M1 Study Material

Maintenance Training Organisation Part -147
MODULE 01
Mathematics
for Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Category B1
www.aviotraceswiss.com
Cat. B1 - Table of Contents
Table of Contents
1.1 Arithmetic................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1.1 Arithmetical terms and signs ........................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Methods of multiplication and division ........................................................................... 5
1.1.3 Fractions and decimals ..................................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Factors and multiples ....................................................................................................... 8
1.1.5 Weights ............................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.6 Measures and conversion factors .................................................................................. 11
1.1.7 Ratio and proportion ...................................................................................................... 15
1.1.8 Averages and percentages ............................................................................................. 16
1.1.9 Area and volumes........................................................................................................... 17
1.1.10 Squares ......................................................................................................................... 21
1.1.11 Cubes ............................................................................................................................ 22
1.1.12 Square and cube roots ................................................................................................. 22
1.2 Algebra .................................................................................................................................. 24
1.2.A.1 Evaluating simple algebraic expressions ..................................................................... 24
1.2.A.2 Addition....................................................................................................................... 25
1.2.A.3 Subtraction.................................................................................................................. 25
1.2.A.4 Multiplication and division ......................................................................................... 25
1.2.A.5 Use of brackets ........................................................................................................... 26
1.2.A.6 Simple algebraic fractions ........................................................................................... 26
1.2.B.1 Linear equations and their solutions .......................................................................... 27
1.2.B.2 Indices and powers, negative and fractional indices .................................................. 28
1.2.B.3 Binary and other applicable numbering systems........................................................ 29
1.2.B.4 Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one unknown .............. 31
Cat. B1 - 1.1 Arithmetic
1.2.B.5 Logarithms................................................................................................................... 33
1.3 Geometry .............................................................................................................................. 36
1.3.A.1 Simple geometrical constructions .............................................................................. 36
1.3.B.1 Graphical representation ............................................................................................ 38
1.3.B.2 Nature and uses of graphs .......................................................................................... 38
1.3.B.3 Graphs of equations/functions ................................................................................... 39
1.3.C.1 Simple trigonometry ................................................................................................... 41
1.3.C.2 Trigonometric relationships ........................................................................................ 42
1.3.C.3 Use of tables and rectangular and polar co-ordinates................................................ 43
1.1 Arithmetic
1.1.1 Arithmetical terms and signs
The study of mathematics starts with arithmetic, which represents its foundations. Arithmetic
allows us to know the properties of numbers and of the four main operations: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Natural numbers are the most common numbers we know, those we use to count any set of
objects. This set of numbers, including zero, contains all the nonnegative integers.
The set of natural numbers is indicated by the symbol N.
Adding or multiplying two natural numbers the result is always a natural number. In case of
subtraction, it is also possible to use negative numbers and the so created set integers positive
numbers, negative numbers, plus zero, is called set of integers or set of relative numbers. The
set of integers is indicated by the symbol Z.
In case of division, it is also possible to introduce fractional numbers and the so created set
integers plus fractional numbers, is called set of rational numbers. The set of rational numbers
is indicated by the symbol Q.
An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed as a fraction (a/b), for any integers
a and b with b different from zero. The number set that includes integers, rational and
irrational numbers represents the set of real numbers. The set of real numbers is indicated by
the symbol R.
The four basic math operations with numbers are: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. They are indicated by the following symbols: addition symbol plus, subtraction symbol
minus, multiplication symbol multiplied by, division symbol divided or over.
Addition
Addition is the operation that combines two generic numbers, called addends, and associates
to them a third number, called sum or total, obtained counting as many units as those
indicated by the second addend after the first addend.
The addition has commutative, associative and dissociative properties:
1. Commutative property: changing the order of addends the sum doesn’t change
2. Associative property: replacing two or more addends with their sum the result doesn’t
change
3. Dissociative property: replacing one addend with one or more addend whose sum is
the replaced addend the result of the addition doesn’t change.
Subtraction
Subtraction is the operation of taking two generic numbers, called minuend and subtrahend,
and associating a third one, called difference, obtained subtracting from the minuend as many
units as those indicated by the subtrahend. Subtraction is characterized by invariance: adding
or subtracting the same number from the two terms of a subtraction the result doesn’t
change.
Multiplication
Multiplication is the operation by which two generic numbers, called factors or multiplicand
and multiplier, are associated to a third one, called product, obtained adding the units of the
first one as many times as the units of the second one.
Division
The number that is divided is called dividend, while the other number that divides it is called
divisor and the result of division is called quotient. It represents the number of times that the
divisor is “contained” in the dividend. In some cases, the quotient can have a remainder. It
represents the part of the dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor.
Arithmetic expression
An arithmetic expression is a set of two or more numbers separated by operation signs and
possibly by the necessary brackets.
Every time you have to solve an expression it is necessary to do the different operations on the
numbers in a specific order.
The sequence of operations is:
1. Do the operations indicated inside the brackets

2. Do multiplications and divisions
3. Do additions and subtractions.
1.1.2 Methods of multiplication and division
Multiplication is characterized by commutative, associative, dissociative, and distributive

properties.
1. Commutative property: changing the order of factors the product doesn’t change.
2. Associative property: replacing two or more factors with their product the result
doesn’t change.
3. Dissociative property: replacing one factor with one or more factors whose product is
the replaced factor the result of the multiplication doesn’t change.
4. Distributive property: to multiply the terms of an addition or of a subtraction it is
possible to calculate the final product of the given factor for each single term of the
addition or subtraction, and then sum or subtract them
Division is characterized by invariance and distributive property:
1. Invariance: dividing or multiplying by the same number the two terms of a division
the result doesn’t change
2. Distributive property: to divide the terms of an addition or of a subtraction by a
number it is possible to divide each single term of the addition or of the
subtraction by the given divisor and then sum or subtract them.
1.1.3 Fractions and decimals
The result of a division of two integers is a fraction. A common fraction represents a portion or
a part of a given quantity. A fraction is made of two numbers. The number above the fraction
symbol is called numerator, while the number under it is called denominator.
When the numerator of a fraction is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is defined as
proper fraction. Therefore, the value of a proper fraction is always less than one.
If the numerator is greater than the denominator, the fraction is defined as improper. In this
case the value of the fraction is more than one.
When numerator and denominator are the same, the quotient of the fraction is one.
The addition of two fractions can be done only when the two fractions have the same
denominator in this case it is sufficient to add the numerators to obtain the sum and then the
fraction can be reduced to its lowest terms. When the fractions don’t have the same
denominator it is necessary to find the lowest common denominator. The lowest common
denominator is the least common multiple of the factors of the denominator.
The subtraction of fractions also requires the determination of the lowest common
denominator. After having determined this term, numerators are subtracted and the
difference is placed on the lowest common denominator reducing the fraction to its lowest
terms.
The product of fractions can be calculated by multiplying the numerators of each fraction to
obtain the product numerator and then multiplying denominators among them to obtain the
product denominator.
The fraction obtained is then reduced to its lowest terms.
The division of common fractions is done inverting the divisor that is exchanging the
numerator and the denominator between them and then multiplying the fractions. After
having inverted the divisor, numerators are multiplied to obtain the quotient numerator, then
the denominators are multiplied to obtain the quotient denominator and, finally, quotient
fractions are reduced to their lowest terms.
The value of a fraction doesn’t change if the same operation multiplication or division is done
both on the numerator and the denominator. This property can be used to simplify
multiplications between fractions.
Note that “a” is present both in the numerator and in the denominator, since the two values
are the same, they can be simplified from the fraction.
Applying the invariance property of division is possible to define a fundamental law of

fractions: multiplying and or dividing by the same number both the numerator and the
denominator of a fraction, its value doesn’t change. This property allows simplifying fractions
made of great numbers, thanks to the so-called reduction to lowest terms.
To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, the two terms are divided by their greatest common
divisor.
Mixed numbers are numbers made of both integers and proper fractions.
Before solving operations with mixed numbers it is necessary to convert them into improper
fractions.
To convert a mixed number into an improper fraction it is necessary to multiply the integer by
the denominator of the proper fraction and add the product obtained as numerator. The sum
of these two numbers becomes the numerator of the improper fraction.
When adding mixed numbers, either to themselves or to proper fractions, the first operation
to do is to transform the mixed numbers into improper fractions. After that, determine the
lowest common denominator and sum the two fractions using the same method used for
proper fractions. Note that adding improper fractions the sum will be an improper fraction
therefore, it is advisable, after having obtained the result, to transform it back into a mixed
number. To determine the integer, divide the numerator by the denominator. If there is a
remainder, leave it as a fraction.
To work with fractions is not always so easy; for this reason it is often better to replace them
with decimal numbers.
A common fraction can be converted into a decimal number, simply dividing the numerator by
the denominator. As an example, the fraction 3/4 can be converted into a decimal number,
dividing the number 3 by the number 4. The decimal number equivalent to 3/4 is 0.75. The
first number after the decimal point denotes tens, the second hundreds and the third
thousands.
The addition of decimal numbers follows the same laws of integers after having aligned on the
same vertical line the points indicating the decimal number.
As in the case of addition, the subtraction of decimal numbers follows the same laws of
integers. Even in the case of subtraction, it is important to maintain on the same vertical line
the points indicating the decimal number.
Multiplying decimal numbers, the decimal point is ignored at first and the resulting integers
are multiplied. After having calculated the product, the overall number of figures to the right
of the point of the multiplier and of the multiplicand is counted: this number represents the
number of figures to the left of which the decimal point must be put in the product.
The division of decimal numbers follows the same laws of integers division. The two following
laws establish the position of the decimal point of the quotient. If the divisor is an integer, the
decimal point of the quotient must be aligned on the vertical line of the decimal point of the
dividend; while doing the division. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, first convert it into
an integer, moving the decimal point to the right. Remember that, when moving the decimal
point of the divisor, the decimal point of the dividend must be moved accordingly to the same
number of figures and in the same direction.
Often, decimal numbers are expressed with many figures after the decimal point. For practical
reasons, this precision is not always necessary; therefore it is advisable to limit the number of
decimal figures. The process of keeping a certain number of figures, eliminating the remaining
ones, is called rounding. In other terms, the number obtained is an approximation of the
original number.
Rounding is done observing the figures immediately to the right of the last one to be kept.
If this figure is 5 or higher, the last figure to be kept is increased by one. When the figure to the
right of the last one to be kept is lower than 5 the last figure to be kept remains the same.
The use of decimal numbers is easier that the one of fraction, but in some cases fractions
simplify calculations. To transform a decimal number into a fraction is sufficient to take as
numerator of the fraction the decimal number without the point and as denominator a
multiple of ten with as many zero as the number of figures after the point of the decimal
number. Finally, the fraction is reduced to its lowest terms.
1.1.4 Factors and multiples
Multiplication and division allow us to introduce the concepts of multiple and divisor of a
number. An integer A is multiple of another integer B if there is a third integer C that
multiplied by B gives as result A:
An integer A is divisor of a number B only if dividing B by A the quotient obtained is an integer

C and the remainder is zero:
Prime numbers are those numbers that cannot be divided by any number except themselves
and one.
For example: 1, 3, 5, 7…
A number that is not a prime number is called composite.
There are some useful rules to understand the divisors of a number looking at its figures.
A number is divisible by 2 when the figure of its units it is divisible by 2, that is when a number
ends with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8. Remember that a number divisible by 2is called even number.
A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its figures when it is divisible by 3; for example: 132,
1+2+3 = 6, since 6 is divisible by 3 also 132 is divisible by 3.
There are also:
1. A number is divisible by 4 if the last two digits are 00 or if they firm a number that is
multiple of 4, or if the second last figure is odd and the last one is 2 or 6, or if the
second last figure is even and the last one is 0, 4, 8
2. A number is divisible by 5 if its last figure is 0 or 5
3. A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by 2 and 3 at the same time
4. A number is divisible by 10 if its last figure is 0.
Factorization, or prime decomposition, is the process by which the prime numbers that are
divisors of a given number are searched. To decompose into prime numbers a number, it is
necessary to divide it by its smallest prime divisor and to continue this way until you obtain 1
as quotient.
Given two or more numbers a, b, c the smallest multiple in common is called least common
multiple.
Given two or more numbers a, b, c the largest common divisor share by them is called greatest
common divisor.
In order to find the least common multiple (l.c.m.) of two or more numbers, it is necessary to
multiply the prime factors, common and non-common, obtained factorizing all numbers, each
one taken with the highest exponent.
In order to find the largest common divisor (G.C.D.) of two or more numbers, after having
factorized all numbers, it is necessary to multiply all the common factors each one taken with
the smallest exponent.
1.1.5 Weights
Mass measures are used to find the quantity of matter contained in bodies.
The unit of measurement of International System is the gram (g).
Its multiples are: decagram (1 dag = 10 g), hundred grams (1 hg = 100 g), kilogram (1 kg = 1,000
g), quintal (1 q = 100 kg) and ton (1 ton = 1,000 kg).
Units smaller than gram are: decigram (1 dg = 0.1 g), centigram (1cg=0.01 g) and milligram (1
mg = 0.001 g).
In the British system the pound is the main unit to measure the mass (1 pound = 0,453 kg).
Weights can be obtained doing a multiplication:

1.1.6 Measures and conversion factors
Systems of measurement
Units of measurement are a standard for the measuring of physical quantities.
It’s necessary to define standard systems of measurement with the aim to facilitate the
measuring: however in the world there are different units of measurement.
A measure is a numerical value obtained from the comparison between a quantity and a
sample quantity, called standard of measurement.
For example, the value of quantity Q is expresses as the product between the unit (q) and a
number factor (n):
There are different systems of measurement that are officially accepted; these systems are
based on diverse set of fundamental units.
The International System is the most used and it has 7 main units:
1. Meter: length.
2. Kilogram: mass.
3. Second: time.
4. Ampere: intensity of current.
5. Kelvin: temperature.
6. Mole: quantity of material.
7. Candle: luminous intensity.
Other systems, which are used in the aeronautical world, are the British and the American
systems.
A conversion of the units of different systems is the comparison between all standards values.
The following tables show main conversion factors.

The following table shows some time measures transformations.
Scale, latitude and longitude

The scale is the representation of a determined quantity or measure in terms of another
measure. The scale is the ratio between the actual distances represented on a map, that is the
actual kilometers, and the material distances on the map, that is the centimeters or
millimeters on the sheet.
Other important measures are the latitude and the longitude.

The latitude of a place is its north or south distance from the Equator calculated in degrees,
minutes and seconds. Starting from the Equator, the distance to the north is called north
latitude, while the one to the south is called south latitude.
The longitude of a place is its east or west distance from a meridian of reference calculated in
degrees, minutes and seconds. The distance to the east, starting from the meridian of
reference, is called east longitude, while the one to the west, always from the meridian of
reference, is called west longitude. By international convention, the meridian of reference,
that is 0 degrees of longitude, is the one crossing the Greenwich observatory, an area of the
city of London in England.
The latitude and the longitude of whatever place is calculated according to the position of the
sun, the hour and the day. The observation of the position of the sun is done using a special
tool, called sextant or using an octant.
The differences of latitude and of longitude between two places are calculated according to
the following rules:
1. If the latitudes of the two places are both northward and southward, the lower
latitude is deducted from the higher one. While if one place is northward and the
other southward, the two latitudes are summed up
2. If the longitudes of the two places are both east and west, the lower longitude is
deducted from the higher one. While if one place is east and other west, the two
longitudes are summed up. If the sum of the two longitudes exceeds 180 degrees, the
sum must be deducted from 360 degrees to obtain the correct difference in longitude.
The daily revolution of the Earth around its axis makes it look as if the sun is turning around
the Earth, from east to west, along the 360 degrees of the Earth longitude in 24 hours.
Starting from these data, the sun covers in 1 hour an arc corresponding to one twenty-fourth
of 360 degrees, that is 15 degrees longitude. Therefore, in one minute it covers one sixtieth of
15 degrees, that is 15 minutes of longitude, while in 1 second it covers one sixtieth of 15
minutes, that is 15 seconds of longitude.
For this reason, 15 degrees of longitude correspond to 1 sun hour; 15 minutes of longitude
correspond to one minute of sun time, while 15 seconds of longitude correspond to one
second of sun time.
Sun time in any place depends on the position of the Sun observed form that place.
The clock indicates exactly 12 zero zero or midday in that place when the sun crosses the local
meridian.
As a consequence, if it is midday in the meridian where we are, it is afternoon post meridiem

in all the places to the east, while it is morning ante meridiem in all the places to the west.
Everywhere in the world the Standard Time is used, that is Time Ranges.
As an example, the United States is divided into four time ranges, each one of which is
approximately 15-longitude degree wide.
Each place within a time range uses the same Standard Time, that is the same hour,
independently from the local hour, that is the local meridian.
At the beginning of springtime, until the half of autumn, the clock hour hand is moved one
hour forward to best exploit sun light during working hours. This mechanism is called summer
hour.
At the end of autumn, the hour hand is set one hour back to winter hour.
To find the difference in sun hours between two places, it's necessary to divided by 15 the
difference in longitude, expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds. The quotient is the
difference in sun hours, expressed in hours, minutes and seconds.
Since time is calculated both to the east and to the west of the meridian of reference, the time
on the one hundred eighty eighth meridian can be considered 12 hours in advance or 12 hours
late compared to the Greenwich meridian.
Instead of considering the one hundred eighty eighth meridian as the division line between the
time to the east and to the west of the meridian, an international agreement has set the 180th
meridian as the international line for changing date. The line follows the meridian with a zigzag
course. This has been done to make all the Pacific islands have the same time.
When it is midday in Greenwich, midnight has just passed and it is morning the same day in all
the places slightly east of the international line of date, while it is almost midnight the same
day in all the places slightly west of the line.
When is one in the afternoon in Greenwich, it is about one in the morning the same day in the
first places above, while it is one in the morning the day after in the other places above.
Military, naval and aeronautic services express time referring to 24 hours.
Starting from midnight, indicated by 00:00 time is indicated by the hundreds of the number.
For example 8 anti meridian is indicated by 08:00; 12 is indicated by 12:00; one in the
afternoon, 1 post meridian, is indicated by 13:00, while 11 post meridian, that is 11 in the
evening, are indicated by 23:00.
Minutes are indicated by the units preceded by 0 if they are less than 10, because the number
must always have 4 digits. Therefore, 8.10 anti meridian are indicated by 08:10; zero, zero,
zero, five post meridian by 00:05 and 11.59 post meridian by 23:59.
1.1.7 Ratio and proportion
Ratio is a method to compare one number to another one.

The ratio of two numbers A and B, with B different from zero, is the quotient. A divided by B
can also be expressed with the fraction A/B. In a ratio A/B the numbers A and B are called
terms of the ratio. Using again the properties of division it is possible to state that: multiplying
or dividing both terms of a ratio by the same number, different from zero, the ratio remains
the same.
A proportion is an equivalence relation between two ratios and is an easier method to solve
problems with ratios. The first and the third term of the proportion are called antecedents,
while the second and the fourth are called consequents. Moreover, the first and the last term
of the proportion are called extremes, while the second and the third terms are called means.
The fundamental property of proportions is the following: in a proportion, the product of the
means is equal to the product of the extremes. From the fundamental property it is possible to
derive other useful properties for determining an unknown term in a proportion:
1. Property of permuting: in a proportion, exchanging the means between them, or the

extremes, the result is a new proportion
2. Property of inverting: in a proportion, exchanging each antecedent with its consequent
the result is a new proportion
3. Property of combining: in each proportion, the sum of the first two terms is to the first
(or to the second) as the sum of the other two terms is to the third (or to the fourth)
4. Property of factorizing: in each proportion the difference of the first two terms is to
the first (or to the second) as the difference of the other two terms is to the third.
1.1.8 Averages and percentages
Percentages are often used to express a part of an integer in an easier way. The symbol that
indicates percentages is %.
Two fundamental definitions are useful to better understand the meaning of percent: directly
proportional quantity and inversely proportional quantities.
Two variables depending on each other are directly proportional if multiplying the first one by
two, three, etc and also the second one is multiplied by two, three, etc; and if dividing the first
one by two, three, etc, the second one is also divided by two, three, etc. If two quantities are
directly proportional, the ratio of two values of the first one is equal to the ratio of the
corresponding values of the second one.
Two variables depending on each other are inversely proportional if multiplying one of them
by two, three, etc, the other is divided by two, three, etc. If two quantities are inversely
proportional, the ratio of two values of the first one is equal to the inverse ratio of the
corresponding values of the second one.
Using the properties of directly proportional quantities it is possible to solve problems
including percentages.
The arithmetic mean of a set of statistical data corresponds to the sum of these data divided
by their number
1.1.9 Area and volumes
The perimeter is the measure of the length of the contour of a plane figure. To find the
perimeter of a polygon it is necessary to sum its sides.
The area is the measure of the extension of a two-dimensional segment of space that is the
measure of a surface. The area of a surface is a two-dimension number height and width and is
often expressed by surface measures, like “square” meters.
A triangle is a polygon with three sides and three angles. The angle vertices are called vertices
of the triangle. The fundamental property of triangles is the following: the sum of angles in a
triangle is always 180 degrees. Each side of a triangle is a base (b) and the segment of
orthogonal line from that base to the opposite vertex is a height (h).
The area of a triangle is given by the product of the base by the length divided by 2:
The main kinds of triangle are:
1. Scalene triangle, which has three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
2. Isosceles triangle, which has two equal sides and two equal angles.
3. Equilateral triangle, which has three equal sides and three equal angles.
A special kind of triangle is the right triangle, which has an angle of 90 degrees, which is a right
angle. An obtuse triangle is a triangle with an angle greater than 90 degrees. An acute triangle
is a triangle in which all angles are smaller than 90 degrees.
A parallelogram is a polygon in which the opposite sides are parallel and equal in length.
The area of the parallelogram is given by the multiplication of the length or base (b) of the
parallelogram by the height. The height (h) is equal to the segment of the perpendicular line
traced from the base to the opposite vertex of the consecutive side:
A rectangle is a parallelogram having all right angles. It is a quadrilateral with opposite sides of
equal lengths and four right angles. The area of the rectangle can be found multiplying its base
by its height:
A square is a special parallelogram with four sides of equal length. The area of the square is
given by the same formula used for the parallelogram. Since all sides of the square have the
same length, the area of the square is given by the square of the side (l):
The rhombus is a special parallelogram with four sides of the same length. This polygon has
two orthogonal diagonals a long diagonal (d1) and a short one (d2). The area of the rhombus is
given by the product of the diagonals divided by 2:
The trapezium is a quadrilateral with two parallel sides. The two parallel sides are also called
bases of the trapezium, one is the greater base (B) and the other is the smaller base (b). The
other two sides are called oblique sides or simply sides. If the two oblique sides are congruent,
the trapezium is called isosceles trapezium. If one of the two non-parallel sides is
perpendicular to the base, the trapezium is called right trapezium. The area of the trapezium is
given by the formula sum of the bases (B + b) multiplied by the height (h) and the product is
divided by 2:
The polygon consisting of all the points of a circumference and of the internal points is called
circle, whose circumference is the contour.
It is a set of points in a plane equidistant from a given point from a circumference. The given
point is called centre and the distance from the centre is the radius (r) of the circumference.
Each segment passing through the centre of a circumference having its extremes on the
circumference is called diameter of the circumference.
The ratio of the circumference and the diameter (d) of a circle are always equal to a fixed value
indicated by the Greek character π.
The circumference of a circle can be calculated multiplying by π the diameter:
The area of the circle is given by the square of the radius multiplied by π:
The volume or capacity is the amount of space occupied by a body. The volume of a solid body
is a numerical value used in describing the tridimensional space occupied by the body.
A prism whose bases are two parallelograms is called parallelepiped. The volume of a
parallelepiped with rectangular base is given by the product of the three dimensions, width (l),
depth (p) and height (h):
In the computation of the volume, it is important that the three dimensions are indicated with
the same measure.
A cube is a parallelepiped in which the bases are squares. The volume of a cube is given, as in
the case of the rectangle parallelepiped, by the product of the three dimensions. The three
dimensions of a cube are equal (l); therefore the volume corresponds to one cubed dimension:
A solid delimitated by a polygon and laterally having as many triangles as the number of the
sides of the base polygon is called pyramid. The polygon delimitating the pyramid is called base
and the side triangles are the faces of the pyramid. All the triangles share the same vertex,
called vertex of the pyramid. The height (h) is the distance between the vertex and the base.
The volume of a pyramid is calculated multiplying the area of the base by its height; the
product is divided by 3:
The cylinder is a solid created by the complete rotation of a rectangle around the straight line
of one of its sides. This straight line is the rotation axis and the side taken into consideration
for the revolution is the height (h) of the cylinder. The parallel side designs the surface of the
cylinder and the other two sides are the radius of the cylinder and create the two base
surfaces.
The volume of a cylinder can be calculated multiplying the area of a base by the height of the
cylinder:
A cone is a solid created by the complete rotation of a right triangle around one leg whose
straight line is the rotation axis. This leg is the height of the cone. The hypotenuse of this
triangle designs the side surface.
The other leg is the radius of the cone.
The volume of a cone can be calculated multiplying the cone bases area by the height (h), the
product is then divided by 3:
A sphere is a solid created by the rotation of a semicircle around its diameter.

The semi-circumference that limits the semicircle creates the surface of the sphere. The
surface of the sphere is where a set of point in space are equidistant from a given point called
center. The distance of the center from whatever point of the sphere is called radius (r) and all
the meridians of the surface are circumferences.
The surface of a sphere can be calculated multiplying the square of its radius by π by 4:
The volume of the sphere is given by the cubed radius of the sphere multiplied by π. The result
obtained is then multiplied by (4/3):
1.1.10 Squares
The square of a number n is the raise of the same number to the second power, which is a
multiplication of the number by itself:
For example:
The square of a number has some proprieties:
1. The square of a real number is always greater (or equal) than 0; for example the
square of 2 is 4, but also the square of -2 is 4.
2. The square of any integer (n) can be represented by the sum:
For example:
3. The square of any integer (n) is equal to the sum of n prime odd numbers.
For example:
1.1.11 Cubes
The cube of a number n is the raise of the same number to the third power, which is the
multiplication of the number for three times:
For example:
1.1.12 Square and cube roots
The symbol used for root extraction is √. The number under the root symbol is called radicand,
while the number that represents the order of the root is called exponent.
The function of the root is to find the number that, multiplied by itself for a certain number of
times equal to the value of the exponent, has the radicand as result.
The exponent of the root must always be indicated unless it is two.
For example:
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Cat. B1 - 1.2 Algebra
1.2 Algebra
1.2.A.1 Evaluating simple algebraic expressions
Using zero as starting number, a positive value is assigned to all numbers greater than zero and
a negative value to those less than zero. In the line of relative numbers negative values are
indicated by the sign minus while positive values are indicated by the sign plus or by the
absence of any sign.
Each writing containing operations to be done on relative numbers is called algebraic
expression. To calculate the value of an algebraic expression means finding the relative
number that represents the result of the indicated operations.
Remember that plus and minus signs have double meanings. They can be used for operations,
namely for addition and subtraction, and they can be used to indicate the sign of a relative
number.
To calculate the value of an algebraic expression it is necessary to follow the following laws: if
the expression doesn’t contain any bracket, it is necessary to do powers first, then
multiplications and divisions and finally additions and subtractions; if the expression contains
brackets, first eliminate the inner ones, then the external ones.
Also in the brackets, the correct order in doing the different operations is the following:
1. Powers.
2. Multiplications and divisions. Operations of multiplication and division must be done
from the left to the right after the calculation of exponents
3. Additions and Subtractions. After multiplications and divisions, additions and
subtractions must be done from the left to the right.
1.2.A.2 Addition
When summing two or more numbers having the same sign, the sign is ignored and the sum of
values is calculated, then the sign common to the values is added before of the result. In other
terms, adding two or more positive numbers the sum is a positive number, while adding two or
more negative numbers their sum is always a negative number.
Instead, when adding positive and negative numbers, the two numbers are subtracted and
then the positive or negative sign of the greatest number is added. The result obtained adding
or subtracting numbers with a sign, that is relative numbers, is called algebraic sum of the
numbers.
1.2.A.3 Subtraction
To subtract numbers with different signs, the operation is turned into an addition changing at
the same time the sign of the subtrahend. After that, the method is the same of addition.
1.2.A.4 Multiplication and division
The multiplication of relative numbers follows the same laws of the multiplication of generic
numbers. After having done the multiplication, the product takes the sign established by the
following 3 laws:
1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive

2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive
3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.
As in the case of multiplication, the division of relative numbers follows the same laws of the
division of generic numbers. The sign of the quotient is determined by the same laws used for
the multiplication.
1. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive

2. The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive
3. The quotient of a negative and a positive number is always negative.
1.2.A.5 Use of brackets
Brackets are used in mathematics to group the terms on which the same operation must be
done and to define priorities with reference to some operations. Brackets are always used in
pairs of the same kind. Here is the increasing HIERARCHICAL order of the brackets used in
arithmetic: round brackets, square brackets, and braces.
The first operations to be done are those indicated between the inner brackets.
1.2.A.6 Simple algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions are fractions with polynomials at the denominator and at the numerator.
As polynomials comprise numbers, it must be possible to do with polynomials the same
operations as with numbers. In fact the polynomial is defined as an expression with constant
and variables, combined only with additions, subtraction and multiplications.
When it has a fraction with a polynomial at the numerator and at the denominator, it must:
1. Break out numerator and denominator into factors

2. Control if there are two equal factors between numerator and denominator; if there
are, they must be eliminated
3. Write the fraction with the left terms.
Attention: between the numerator and the denominator you can only simplify factors terms of
multiplications (or divisions). It can’t simplify addends or terms of subtractions.
It has to follow the same process used for simple fractions to do additions and subtractions
between algebraic fractions:
1. To break out numerator and denominator in factors

2. To calculate the l.c.m, and to put it as the denominator
3. To calculate the numerator
4. If possible, to make simplifications between the numerator and the denominator.
Attention when it does the subtraction: the symbol minus, before a fraction, changes the sign
of all numerator’s terms.
When it does multiplications of algebraic fractions, it must proceed:
1. Breaking out numerator and denominator into factors

2. Eliminating the same terms between the numerator and the denominator
3. Multiplying the numerator to the numerator, and the denominator to the
denominator.
When it does the quotient of two algebraic fractions it has to:
1. Multiply the first fraction by the inverse of the second fraction

2. Break out numerator and denominator into factors
3. Eliminate equal terms between the numerator and the denominator
4. Multiply the numerator to the numerator, and the denominator to the denominator.
When it does the power of an algebraic fraction, it must raise to the power both the
numerator and the denominator.
1.2.B.1 Linear equations and their solutions
Equality between two algebraic expressions, containing one or more characters, is called
equation. The characters in an equation are called unknown. In an equation, like in any other
equality, the expressions to the left and to the right of the sign equal are called first and
second member of the equation. Solving an equation means finding the set of its solutions.
The set of solutions of an equation is a set of real numbers. In general, the following cases can
be found:
1. The set of solutions is empty. This means that replacing the unknown with whatever
number, the equation would transform into a false equality. In this case the equation
is defined as impossible
2. The set of solutions contains a finite number of elements that is the solutions of the
equation are in a finite number. In this case the equation is determinate
3. The set of solutions contains an infinite number of elements that is the solutions of the
equation are infinite. In this case the equation is indeterminate
1.2.B.2 Indices and powers, negative and fractional indices
It is defined as power of a number A raised to the exponent n the product of n factors equal to
A:
This power is indicated by the symbol A to the nth. The number A is called base of the power.
Let’s define the main properties of powers:
1. Whatever number raised to the power of zero, is always equal to one with the
exception of zero that remains zero, or more precisely undetermined
2. The multiplication of two powers having the same base is a power with the same base
and having as exponent the sum of the exponents
3. The quotient of two powers having the same base, is a power with the same base and
as exponents the difference of exponents
4. The power of a power is a power having the same base and product of the exponents
as exponent.
There are also powers with negative exponents (-n):
The definition of a power permits to use fractional exponents (x/y), where x and y are prime
number between them.
1.2.B.3 Binary and other applicable numbering systems
Mathematics is based on numbers. In order to count a certain number of items first of all it is
necessary to choose a notation. A notation is a set of symbols and rules for representing
numbers. Generally, positional notations are used, that is a different meaning is assigned to
the figures used to represent a number according to their position inside the number itself.
The fundamental equation to represent a number N is:
Where the number b indicates the radix of the notation and the numbers C indicate the figures
that must multiply the different multiples. Using the fundamental equation for representing
numbers written before, it is possible, after having chosen an adequate radix that is a set of
figures to create any kind of notation.
Now, we will analyze two notations: decimal notation and binary notation.
The decimal notation is a positional notation that uses ten figures, from 0 to 9, to represent
numbers.
For example the number 735 can be written as:
The binary notation is a positional notation that uses two figures to represent numbers: 0 and
1. All digital electronic devices are based on the binary notation.
Let’s try and count using the binary notation: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111 …
In order to understand the value of a binary figure, that is “translate” it into decimal notation,
you just have to use the fundamental equation keeping in mind that the different bn factors in
this case represent powers of 2. Look at the example:
Many engineering and scientific calculations include very large and very small numbers. To
simplify operations and to reduce the percentage of error, scientific notation is used.
Scientific notation is a way of indicating a value as the product of a number between 1 and
9.999 by a base ten. To express a number using the scientific notation, the number that must
be transformed is multiplied by the power of ten, so many times as the number of figures after
which the decimal point must be moved.
The choice of the power to use is connected to the kind of quantities in use, but generally it is
better to reduce all numbers to the unit. This operation doesn’t change the value of the
number, but only the way in which it is written.
The multiplication of very large or very small numbers becomes easier using the scientific
notation.
The first operation is writing down the numbers to multiply in scientific notation. After that,
the product of the numbers is calculated and the algebraic sum of exponents is found.
For example:
Division in scientific notation is similar to multiplication. The first operation is converting the
numbers in scientific notation, then dividing them and finally finding the power of ten
subtracting the exponents.
For example:
1.2.B.4 Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one

unknown
Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations (also known as system of equations) are a set of equations which have
more than one unknown values. Questions involving simultaneous equations require finding
the unknowns. First, it has to represent the equations in a clear form. Then we proceed with
the below steps.
There are generally two methods to solving simultaneous equations:
1. By substitution
2. By elimination.
It may be better to use one method over the other for certain type of simultaneous equations
question.
For example:
Remember that it first has to represent the equations in a clear form:
In the method of substitution, it expresses x in terms of y in one equation (in this case the
second) and substitute it into the other:
Now, substituting the value of y in the second equation, it obtains the value of x:
In the method of elimination, it can choose to eliminate x. To eliminate x, it multiplies the

second equation by the same number of x in the first equation; so it cancels x by subtraction.
This leaves y:
Now substituting the value of y in the second equation, it arrives at the same conclusion:
Second degree equations with one unknown

In mathematics a quadratic equation is an algebraic equation with one unknown x, which is
present with two as the maximum degree (x2). In fact a quadratic equation is a polynomial
equation of the second degree. The generic form is:
a is called the quadratic coefficient, b is called the linear coefficient, and c is the constant
term or free term.
According to the fundamental law of algebra, the solutions of a quadratic equation are always
2. It can distinguish two cases:
1. In the set of real numbers the equation admits 2 solutions, which can be coincident, or
none
2. In the set of complex numbers the equation admits always 2 solutions, which can be
coincident.
A quadratic equation is called complete equation when all its coefficients are different from 0.
It can be solved as follows:
1. All terms must be written at the first member, which is the one at the left of the
symbol =
2. It must write the generic form of the equation.
3. it must apply the resolving formula:
In mathematics there are also the incomplete quadratic equations. Both these equations can
be solved according to the generic process and/or using faster methods.
1. ax2 + bx = 0 type
It can be solved breaking out the first member:
The solutions can be found putting all terms equal to 0:
2. ax2 + c = 0 type
The term c must be put at the second member and then it can be divided by a:
The solutions can be found doing the square root:
1.2.B.5 Logarithms
The logarithm with z base of a number (x) is the exponent to which the base of the logarithm
must be raised in order to produce the number:
The main proprieties of logarithms are:
1. The logarithm of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of
the same numbers:
2. The logarithm of the quotient of two numbers is equal to the difference of the
logarithms of the same numbers:
3. The logarithms of the inverse of a is the opposite of the logarithm of a:
4. The logarithms of a number raised to the k power is equal to the product of the
exponent (k) and the number’s logarithm:
5. The logarithm of k-root of a is equal to the quotient between the logarithm and k:
6. The logarithm of a, with also a as base, is 1:
7. The logarithm of 1, with any base, is 0:
8. The following identity is true:
Logarithms can be calculated with any positive base (different from 1); the bases generally
used are:
1. Base 10 (decimal logarithms): log10, log, Log

2. Base e (natural logarithms): ln
3. Base 2 (binary logarithms): log2.
It’s also possible to do the base change:

Cat. B1 - 1.3 Geometry
1.3 Geometry
1.3.A.1 Simple geometrical constructions
An angle is a portion of a plane between two half-lines having the same origin. The half-lines
are called sides of the angles, while their origin is called vertex of the angle.
1. An angle defined by one single half-line is called round angle

2. An angle defined by two half-lines on the same straight line is called straight angle
3. An angle defined by two orthogonal half-lines is called right angle
4. An angle smaller than a right angle is called acute angle
5. An angle greater than a right angle is called obtuse angle.
The magnitude of an angle can be measured using several systems:
1. Sexagesimal measure
2. Centesimal measure
3. Radiant measure.
According to the sexagesimal measure the round angle is divided into 360 parts corresponding
to the standard of measurement called sexagesimal degree, indicated by the symbol °.
This name is due to the fact that the subunits of the degree, the minute and the second are
divided by sixty.
According to the centesimal measure, the degree, called grad, represents one hundredth part
of a right angle. With this system the round angle is divided into 400 equal parts and the
submultiples of the centesimal degree represent decimal fractions.
A simpler measure for the magnitude of angles often used in physics is the radian. According
to the radian measure the round angle measures 2π, as we will see the circumference with
radius r is equal to 2πr and therefore the radian is the angle created in correspondence of an
arc with a length equal to the radius of the circumference.
In geometry there are three main simple constructions: isometry, homothety, similarity.
An isometry is a “distance-preserving map” between two metric spaces.

Each rigid movement in the plane or in the space that doesn’t distort the object is an isometry.
All translations, all rotations and all reflections are isometries.
1. A translation in the space is a transformation that moves, in the same direction, all
points at a fixed distance. It can also think the translation as an addition of a vector(V)
and a constant, for each point:
2. A rotation is a transformation that moves the object with a rigid movement and that
leaves one fixed point. This point is called center (or straight line of rotation if it is a set
of points)
3. A reflection is a transformation that “mirrors” all points in relation with another point
called center of reflection. The center of reflection can be also a straight line or a
plane.
A homothety is a particular transformation, in the plane or in the space, which dilates or

makes smaller the object and maintains constant both angles and shapes. The homothety is
characterized by a value c, called ratio of homothety. The homothety multiplies distances by c,
areas by c2 and volumes by c3.
In the plane, a similarity is a particular transformation that maintains ratios between distances.
Each similarity can be obtained by the composition of a homothety and an isometry (or vice
versa).
These transformations keep the shape of the object, but change the position, the orientation
and the dimension. It is important remember that two similar objects have the same shape!
There is a principle to establish if two or more polygons are similar: two polygons are similar if
they have the same numbers of sides, congruent corresponding angles and proportional
corresponding sides.
Instead if you analyze triangles there are three particular laws about the similarity:
1. Two triangles are similar only if they have neatly three angles congruent.
2. Two triangles are similar if they have two sides congruent and the angle, included
between them, congruent.
3. Two triangles are similar if they have neatly three sides congruent.
1.3.B.1 Graphical representation
In mathematics, and in statistics, the graphical representation is often used. The graphical
representation is based on the use of diagrams. A diagram is a curve showing the relationships
between two or more quantities or elements.
In mathematics, the diagrams are often used to represent a mathematical function, because
the diagrams have the advantage to be of more immediate comprehension than the common
data tables. In fact the diagrams are based on the visual perception of the user. The main
elements of a diagram are two axes, called X and Y, on which the elements are represented.
However, to build the diagram is necessary to start from a table that identifies the relations
between different data, which must be represented.
1.3.B.2 Nature and uses of graphs
The diagrams are very used, besides in mathematics and statistics, also in other scientific and
resource fields, because they are have a simple comprehension and a simple use. For
example, let’s take into consideration a diagram showing the growth of the USA population
from 1900 to 1960. The diagram has a vertical scale, on which the unitary distance, that is the
division between one line and the following one, corresponds to a population of 20 million
people. On the horizontal scale, instead, each main division represents a time laps of 10 years.
The vertical scale is sometimes called vertical axis or ordinate axis while the horizontal scale is
called horizontal axis or axis of abscissas.
Observing the diagram of the example, we can state that the increase in population has been
quite uniform in each 10-years period therefore, reading the diagram, we can estimate the
population of the years 1905, 1906, 1907 and so on. For example, 1905 is halfway between
1900 and 1910. From this point we draw a vertical line until it intersects at the line of the
diagram. From the point of intersection we draw a horizontal line intersecting at the scale of
the population and we find that it intersects at the ordinate axis indicating the millions of
present people. The population estimate must be approximately of 84 million people in the
year 1905.
There are some types of diagram:
1. The line graphs

2. Bar graphs (also called histograms)
3. Aerogram or circle graphs (generally used to represent the percentages of a set)
4. Ideograms or picture graphs (generally used to present statistical information). In
these graphs the measure is not the unitary distance represented on the sheet, as in
the bar graphs, but the symbol of the represented quantity itself.
1.3.B.3 Graphs of equations/functions
A graph similar to a diagram is used to represent quantities that are mathematically, or

physically, connected among them. It is called Cartesian representation. A Cartesian graph is
made of two orthogonal axes. This pair of axes is known as Cartesian or orthogonal axes.
The horizontal axis is called x-axis or axis of abscissas, while the vertical axis is called y-axis or
ordinate axis. The point where the two axes meet is called origin and is indicated by the
symbol zero. By convention, the values along the x-axis, to the right of the origin, are positive
values, while those to the left are negative.
The convention also refers to the y-axis, because the values above the origin, upwards, are
considered positive, while those under the origin, downwards, are negative.
To identify a point on the graph it is necessary to provide two values corresponding to x and y.
Usually, this pair of values is written between brackets the x value is written first and
separated from the y value by a comma. The ratio of x and y is a constant and represents a
straight line passing through the origin. The value of this constant represents the slope, the
inclination of the straight line passing through the origin. A character, for example m, generally
indicates the constant. We can therefore write that the ratio of x and y is equal to m that is:
If the straight line doesn’t pass through the origin, the ratio becomes the following:
Where c is the value measured on the y-axis, starting from the origin, until the point where the
straight line of the graph intersects at the y-axis.
This last ratio is very important and is called “linear law” or linear equation.
Note that both x and y are powers raised to 1.
If we introduce a value for x raised to a power, for example x raised to a power of two, we
obtain a non-linear graph, more precisely a curve.
The standard form of the second degree equation is the following:
The equation can be solved graphically, generating a curve when joining a series of points
corresponding to the series of values of x and of the corresponding values of y, when x is
replaced by a series of positive and negative values.
Non-linear graphic representations are:
1. The parabola
2. The hyperbola
3. The sinusoid, which describes the harmonic motion.
1.3.C.1 Simple trigonometry
The trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that studies the relationships between the
sides and the angles of triangles.
The main task of trigonometry consists of calculating the measures of the elements of triangles
through special functions.
The trigonometric functions are all angle functions. The main trigonometric elements are: sine,
cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant. The definition of these functions can be
studied with the unit-circle analysis.
If on the unit-circle we draw a half line, from the center to a generic point P, forming with the
abscissas axis an angle x, we can define the sine of angle (sin x) as the value of the coordinate y
of the point P. The cosine (cos x) is defined as the value of the coordinate x of the point P.
The tangent, instead, is defined as the ratio of sin x to cos x, while the cotangent is the ratio of
cos x to sin x.
1.3.C.2 Trigonometric relationships
The trigonometric relationships permit to join the different trigonometric functions.
The first fundamental correlation is between the sine and the cosine:
The second relation introduces the definition of the tangent:
There are also three main theorems applicable on triangles. They are:
1. Law of sines: it defines a proportional correlation between lengths of the sides of the
triangle and the opposite angles. The ratio between sides and sines of corresponding
vertex angles is a constant.
2. Law of cosines: the square of one side is equal to the sum of the square of the other
sides, decreased by the double product of these sides by the cosine of the included
angle.
3. Law of the chord: it calculates the length of the chord and the angle produced by the
same chord. If we known the circumference and the chord, the ratio of the chord to
the sine of any angle at the circumference is equal to the diameter of the
circumference.
1.3.C.3 Use of tables and rectangular and polar co-ordinates
One of two-dimensional systems of reference is formed by two incident straight lines: they can
be perpendicular or not.
These straight lines are indicated by X and Y and their point of intersection is the origin. For
each line you can fix a direction and a unit of measurement, which is equal for both lines (but
for special requirements these units can be different).
On the plane the position of a point can be determined by a couple of real values (x, y). The
coordinate x indicates the distance between the point and the Y axis; it is measured in parallel
with X axis. The coordinate y, analogously, indicates the distance between the point and the X
axis.
Another two-dimensional system of reference is the polar system that utilizes two coordinates
(ρ, φ).
ρ indicates the distance of the point from the origin of the system; instead φ indicates the
angle between the vector ρ and the X axis.
It’s possible to pass from one system to the other through particular formulas.
The three-dimensional system is made by three orientated straight lines (X, Y, Z). They aren’t
coincident, but they pass from one point, called origin.
The generic coordinates of a point P are indicated by (x, y, z). The element x represents the
distance of the point from the plane YZ; this dimension is measured in parallel with X axis. The
coordinates y and z are definite in an analogous way.
Another three-dimensional system of reference is the cylindrical system. In this case the
coordinates are (ρ, φ, z). If it considers a generic point P and its projection Q on the plane XY,
the element z indicates the distance PQ. The vector ρ is the distance of the point Q from the
origin, while the coordinate φ shows the angle between ρ and X axis.
A third system of reference is the spherical system, where the coordinates are indicated by the
elements (ρ, Θ, φ).
Also in this case it has to consider a generic point P and its projection Q on the plane XY.
However, this time, the element ρ indicates the distance of the point P from the origin and Θ is
the angle between ρ and Z axis.
The vector that connects the origin with the point Q, is called ρ’. The coordinate φ indicates
the angle between ρ’ and X axis.
It’s possible to pass from one system to the other through particular formulas.

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Maintenance Training Organisation Part -147

for Aircraft Maintenance Licence

1.1.1 Arithmetical terms and signs

1. Do the operations indicated inside the brackets

1.1.2 Methods of multiplication and division

Multiplication is characterized by commutative, associative, dissociative, and distributive

Division is characterized by invariance and distributive property:

1.1.3 Fractions and decimals

Applying the invariance property of division is possible to define a fundamental law of

1.1.4 Factors and multiples

An integer A is divisor of a number B only if dividing B by A the quotient obtained is an integer

Weights can be obtained doing a multiplication:

1.1.6 Measures and conversion factors

The following tables show main conversion factors.

The following table shows some time measures transformations.

Scale, latitude and longitude

Other important measures are the latitude and the longitude.

As a consequence, if it is midday in the meridian where we are, it is afternoon post meridiem

1.1.7 Ratio and proportion

Ratio is a method to compare one number to another one.

1. Property of permuting: in a proportion, exchanging the means between them, or the

1.1.8 Averages and percentages

1.1.9 Area and volumes

The main kinds of triangle are:

The circumference of a circle can be calculated multiplying by π the diameter:

A sphere is a solid created by the rotation of a semicircle around its diameter.

The square of a number has some proprieties:

1.1.12 Square and cube roots

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

1.2.A.1 Evaluating simple algebraic expressions

1.2.A.4 Multiplication and division

1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive

1. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive

1.2.A.5 Use of brackets

1.2.A.6 Simple algebraic fractions

1. Break out numerator and denominator into factors

1. To break out numerator and denominator in factors

When it does multiplications of algebraic fractions, it must proceed:

1. Breaking out numerator and denominator into factors

When it does the quotient of two algebraic fractions it has to:

1. Multiply the first fraction by the inverse of the second fraction

1.2.B.1 Linear equations and their solutions

1.2.B.2 Indices and powers, negative and fractional indices

There are also powers with negative exponents (-n):

1.2.B.3 Binary and other applicable numbering systems

1.2.B.4 Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one

There are generally two methods to solving simultaneous equations:

Remember that it first has to represent the equations in a clear form:

In the method of elimination, it can choose to eliminate x. To eliminate x, it multiplies the

Second degree equations with one unknown

The solutions can be found putting all terms equal to 0:

The solutions can be found doing the square root:

The main proprieties of logarithms are:

3. The logarithms of the inverse of a is the opposite of the logarithm of a:

6. The logarithm of a, with also a as base, is 1:

7. The logarithm of 1, with any base, is 0:

8. The following identity is true:

1. Base 10 (decimal logarithms): log10, log, Log

It’s also possible to do the base change:

1.3.A.1 Simple geometrical constructions

1. An angle defined by one single half-line is called round angle

The magnitude of an angle can be measured using several systems:

An isometry is a “distance-preserving map” between two metric spaces.