Refraction of Light 23-36

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
IMAGE
A real image is one that can be formed on a screen or a wall.
A virtual image on the other hand is one which cannot be formed on

a screen and exists only in the mind of an observer.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Definition. The phenomenon of change in the direction of

propagation of an obliquely incident ray of light on entering the other
medium, at the interface of the two media is called refraction of light.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
(i) The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence and the refracted ray
all lie in the same plane.
(ii) For a given pair of media and for light of a given wavelength, the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
Where is a constant, called the refractive index of the second medium w.r.t first medium. This is
known as Snell’s Law of refraction.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum (or air) to the velocity of
light in that medium.
i.e., Absolute refractive index
Also
Where
Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 1

Absolute refractive index of medium 1.
Absolute refractive index of medium 2.
Note. (i) The refractive index of the medium depends on the wavelength (or colour) of the light.
(ii). Optical density should not be confused with mass density, which is mass per unit volume. It is possible that
mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than that of an optically rarer medium. (Optical density is the
ratio of the speed of light in two media).
NATURE OF REFRACTION.
1. As the ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium. It bends towards the normal.
2. As the ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium. It bends away from the normal.
REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH.
If the object is placed in a denser medium and observed from rare medium its apparent depth is less than its real depth.
If the object is placed in rare medium and it is observed from a denser medium, then its apparent height will be
larger than its real value.
Let object O is placed in denser medium and I be its Image.
Using snell’s law at Q.

As (For normal observation, angles are small so P is near to Q)
If and
Then
Then apparent depth
Note.
Shift in position of object
( )
( )
Illustration 1. A small pin fixed on the table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50 cm. By what distance
would the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15 cm thick glass slab held parallel to
the table? Refractive index of glass = 1.5. Does the answer depend upon the location of the slab?
Solution. The displacement of the point object when seen through the slab is
( )
Here . Also,
( ) .
distance the pin appears to be raised
For small angles of incidence, the answer does not depend upon the location of the slab.
Illustration 2. The bottom of a container is a 4.0 cm thick glass ( ) slab. The container contains two
immiscible liquids A and B of depths 6.0 cm and 8.0 cm respectively. What is the apparent position of a scratch on the
outer surface of the bottom of the glass slab when viewed through the container? Refractive indices of A and B are 1.4
and 1.3 respectively.
Solution. The total displacement produced in the image is sum of the displacements produced by the three media : the
glass, liquid A and liquid B.
total displacement,
( ) ( ) ( )

Here
And
( ) ( ) ( ) .
APPARENT POSITION OF SUN AT SUNRISE AND SUNSET :
The sun is visible to us a little before the actual sunrise and until
a little after the actual sunset due to refraction of light through
the atmosphere.
The refractive index of air w.r.t vacuum is 1.00029. Due to this,
the apparent shift in the direction of the sun is by about half a
degree and the corresponding time difference between actual
sunset and apparent sunset about 2 minutes
Note. The apparent flattering (oval shape) of the sun at sunset and sunrise is also due to refractive of light through the
atmosphere.
PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT
If a ray of light, after suffering any number of reflections and /or refractions has its path reversed at any stage,
it travels back to the source along the same path in the opposite direction. This is called principle of reversibility
of light.
( )
When refraction takes place through a rectangular glass slab then emergent ray is parallel to incident ray. But it is
shifted slightly side wards
This is called lateral displacement. It is measured by perpendicular distance

between incident and emergent ray.
Here
………… (1)
In ∆ OBD ( ) ………… (2)
In ∆ OBC
From eq. (1) and (2)
( )
………….. (3)

This expression shows that Lateral displacement is proportional to thickness of glass slab. Also d increases with i and
will be maximum when i = . Maximum value of d is; .
Illustration 3. Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray of light which passes from air into glass at an angle of .
Refractive index of glass, n = 1.5.
Solution. Give that n = 1.5, i =
According to snell’s law:
Illustration 4. Fig. (a) and (b), show refraction of a ray in air incident at with the normal to a glass-air and water-
air interface, respectively. Predict the angle of refraction in glass when the angle of incident in water is with the
normal to a water-glass interface (Fig.) (c)
Solution. From Fig. (a)
And from Fig. (b)
Now in Fig. (c), if angle of refraction be r, then

And ( )
Illustration 5. Monochromatic light of wavelength 5890 Ǻ is incident from air on water surface. What are the
wavelength, frequency and speed of (a) reflected and (b) refracted light? Refractive index of water is 1.33. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Give that n = 1.33

Wavelength of light in air,
Velocity of light in air, c = 3
(a) As wavelength of light does not change on reflection, hence, wavelength of reflected light = 5890Ǻ. Frequency
of reflected light,
(b) On refraction, wavelength of light changes but its frequency remains unchanged.
Hence, frequency of refracted light, f = 5.0934 Hz.
If is the wavelength and v is the velocity of light in water (after refraction), then
Also
Illustration 6. The apparent depth of an object of a tank filled with a liquid of refractive index 1.3 is 7.7 cm. What is
the actual depth of the liquid in the tank?
Solution. Apparent depth d’ = 7.7 cm
Refractive index n
Real depth Apparent depth × R.I
7.7 1.3 10.01 cm.

EXERCISE 1.
1. For the same angle of incidence, the angles of refraction of different media A, B are 15 0 and 250, respectively.
In which medium will the velocity of light be minimum?
2. When light undergoes refraction, what happens to its frequency?
3. Can absolute refractive index of a medium be less than unity? Can relative refractive index of a medium with
respect to another be less than unity?
4. Which of the following does not change when light goes from one medium to another?
Frequency, wavelength, speed and intensity.
5. How is speed of light in vacuum affected by change in wavelength / intensity of light?
6. A glass slab is placed over a page in which letters are printed in different colours. Will the image of all letters be
in the same plane?
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Total internal reflection is the phenomenon of reflection of light back into the denser medium when the angle of
incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle for the two media in contact
The following conditions must be satisfied for total internal

reflection to take place.
(i) The incident light should be in optically denser

medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence in denser medium should be
greater than the critical angle for the pair of media in
contact.
Critical angle. It is defined as the angle of incidence in the denser medium corresponding to which the angle of
refraction in the rarer medium is a right angle. It is denoted by or C
Illustration 7. Calculate the critical angle for a ray of light travelling from glass to water.
Given that ang a
nw = .
a
Solution. ng
a
Now, nw

Illustration 8. (a) Fig. shows a cross-section of a light-pipe made of glass fibre of refractive index 1.68. The outer
covering of the pipe is made of a material of refractive index 1.44. What is the range of the angles incident rays with
the axis of the pipe for which total reflections inside the pipe take place as shown in Fig.
(b). What is the answer if there is no outer covering of the pipe?
Solution. (a) Here refractive index of glass fibre and

refractive index of outer covering
Total internal reflection will take place inside the pipe if angle of
incidence , the critical angle, for glass fibre-outer covering interface. But
( )
Hence for total internal reflection
Thus all incident rays of angles in the range. will suffer total internal reflection in the pipe
If there is no outer coating
(b) If there is no outer covering, then air will act as the covering and hence the critical angle
( ) ( )
Now, consider and applying Snell’s law
, we find that

Consequently, and it has a value greater than the critical angle .
Hence, all the rays will be totally reflected.
Illustration 9. A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 80 cm. What is the area of
the surface of water through which light from the bulb can emerge out? Refractive index of water is 1-33 (consider the
bulb to be a point source).
Solution. This is the case of a total internal reflection. When the angle is more than the critical angle for the point
source inside the denser medium, light is totally internally reflected.
Also, as shown in Fig. if S is the source and P is the point from where total internal reflection starts to occur, then
in triangle OSP,
Therefore, area of surface of water = Area of the circle of radius OP
( ) ( )
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APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
1. Mirage : On hot summer days, the air near the ground

becomes hotter than the air at higher levels. The refractive
index of air increases with its density. Hotter air is less
dense, and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air.
If the air currents are small, that is, the air is still, the optical
density at different layers of air increases with height.
As a result, light from a tall object such as a tree, passes
through a medium whose refractive index decreases towards
the ground. Thus, a ray of light from such an object successively bends away from the normal and undergoes total
internal reaction, if the angle of incidence for the air near the ground exceeds the critical angle.
To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming from some where below the ground. The observer naturally
assumes that light is being reflected from the ground, say, by a pool of water near the tall object. Such inverted
images of distant tall objects cause an optical illusion to the observer. This phenomenon is called mirage.

The brightness of a diamond is due to total internal reflection of light. The refractive index of diamond has a high
value of 2.42. As a result, it has a small critical angle of , i.e., . If a diamond is cut appropriately then
the light entering any of its faces undergoes multiple total internal reflection and comes out from the surface from
which it is generally viewed, causing the diamond to appear bright.
Totally reflecting prism : Prism designed to bend light by or by make use to total internal reflection. Such
a prism is also used to invert images without changing their size. In the first two cases, the critical angle for the
material of the prism must be less than .
Optical fibres : Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fibres are
fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibres consists of a core and cladding The refractive
index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding.
When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total
internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out at the other end.
Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light
signal. Optical fibres are fabricated such that light reflected at one side of inner surface strikes the other at an angle
larger than the critical angle. Thus an optical fibre can be used be used to act as an optical pipe.
USES OF OPTICAL FIBRES :
(a) Optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and video signals through long distances.
(b) They are used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are converted to light by suitable
transducers.
(c) They can also be used for transmission of optical signals.

Illustration 10. Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is .
Solution. We know that n =
.
√
EXERCISE 2.
1. (a) state two conditions for total internal reflection to take place.
(b). Define critical angle for total internal reflection.
2. When observed from underwater, the outside objects above the surface of water can be seen within a cone of
. The refractive index of water is 4/3. How can this be explained?
3. A right angled crown glass prism with critical angle is placed before an object
PQ in two positions as shown in the figures (a) and (b). Trace the paths of the rays
from P and Q passing through the prism in the two cases.
4. What causes brilliance of diamond?
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE
A spherical refracting surface is a part of a sphere of refracting material.

We shall deal with two types of spherical refracting surfaces :
(a) A refracting surface which is convex towards rarer medium. This is called convex refracting surface
(b) A refracting surface which is concave towards rarer medium. This surface is called concave refracting surface.
 The centre of the spherical refracting surface is called pole of the surface.
 The centre of the sphere of which the refracting surface forms a part is called the centre of curvature of the
spherical refracting surface.
 The radius of the sphere of which the refracting surface forms a part is called the radius of curvature of the
spherical refracting surface.
 A straight line passing through the pole and centre of curvature of the refracting surface is called the principal
axis of the refracting surface.

ASSUMPTIONS :
The study of refraction at spherical surfaces will be based on the following assumptions.
(i) Object is a point object lying on the principal axis.
(ii) The incident and the refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.
(iii) The aperture is small
The sign convention to be used is the New Cartesian sign convention.
REFRACTION FROM RARER TO DENSER MEDIUM
(1) At a spherical surface convex towards the rarer medium
In this case image formed may be real or virtual image
(a) Real Image Figure shows the geometry of formation of image I of an object O on the Principal axis of a spherical
surface with centre of curvature C, and radius of curvature R.
The rays are incident from a medium of refractive index to another of refractive index .
Snell’s law of Refraction
Consider aperture to be small
, .
( ) = ( ).
( )
( ) ( )
If the angles are small
( ) ( )
Since aperture is small, M lies near to P. replace M by P
( ) ( )

According to the new Cartesian sign convention.
(b) Virtual image.
In this case O is object, I is virtual image, P is Pole, C is Centre curvature
( ) = ( ).
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Since aperture is small, M lies near to P. Replace M by P
( ) ( )
According to the new Cartesian sign convention .
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CONCAVE SURFACE
is the virtual image of the point object O formed by refraction at the concave surface
( ) = ( ).
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
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REFRACTION FROM DENSER TO RARER MEDIUM
(1) At a spherical surface convex towards rarer medium.
(a) Real Image. Fig show a spherical surface which is convex towards rarer medium. The two refracted rays
actually meet at . So, is the real image of the point object O.

( ) = ( ).
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
According to the new Cartesian sign convention.
Virtual Image. If the point object O on the principal axis is placed close to the pole of the refracting surface, then the
two refracted rays appear to come from the point . So, is the virtual image of O Fig
( ) = ( ).

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE CONCAVE TOWARDS THE RARER MEDIUM.

The formation of virtual image.
( ) = ( ).
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Since aperture is small, M lies near to P. Replace M by P
( ) ( )
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PRINCIPAL FOCI OF THE LENS
First principle focus of a lens is that point on the principle axis of the lens at which if an object is placed, the image
would be formed at infinity. It is denoted by
The distance of the first principle focus of a lens from its optical centre is called the first principle focal length of the
lens. It is denoted by .
Second principal Focus and second Principal Focal Length
Second Principal focus of a lens is that point on the Principal axis of the lens where the image is formed when
the object is at infinity. It is denoted by
The distance of the second Principal focus of a lens from its optical centre is called the second Principal focal
length of the lens. It is denoted by

It is worth mentioning that the two foci, and , of a double convex or concave lens are equidistant from the
optical centre.
Illustration 11. Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surfaces (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature
= 20 cm). The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position the image is formed?
Solution.
We use the relation
, R = + 20 cm, , and .
We then have
The image is formed at a distance of 100 cm from the glass surface, in the direction of incident light.
Illustration 12. What curvature must be given to the bounding surface of a refracting medium ( ) for the
virtual image of an object in the adjacent medium ( ) at 10 cm to be formed at a distance of 40 cm?
Solution. , , R=?
We know that
Substituting values, we get
or
Illustration 13. A beam of light travelling in air strikes a glass sphere of 20 cm diameter converging towards a point
40 cm behind the pole of the spherical surface. Find the position of the image, if the refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Solution. ,
or

Illustration 14. An empty spherical flask of diameter 30 cm is placed in water of refractive index . A parallel beam
of light strikes the flask. Where does it get focussed, when observed from within the flask?
Solution.
or
EXERCISE 3.
1. A beam of light strikes a glass sphere of 0.10 m diameter converging towards a point 0.20 m behind the pole
of the spherical surface. Find the position of the image, if μ of glass is 1.5. [Ans. 0.10 m]
2. The radius of curvature of a convex surface is 0.10 m and if an object lies at a distance of 0.20 m from it in the
rarer medium, find the position of the image assuming that the refracting index of the rarer medium is 1.0
while that of the denser medium is 2.0. [Ans. 0.40 m]
3. A small point object is placed in air at a distance of 0.60 m from the convex spherical refracting surface of
refractive index 1.5. If radius of curvature of the spherical surface is 0.25 m, calculate
(i) The position of the image, (ii) first and second principal focal lengths and (iii) the power of the
refracting surface. [Ans. (i) 4.5 m, (ii) 0.50 m and 0.75 m (iii) 2 dioptre]
4. A point object is placed in air at a distance of 0.30 m from a concave refracting surface of material of
refractive index 1.5 Find the position of the image if the radius of curvature of the spherical surface is 0.12 m.
[Ans. - 0.20 m]
5. Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (μ ).

The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position is the image formed?
[Ans. + 100 cm]
6. Viewed normally through its flat surface, the greatest thickness of a plano-convex lens appears to be 0.024 m
and through its curved surface 0.029 m. Actually, it is 0.037 m. Find the refractive index and radius of
curvature of the curved surface. [Ans. 1.54, - 0.076 m]
7. A small air bubble in a sphere of 0.08 m diameter of a substance having refractive index 1.4 appears to be
0.02 m from the surface when looking along the diameter. Find the true position of the bubble.
[Ans. - 0.0233 m]
8. A small object is 0.02 m below the concave meniscus of water in a test tube. The radius of the meniscus is
0.005 m and μ for water is . Find the nature and position of the image. [Ans. - 0.0075 m]
9. A sunshine recorder globe of 30 cm diameter is made of glass of μ A ray enters the globe parallel to the
axis. Find the position from the centre of the sphere where the ray crosses the axis. [Ans. 22.5 cm]
10. A small piece of paper is stuck on a glass sphere of 0.05 m radius and viewed through the glass from the
position directly opposite. Find the position of the image. Refractive index of glass is 1.5. [Ans. - 0.20 m]
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REFRACTION BY A LENS :
Lens maker formula for thin lens.

Assumption : The lens is thin so that all the distance measured from surface can
be taken as to be measured from optical centre.
Figure shows the geometry of image formation by a double convex lens. The
image formation can be seen in terms of two steps.
(i) The first refracting surface forms the image of the object O.
(ii) The image acts as a virtual object for the second surface that forms
the image at I.
For the first refraction at point A, We have,
………….. (i)
For the second refraction at B, the role of and reverses and becomes
the object distance and the virtual object**. Hence, for the refraction at the
second surface (on which light is incident after the first surface), we have,
………….. (ii)
On adding eqn. (i) and eqn. (ii) we have,
( )( )
On dividing the equation throughout by , we get.
( )( ) ……………… (iii)
Now, if the incident rays are parallel, they must be coming from a distant object. By definition, a parallel incident
beam converges at the focus and in case
If .
From eq. (iii), we have,
( ) ( )

Or ( ) ( ) …………. (iv)
Eqn. (iv) given above is called the lens maker’s formula, which can alternately be written as
( )( )
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Illustration 15. Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces of
the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length is to be 20 cm?
Solution. We know, the lens maker formula
( )( )
Here
Also
( ) * ( )+ (By sign convention)
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Illustration 16. The radius of curvature of each face of a bi-concave lens, made of glass of refractive index 1.5 is 30
cm. Calculate the focal length of the lens in air.
Solution. ( ) ( ) or
Illustration 17. An equiconvex lens of focal length 15 cm is cut into two equal halves in thickness. What is the focal
length of each half?
Solution. ( ) or
For each half lens, and
( ) ( ) or
Illustration 18. Double convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces of
the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length of the lens is to be 20 cm?
Solution. and ,
We know that ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) or
Illustration 19. A glass convex lens has a focal length of 20 cm in air. What will be its focal length, when it is
completely immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.63? Given aμg = 1.5.
Solution. ( )( )
Again, ( ) ( )
Dividing or
Illustration 20. (i) If , what is the power of the lens?
(ii) The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm.
What is the refractive index of glass?
(iii) A convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What is the focal length in water? (Refractive index for air-water
= 1.33, Refractive index for air-glass = 1.5).
Solution. (i) Power
(ii) Here we have ,

Refractive index of air medium is taken as 1.
The lens formula is ( ) ( )
Substituting values with suitable sign convention, we get ( )( )
On simplification,
(iii) ( ) ( )
For glass lens in air, , ; * +
For the same glass lens in water, , ( ) * +
Combining these two equations, we find
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THIN LENS FORMULA :
1st method __________
∆ ABO ~ ∆ A’ B’ O
…………. (i)
∆ MQF ~ ∆ A’ B’ F
………… (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii)
Using proper sign convention
Substituting the values, we get :
( )
This is known as thin lens formula.

Magnification (m) produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object.
From equation (i),
So,
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RULES FOR FORMATION OF IMAGE
To find the image of an object by lens, we can, in principle, take

any two rays emanating from a point on an object; trace their paths
using the laws of refraction and find the point where the refracted
rays meet (or appear to meet). In practice, however, it is convenient
to choose any two of the following rays:
(i) A ray emanating from the object parallel to the principal axis of
the lens after refraction passes through the second principal
focus F’ (in a convex lens) or appears to diverge (in a concave
lens) from the first principal focus F.
(ii) A ray of light, passing through the optical centre of the lens,
emerges without any deviation after refraction.
(iii) A ray of light passing through the first principal focus (for a convex lens) or appearing to meet at it (for a
concave lens) emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
 IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS :

IMAGE FORMED BY CONVEX LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITION OF THE OBJECT.
Position of the object Position of this image Size of image Nature of the image
At infinity At focus Highly diminished Real and inverted
Point-sized
Beyond Between and Diminished Real and inverted
At At Same size Real and inverted
Between and Beyond Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus At infinity Infinitely large Real and inverted
Highly enlarged
Between focus and On the same side of the Enlarged Virtual and erect.
Optical centre O lens as the object
 IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS :
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS
Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At focus Highly diminished, point Virtual and erect
– sized
Between infinity and Between focus and Diminished Virtual and erect
optical centre O of the optical centre O
lens
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Illustration 21. A magician during a show makes a glass lens with disappear in a trough of liquid. What is
the refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
Solution. The refractive index of the liquid must be equal to 1.47 in order to make the lens disappear. This means
. This gives or . The lens in the liquid will act like a plane sheet of glass. No, liquid is not
water. It could be glycerine.

POWER OF A LENS
1. Power of lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a lens introduces in the light falling on it.
2. Clearly, a lens of shorter focal length bends the incident light more, while converging it in case of a convex
lens and diverging it in case of a concave lens.
3. The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of light
falling at unit distant from the optical centre.
If
When is small
Thus,
4. The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D); ID = 1

5. Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.
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Illustration 22. (i) If m for a glass lens, what is the power of the lens? (ii) The radii curvature of the faces of
a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive index of glass? (iii) A
convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What is focal length in water? (Refractive index of air-water = 1.33,
refractive index for air-glass = 1.5.)
Solution.
(i) Power = + 2 dioptre.
(ii) Here, we have , .

Refractive index of air is taken as unity.
We use the lens formula of Eq. The sign convention has to be applied for
Substituting the values, we have
( ) ( )
This gives
(iii) For a glass lens in air, cm. Hence, the lens formula gives.

* +
For the same glass lens in water, . Therefore,
( ) * +
Combining these two equations, we find .
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COMBINATION OF THIN LENSES IN CONTACT
Consider two lenses A and B of focal length and placed in contact

with each other. Let the object be placed at a point O beyond the focus
of the first lens A. The first lens produces an image at . Since image
is real, it serves as a virtual object for the second lens B, producing the
final image at I.
For the image formed by the first lens A, We get
……….. (i)
For the image formed by the second lens B, we get
……….. (ii)
Adding Eqs. (i) and (ii) We get
..……… (iii)
If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length , We have
So that we get
………… (iv)
The derivation is valid for any number of thin lenses in contact. If several thin lenses of focal length
are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is given by
..……….. (v)
In terms of power Eq. (v) can be written as
….. ……….. (vi)

Where P is the net power of the lens combination. Note that the sum in Eq. (vi) is an algebraic sum of individual
powers, so some of the terms on the right side may be positive (for convex lenses) and some negative (for concave
lenses). Combination of lenses helps to obtain diverging or converging lenses of desired magnification. It also
enhances sharpness of the image. Since the image formed by the first lens becomes the object for the second,
implies that the total magnification m of the combination is a product of magnification ( )of
individual lenses
…. …………. (vii)
Such a system of combination of lenses is commonly used in designing lenses for cameras, microscopes,
telescopes and other optical instruments.
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Illustration 23. Find the position of the image formed by the lens combination given in the Fig.
Solution. Image formed by the first lens.
Or cm.
The image formed by the first lens serves as the object for the second. This is at a distance of ( ) cm = 10 cm
to the right of the second lens. Though the image is real, it serves as a virtual object for the second lens, which means
that the rays appear to come from it for second lens.
The virtual image is formed at an infinite distance to the left of the second lens. The acts as an object for the third
lens.
The final image is formed 30 cm to the right to the third lens.
Therefore, the image formed is real, inverted and magnified .
______________________________________________________________________________

Illustration 24. A beam of light converges to a point P. A lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 12
cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of focal length 20 cm, (b) a concave
lens of focal length 16 cm ?
Solution. (a) The formation of image with and without the placement of a convex lens is as shown (dotted lines
represent the formation of image without the lens). The actual image is formed at I which would otherwise have been
formed at I’ if there were no lens. Therefore, I’ represents a virtual object with real image at I’
Distance of object,
Distance of image,
Focal length, cm
Or cm.
i.e., image is formed 7.5 cm away from the lens and it is a real image.
(b) For a concave lens, the image formation is as shown.
Here (By convention)
And
Using
i.e., the image formed is at a distance of 48 cm from the lens and it is a real image.
Illustration 25. An object is size 3-0 cm is placed 14 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21 cm. describe the
image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved farther from the lens?
Solution. Here, size of object, O = 3.0 cm
Distance of object,
Focal length,

Using
Also, the magnification,
Therefore, the image is virtual erect and diminished and is formed on the same side of the lens at a distance of 8.4 cm
from the lens. If the object is moved away from the lens, the image moves towards the principal focus and goes on
diminishing in size.
Illustration 26. A needle placed 45 cm from a lens an image on a screen placed 90 cm on the other side of the lens.
Identify the type of the lens and determine its focal length. What is the size of the image if the size of the needle is
5.0 cm ?
Solution. Here distance of object, cm ; cm. (using sign convention)
Using
cm
Since the focal length is positive, it is a convex lens,
Also size of object, O = 5.0 cm ; Size of image, 1 = ?
Now
Illustration 27. What is the focal length of a convex lens of focal length 30 cm contact with a concave lens of focal
length 20 cm? Is the system a converging or diverging lens ? Ignore thickness of the lenses. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here, cm and cm
For the combination of two thin lenses, the focal length of the combination is given by
( )
Since the focal length is negative, the combination is a diverging lens.

Illustration 28. (a) Determine the effective focal length of the combination of the two lenses in the question 27 if they
are placed 8-0 cm apart with their principal axes coincident. Does the answer depend on which side a beam a parallel
light is incident? Is the notion of effective focal length of this system useful at all?
(b) An object 1.5 cm in size is placed on the side of the convex lens in the above arrangements. The distance
between the object and the convex lens is 40 cm. Determine the magnification produced by the two – lens
system, and the size of the image. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. (a) Let a parallel beam be incident first on convex lens of focal length cm. Naturally, the beam will
get focused at a point behind convex lens, in the absence of concave lens.
However, the image behaves as a virtual object for concave lens, of focal length 20 cm, which is placed 8.0 cm
from convex lens. Thus, for concave lens
( ) ( )
Thus, an incident parallel beam will appear to diverge from a point from concave lens (or 216 cm from
centre point O of the two lens system).
Then let us consider that a parallel beam of light is incident first on the concave lens (Fig.) The beam will appear to
diverge from a point 20 cm behind concave lens, in the absence of convex
Lens. now behaves as a real object for convex lens of focal length 30 cm. Thus, for convex lens ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Thus, the incident parallel beam will appear to diverge from a point behind convex lens (or 416 cm from
centre point O of the two lens system).
Thus, it is clear that there is no fixed answer for effective focal length of the combination.

(b) Given that cm and distance of object from convex lens ( ),
( )
Hence, for concave lens ( ) and
( ) ( )
cm
Thus, a real image is formed 24.3 cm behind concave lens.
| |
Hence, magnification produced by convex lens | |
| |
| |
And magnification produced by concave lens | |
| |
Total magnification of image | | | | | | ( )
Size of image cm
Illustration 29. Use the mirror equation to deduce that
(a) An object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror produces a real image beyond 2f.
(b) A convex mirror always produces a virtual image independent of the location of the object.
(c) The virtual image produced by a convex mirror is always diminished in size and is located between the focus
and the pole.
(d) An object placed between the pole and focus of a concave mirror produces a virtual and enlarged image.
Solution.
(a)
Now for concave mirror and
| | | |
Applying sign Conventions
| | | |
…… (i)
| | | | | | given
| | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |

| |
as | | | |
| |
As | | , Image form is real and it beyond
(b)
For a convex mirror, f > 0.
| |
(Apply sign conventions)
| |
Now f >0 and | |
Image formed is always virtual
(c)
For convex mirror
| |
| |
……. (i)
Now f >0 and | |
Image formed virtual
| |
| |

| |
| |
Magnification
| | | |
| |
Image is diminished
Also | |
from (i)
Image is located between focus and pole.
(d)
Now for concave mirror and
| | | |
Applying sign Conventions
| | | |
…… (i)
Now | | | | (Given)
| | | |
| | | |
Image formed is virtual.

Now magnification
| | | |
| | | | | |
as
| | | |
From (i)
| |
| |
| |
as | |
Image formed is enlarged
Illustration 30. The image of small electric bulb on the wall of a room is to be obtained on the opposite wall 3m away
by means of a large convex lens. What is the maximum possible focal length of the lens required for the purpose?
Solution. Using the lens formula, N.C.E.R.T
Consider and
( )
Now for maxima ,
which shows is the condition of maxima
( ) ( )
m.

Illustration 31. The adjoining figure shows an equiconvex lens (of refractive index 1.50) in contact with a liquid layer
on top of a plane mirror. A small needle with its tip on the principal axis is moved along the axis until its inverted
image is found at the position of the needle. The distance of the needle from the lens is measured to be 45.0 cm.
The liquid is remove and the experiment is repeated. The new distance is measured to be 30.0 cm. What is the
refractive index of liquid?
Solution. In the presence of the liquid, the distance of the needle from the lens is
equal to the focal length f of the combination of the convex lens and the plano
concave lens formed by the liquid below it i.e.
When the liquid is removed, the distance of the needle and the lens is equal to the
focal length of the convex lens only i.e.,
If is the focal length of the plan concave lens formed by the liquid, then
Now, using the Lens maker’s formula
( )( )
( )( ( )) ( )
For the plano convex lens formed by the liquid
Also,
Using ( )( ) ( )( )
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Illustration 32. (a) Fig. shows a cross-section of a light-pipe made of glass fibre of refractive index 1.68. The outer
covering of the pipe is made of a material of refractive index 1.44. What is the range of the angles incident rays with
the axis of the pipe for which total reflections inside the pipe take place as shown in Fig.
(b). What is the answer if there is no outer covering of the pipe?
Solution. (a)
So, angle i’ in figure may have value ranging from to . If follows from here that the angle ‘r’ may have any
value between and .
So,
Let us now consider refraction from air to glass, at the entrance of the
light pipe.
According to Snell’s law,
( )
So, all ray incident at angles in the range 0 < i < shall suffer total internal reflections in the pipe.
(b) When there is no outer covering, refraction inside the pipe shall take place from glass to air.
Now, ( )
So, the angle of incidence may have value ranging from . The angle of refraction shall accordingly
have value between and
So,
Now
This is not possible. We have got this result because and are only the possible values of and
( ). The required is more than ( ). Thus , all the rays inclined at angles to with
the axis will be totally reflected from inside the pipe.

(i), Here
If a parallel beam of light is made to fall on the convex lens from the left hand side,
This image formed by convex lens appears as an object an an object at 30 – 8 cm = 22 cm from the covex lens on the
right hand side.
Using Or
Thus, the parallel beam of light appears to diverge from (220 – 8) = 212 cm from the convex lens from the left.
(ii) We suppose that the parallel beam of light is made of fall on the concave lens after which the convex lens is placed
at 8 cm.
Then
–
So that
i.e., the image is formed – 20 cm to the left of concave length and it is 20 + 8 = 28 cm to the left of convex lens.
cm
i.e., the light appears to diverge from a point at 420 cm to the left of convex lens.
Thus, the answer depends upon the side of incidence. Also, the notion of effective focal length is not useful in this
case.
(b) Here
Magnification produced by convex lens, | |

Now ( )
| |
Magnification produced by concave lens,
Net magnification
Size of image cm.
Illustration. A convex lens made of variety of glass of high dispersive power has focal length of 15 cm. A parallel
beam of white light is incident on one side of the lens and screen is placed on the other side. Described the chromatic
aberration of the lens. i.e., describe the colours on the spot focused on the screen as the screen is moved from the lens.
Solution. The focal length of the lens is 15 cm. It is for the mean yellow light. Therefore, a parallel beam of white
light shall be focused on to a yellow spot at 15 cm away from the lens on the other side. If a screen is placed at a
distance slightly less than 15 cm, a blue spot will be observed. If the screen is moved away from the lens, the spot
changes to green, yellow, orange and finally red.
Illustration. (a) combination of two thin lenses in contact is to be made which has the same focal length for blue and
red light (Such a combination is known as achromatic doublet). Show that the ratio of their focal length (for yellow
light) must be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the ratio of the dispersive
(b). Use the result in (a) to suggest a way for removing chromatic aberration of the lens in the last exercise which is
made of flint glass. You are given convex and concave lenses (made of crown glass) of various focal lengths. The
ratio of the dispersive powers of flint glass to crown glass is about 1.5,
Solution. (a) Let L and L’ be two lenses of focal lengths f and f’ respectively and ’ be their dispersive powers.
Then ( )( ) …………. (1) (Lens maker’s formula)
Where f is the focal length of the lens
Illustration 16. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 15cm and 30 cm, respectively are kept in contact with each other.
What is the power of the combined system?
Solution. For thin lenses in contact, the focal length of the combination of lenses is

Illustration 17. Two thin lenses of power +6 D and -2 D are in contact. What is the focal length of the combination?
Solution. For thin lenses in contact, the power of the combination of lenses
But
Illustration 18. A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is placed coaxially 5 cm away from a concave lens of focal
length 10 cm. If an object is placed 30 cm in front of the convex lens, find the position of the final image formed by
the combined system.
Solution. For convex lens
Applying lens formula
Illustration 19. A double convex lens made of glass of refractive index 1.5 has both radii of curvature of magnitude
20 cm. an object 2cm high is placed at 10 cm from the lens. Find the position, nature and size of image.
Solution. By lens maker’s formula
( )* +
Here
Now putting the values in above given equation, we get
( ) * +
By lens formula

Now, according to magnification formula
( ) ( )
Illustration 20. A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is placed coaxially 5 cm away from a concave lens of focal
length 10 cm. If an object is placed 30 cm in front of the convex lens, find the position of the final image formed by
the combined system.
Solution. For convex lens
This image will act as a virtual object for the concave lens
For concave lens
( )
Thus the final image will be formed at infinity.
Illustration 21. A 10 cm long needle is placed along the axis of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm such that the mid-
point of the needle is at 20 cm from the lens (Fig). Find the length of the image of the needle.
Solution. Given that f = + 10 cm, AB = 10 cm and OC = 20 cm.

For the formation of the image of end A
Now
Or
Similarly, for the end B, u = OB = 25 cm
Or
Now, the length of the image =
Illustration 22. Find the position of the image formed by the lens combination given in Fig.
Solution. For lens focal length + 10 cm
Applying
This image acts as a virtual object for the next lens.
For lens of focal length – 10 cm.
( )
Applying
This image acts as a virtual image for the next lens

For lens of focal length + 30 cm
Applying
Thus the final image is formed at a distance of 30 cm towards the right of the third lens.
EXERCISE 3.
1. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if monochromatic red light is used instead of monochromatic
blue light?
2. Read the following statements carefully and comment whether they are true (T) or false (F):
(a) A spherical refracting surface can converge or diverge a parallel beam of light
(b) The incidence ray direction is taken as the positive direction of x – axis in the Cartesian convention.
(c) The direction opposite to the incidence ray direction is the negative direction of x – axis.
(d) When magnification is positive, the image is virtual and erect.
(e) When magnification is negative, the image is virtual and erect.
(f) The focal length of a converging lens is positive.
(g) The focal length of a diverging lens is positive
(h) The brightness of the image does not depend on the aperture of the lens.
(i) The magnification produce by a lens is , where v is the image distance and u is the object distance.
(j) The greater the focal length of a lens, the greater is its power.
(k) When lenses are in contact, their powers are added to get the resultant power.
(l) A ray passing through the mind-point of the lens passes undeviated.
(m) A plane wavefront incident on a lens becomes spherical after refraction.
(n) An air bubble in water behaves like a diverging lens.
(o) An diverging lens can from a real image of a virtual objects.
3. The image of a candle is formed by a convex lens on a screen. The lower half of
the lens is painted black to make it completely opaque. Draw the ray diagram to show the image formation. How
will this image be different from the one obtained when the lens is not painted black?

4. Explain why does a convex lens behave as a converging lens when immersed in water (n = 1.33) and as a
diverging lens when immersed in carbon disulphide (n = 1.66)?
5. A magician during a show makes a glass lens with n = 1.47 disappear in a through of liquid. What is the
refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?

CHECKPOINT 1:- In the figure you look into a system of two vertical parallel mirrors A and B separated
by distance d. A grinning gargoyle is perched at point O, a distance 0.2d from mirror A. Each mirror
produces a first (least deep) image of the gargoyle. Then each mirror produces a third image with the object
being the second image in the opposite mirrors, and so on – you might see hundreds of grinning gargoyle
images. How deep behind mirror A are the first, second, and third images in mirror A?
CHECKPOINT 2:- A Central American vampire bat, dozing on the central axis of a spherical mirror, is
magnified by . Is its image (a) real or virtual, (b) inverted or of the same side of the mirror as the
bat or on the opposite side?
CHECKPOINT 3:- A bee is hovering in front of the concave spherical refracting surface of a glass
sculpture. (a) Which of the general situations of Fig. is like this situation? (b) Is the image produced by the
surface real or virtual, and is it on the same side as the bee or the opposite side?
CHECKPOINT 4:- A thin symmetric lens provides an image of a fingerprint with a magnification of + 0.2
when the fingerprint is 1.0 cm farther from the lens than the focal point of the lens. What are the type and
orientation of the image, and what is the type of lens.?

THIN LENS FORMULA / LENS EQUATION
(a) Real Image
Triangles ABC and A’ B’ C’ are similar.
……… (i)
Again, triangles CDF and A’ B’ F are similar.
or ………. (ii)
From equation (i) and (ii), or
According to the new Cartesian sign convention,
CB = - CB’ = + CF = +
or or
Virtual Image
Triangles ABC and A’ B’ C are similar
…………… (i)
Again triangles DCF and A’ B’ F are similar.
or ………. (ii)
From (i) and (ii),
According to the New Cartesian sign convention
CB = , CB’ = and CF = + f
or
For concave lens
Triangle ABC and A’B’ C are similar.
……….. (i)
Again triangles CDF and A ‘B’ F are similar.

Or ……… (ii)
From (i) and (ii),
According to new Cartesian sign convention,
CB = CB’ = and CF =
or
( )
Consider two thin lenses and of focal lengths and respectively placed coaxially in contact with
each other as shown in Fig. image of point object O is formed at by the lens of focal length
……… (1)
For the second lens, acts as the object and image is formed at I.
……… (2)
Adding (1) and (2), …….(3)
If the given combination is replaced by a single lens of focal

length F which forms the image of the given point object at I, then
Comparing (4) and (3),
If P is the power of the combination, then P = +
Where and are the powers of the individual lenses.

Image formed by Convex lens for different positions of the Object.
Convex Lens
Position of Position of Real/ Inverted Magnification Sign of
object image Virtual erect and size of magnification
image
at infinity at focus real Inverted < 1 Negative
( = ) ( ) Diminished
Beyond Between f and real Inverted < 1 Negative
2 ( ) 2f (f < v < 2f) Diminished
at2 ( ) at2 ( ) real Inverted = 1 Negative
Same size
between f and Beyond real Inverted > 1 Negative
2f 2 ( ) magnified
( )
at f ( ) at infinity real Inverted > Negative
( ) magnified
between at a distance Virtual erect > 1 positive
optical centre greater than magnified
and focus the object
( ) distance and
on the same
side as object
( )
Concave Lens
at infinity at focus Virtual erect Positive

( ) ( ) Diminished
between Between Virtual erect Positive
infinity and optical centre Diminished
optical centre and focus

Text Question
Question 1
Ans 1.
For the same i sin r Velocity will be minimum in medium A.

Question 2.
Ans 2. It remains unchanged.
Question 3
Ans 3. No. yes Example:
[ ]
Question 4. Ans 4. Frequency .
Question 5.
Ans 5. Speed of light in vacuum is a constant. It is not affected by change in wavelength/ intensity of
light.
Question 6.
Ans 6. The refracted index of glass slab is different for different colours.
Therefore, the apparent depth will also be different for different colours. Hence the image
will not be in the same plane.
Question 7. (a) State two condition for total internal reflection to take place.
(b) Define critical angle for total internal reflection
Ans 7. (a) The two condition are :
(i) The object is in denser medium.

(ii) The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
(b) Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the
rarer medium is 900.
Question 8. A right angled crown glass prism with critical angle 41 0 is placed before an object PQ in two
positions as shown in the figure (a) and (b). Trace the paths of the rays from P and Q passing through the
prism in the two cases. Ans
0
8. See Fig. Total internal reflection takes place because i > 41
Question 9. What causes brilliance of diamond?

Ans 9. When the diamond is cut appropriately, the light entering undergoes multiple total internal
reflection on the faces.
Question 10.
Ans 10. We know that ( ) * +
Now
[ ]
( ) ( ) or fr > fb
Question 11.
Ans (a) T (b) T (c) T (d) T
(e) F (f) F (g) F (h) F
(i) T (j) F (k) T (l) T
(m) T (n) F (o) T
Question 12Ans 12. See Fig. a dimmer image will be formed because rays striking
the lower half of the lens will not be refracted.
Question 13. Ans 13. The refractive index of water is less than the refractive index of the material of
lens. But the refractive index of carbon disulphide is greater than the refractive index of the material of lens.
Question 14Ans 14. For the lens to disappear the refractive index of the liquid should be equal to the
refractive index of the lens, i.e, 1.47. Therefore, the liquid cannot be water
Illustration3. A film of oil, refractive index 1.2, lies on water of refractive index 1.33. A light of ray is
incident at in the oil on the oil-water boundary. Calculate the angle of refraction in water.
Solution. Give that anw = 1.20, an0 = 1.33 and i =

Hence, refractive index of water with respect to oil is
0
nw
According to Snell’s law,

0
nw
Or
( )

Refraction of Light 23-36

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REFRACTION OF LIGHT

A real image is one that can be formed on a screen or a wall.

A virtual image on the other hand is one which cannot be formed on

Definition. The phenomenon of change in the direction of

i.e., Absolute refractive index

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 1

Absolute refractive index of medium 2.

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH.

Let object O is placed in denser medium and I be its Image.

Using snell’s law at Q.

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 2

Then apparent depth

distance the pin appears to be raised

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 3

APPARENT POSITION OF SUN AT SUNRISE AND SUNSET :

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT

This is called lateral displacement. It is measured by perpendicular distance

In ∆ OBD ( ) ………… (2)

From eq. (1) and (2)

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 4

Solution. Give that n = 1.5, i =

According to snell’s law:

Solution. From Fig. (a)

And from Fig. (b)

Now in Fig. (c), if angle of refraction be r, then

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 5

Solution. Give that n = 1.33

Velocity of light in air, c = 3

Solution. Apparent depth d’ = 7.7 cm

Real depth Apparent depth × R.I

7.7 1.3 10.01 cm.

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 6

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The following conditions must be satisfied for total internal

(i) The incident light should be in optically denser

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 7

Solution. (a) Here refractive index of glass fibre and

Hence for total internal reflection

If there is no outer coating

Now, consider and applying Snell’s law

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 8

Hence, all the rays will be totally reflected.

Therefore, area of surface of water = Area of the circle of radius OP

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

1. Mirage : On hot summer days, the air near the ground

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 9

USES OF OPTICAL FIBRES :

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 10

Solution. We know that n =

4. What causes brilliance of diamond?

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE

A spherical refracting surface is a part of a sphere of refracting material.

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 11

The sign convention to be used is the New Cartesian sign convention.

REFRACTION FROM RARER TO DENSER MEDIUM

(1) At a spherical surface convex towards the rarer medium

In this case image formed may be real or virtual image

Snell’s law of Refraction

Consider aperture to be small

If the angles are small

Since aperture is small, M lies near to P. replace M by P

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187 Page 12

(b) Virtual image.