE ;J ;H M?J EC7D "7AE8IED 7D:
?AEB7? ,HK8;JIAEO 7D: EJ ;HI EKD:;: J ; (H7 K; ?D K?IJ?9 ?H9B;
M EI; FK8B?97J?EDI ?D F7HJ?9KB7H ,G6K6JM 9J :G8A: A C J HI FJ: 9: (G6 J:
8;BED ;: JE J ; CEIJ ?CFEHJ7DJ MH?J?D I ED B?D K?IJ?9I E J ; ;FE9 -DB?A;
J ; C;H?97D IJHK9JKH7B?IJI J ; 7FFHE79 E J ; (H7 K; 9 EEB M7I 9 7H79
J;H?I;: 8O 7 J H;; B;L;B 9ED9;FJ E IODJ7N ;L;HO I;DJ;D9; M7I L?;M;: 7I
54 A Companion to Translation Studies

having a grammatical structure, a semantic structure and a structure of

sentence organisation. Through contrastive analysis, often taking the form
of translation, differences were pinpointed in what was termed functional
sentence perspective (FSP). Take for example the translation between
German and English of the sentence Das meine ich ('That mean I'). The first
constituent of the sentence receives stress in German and is less likely to be
replicated as 'That I mean'; instead, a cleft construction of the type 'That's
what I mean' often takes the place of the stressed German constituent in
translation into English (Kirkwood, 1969: 96).
, HEK IOIJ;C7J?9 IJK:?;I 9ED9;HD;: M?J J ; J;NJK7B :?C;DI?EDI E
9EDJH7IJ?L; FHE8B;CI 8;JM;;D B7D K7 ;I 7I H;L;7B;: J HEK J ; KI; E
JH7DIB7J?ED (H7 K; 9 EEB B?D K?IJI IK99;;:;: ?D KD;7HJ ?D 9EDI?IJ;DJ
:? ;H;D9;I 8;JM;;D KHEF;7D B7D K7 ;I , ?I FHEL?:;: J ; FH79J?I?D
JH7DIB7JEH M?J 7 879A HEKD: 7 7?DIJ M ?9 JH7DIB7J?ED FHE8B;CI C? J 8;
L?;M;: 7D: EFJ?EDI EH IK?J78B; IEBKJ?EDI IEK J , ;I; EFJ?EDI C7O ?D
JKHD 8; 7D7BOI;: HEC J ; L?;MFE?DJ E ;L7BK7J?ED E JH7DIB7J?EDI 7I ?D J ;
CEH; H;9;DJ MEHA 8O HDE 8EHD B?D K?IJ "7D ?H87I !D 7 IJK:O E EKH
:? ;H;DJ JH7DIB7J?EDI HEC KII?7D ?DJE KJ9 D B?I H;D9 7D:
;HC7D E J ; EF;D?D F7H7 H7F E EH?I (7IJ;HD7A I G 2 K6 D J ;
7FFB?97J?ED E J ; 9ED9;FJ E ( 7BBEMI ?H87I JE 7II;II J ; 7?J KBD;II E
J ; JH7DIB7J?EDI ?D H;B7J?ED JE J ; 9ECCKD?97J?L; FKHFEI; E J ; EH? ?D7B
?H87I
, ; H;B7J?EDI ?F 8;JM;;D JH7DIB7J?ED 7D: B?D K?IJ?9I C7O J7A; JME
:? ;H;DJ EHCI ?D J ; 97I; E ?:7 7D: 7J EH: ?J ;NFH;II;I ?JI;B ?D 7D
7JJ;CFJ JE EHCKB7J; 7 B?D K?IJ?9 J ;EHO E JH7DIB7J?ED EM;L;H ?J C7O 7BIE
J7A; J ; B;II 7C8?J?EKI EHC E KIJ 7D ED E?D ?DJ;H79J?ED 8;JM;;D J ; JME
;79 :H7M?D ED J ; ?D:?D I E J ; EJ ;H M ;D;L;H J ?I ?I CKJK7BBO 8;D; ?
9?7B EH B?D K?IJ?9I IK9 ?DJ;H79J?ED C? J ;DJ7?B J ; KI; E JH7DIB7J?ED 7I 7
EHC E 9EDJH7IJ?L; 7D7BOI?I 7I ?D J ; MEHA 8O B?D K?IJI EBBEM?D J ;
(H7 K; 9 EEB JH7:?J?ED , ; 7?DI ED J ; F7HJ E JH7DIB7J?ED J ;EH?IJI ED J ;
EJ ;H 7D: 7L; E J;D 8;;D J ; ?D:?D I H;IKBJ?D HEC J ; H;I;7H9 KD:;H
J7A;D 8O B?D K?IJI ;D 7 ;: ?D J ; IJK:O E B7D K7 ; 78EL; J ; B;L;B E J ;
MEH: 7D: J ; I;DJ;D9;
, ; IJK:O E J ; 79JEHI 7 ;9J?D J ; EL;H7BB EH 7D?I7J?ED E J ; J;NJ
78EL; I;DJ;D9; B;L;B ?D9H;7I?D BO 7JJH79J;: J ; 7JJ;DJ?ED E B?D K?IJI :KH?D
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 B;I GH 7G 5B8 F5BG 5H CB

Pygmalion, of his 'Satanic contempt for all academic dignitaries and persons
in general who thought more of Greek than phonetics'. Sweet, sharing a
number of characteristics with Professor Higgins in Shaw's play, was a
member of the Reform Movement of the late 19th century which stressed
the primacy of speech, and the priority of oral classroom methodology,
running counter to the grammar—translation method (Howatt, 1984;
Malmkjaer, 1998b).
Having studied under Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones (1881-1967) further
advanced the study of speech sounds, rising to become the head of the first
Department of Phonetics in Great Britain in 1912. Influential in spreading
the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), throughout the world,
his efforts provided the mechanism for the use of transcription of speech
sounds. However, the distinction between written/spoken and standard/
dialect is frequently not reflected in translation and awareness amongst
translation theorists of the problems involved in vernacular and dialect
translation has been slow in coming. While social class-linked dialects are
likely to be found in most urban environments, facilitating the transfer of a
vernacular such as Eliza Doolittle's cockney in Pygmalion into other
languages, the work of European dialect writers has frequently fared less
well in translation into English. Part of the work written in Sicilian dialect
by Italian writer Luigi Pirandello (1867-1936), the 1934 recipient of the
Nobel Prize for Literature, still remains unavailable in English translation.
Also largely ignored in English translation is the 1912 Nobel Prize laureate
Gerhart Hauptmann (1862-1946). Written in north-east German dialect, his
masterpiece, The W eavers has only recently been translated by Bill Findlay
into Scots in a translation where the relationship of standard English/Scots
parallels that of German/Silesian. Together with his sometime co-trans-
lator, Canadian-based Martin Bowman, Findlay has also succeeded in
finding an English voice for the Quebec playwright Michel Tremblay who
writes in joual, so called after the pronunciation of the word 'cheval'
amongst the speakers in the district of east-end Montreal. Again Scots may
be viewed as existing in relation to standard English as joual does to inter-
national French. Translating in the opposite direction, from Scots into
Quebecois, the use of non-standard French has also enabled Martin
Bowman and Montreal playwright Wajdi Mouawad to adapt Irvine
Welsh's novel Trainspotting for the French-speaking stage (Bowman, 2000).
In addition, it has proved successful as a medium in transferring the work
of American writers such as Tennessee Williams and Edward Albee onto
the French-speaking stage as well as the muscular dialect use of Brecht's
Mother Courage and Jean's sociolect in Strindberg's Miss Julie, a means of
overcoming the linguistic void in the normative system of French literature
 CAD5B CB HC F5BG 5H CB HI8 9G

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62 A Companion to Translation Studies

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