RELATIVE CLAUSES

PNJA MA, Module A – Semester 1

Dr Anna Ewa Wieczorek

• DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE

• NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE

 DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

• follow words of imprecise or general meaning which need further

definition (the sentence doesn’t make complete sense if the
relative clause is removed),
• can be used with that, which makes the sentence more informal,
• are not used with commas,
• are spoken without a pause or a tone change,
• are as common in informal as in formal English.
 Contrasting pairs

• I talked to the couple (who) I met [the couple] on

their journey to Brazil.
• I talked to the couple who met me on their
journey to Brazil.

A relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object of both

the main verb as well as the verb in the relative clause.
Practice
NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

• follow words of precise meaning which need no further definition,

• are additions to a sentence, which makes complete sense without
them,
• cannot be used with that and do not use why
• relative pronouns cannot be omitted
• can use a numer or a determiner (e.g. some, none, much, many)
before “of ” (three of whom, none of which, etc.)
• are between commas or a comma and a full stop
• are spoken after a pause and with a tone change
• are less common in informal than in formal English
Practice
 Contrasting pairs: who and whom

• This is the consultant … I spoke with.

a) who b) whom c) that
• This is the consultant with … I spoke.
a) who b) whom c) that
 Contrasting pairs: who and whom

• This is the consultant … I spoke with.

a) who b) whom c) that
• This is the consultant with … I spoke.
a) who b) whom c) that
 Contrasting pairs: who and whom

• This is the consultant … I spoke with.

a) who b) whom c) that
• This is the consultant with … I spoke.
a) who b) whom c) that

WHOM
+ formal + used as an object (I see whom I like the most.)
+ must be used directly after a preposition (for whom, at whom)
 Contrasting pairs: whose

• This is the man whose car was stolen.

• My puppy, … toy has been destroyed, is unhappy.

a) whose b) which c) that
 Contrasting pairs: whose

• This is the man whose car was stolen.

• My puppy, … toy has been destroyed, is unhappy.

a) whose b) which c) that

• I don’t want a table … legs are broken.

a) whose b) which c) that
 Contrasting pairs: whose

• This is the man whose car was stolen.

• My puppy, … toy has been destroyed, is unhappy.

a) whose b) which c) that

• I don’t want a table … legs are broken.

a) whose b) which c) that
 Contrasting pairs: which vs. what

• He didn’t call, which made me mad.

• He didn’t call, what made me mad.

WHICH is used when referring to the entire preceding clause, not the noun.
WHAT can only be used in defining relative clauses to replace a NP.

• What made me mad is that she didn’t call.

• The thing which/that made me mad is that she didn’t
call.
 Contrasting pairs: prepositions
WHOM AND WHICH

• You’ve just seen the man with whom I

consulted my theory.

• This is the medical encyclopaedia to which I

referred.
(formal)
• This is the medical encyclopaedia which I
referred to.
(less formal)
 Contrasting pairs: prepositions
WHOM AND WHICH

This is just something with which I have to put up.

This is just something which I have to put up with.
 Contrasting pairs: prepositions
WHOM AND WHICH

This is just something with which I have to put up.

This is just something which I have to put up with.

If the verb in the relative clause is a phrasal verb which ends

with a preposition, this preposition can never be placed in front
of the relative pronouns.
 Contrasting pairs: prepositions
WHEN AND WHERE

I remember the day on which I first met them.

This is the room in which my grandfather was born.
Eventually, I reached a stage at which I began to enjoy my work.

In formal English, relative adverbs when and where are

sometimes replaced by a preposition + which.
Practice
 Contrasting pairs:
phrases with relative pronouns
IN DEFINING CLAUSES

The hospital in which Jenny works is your best choice.

The hospital which Jenny works in is your best choice.
The hospital where Jenny works is your best choice.

ADVERBS
It’s a method whereby (= by means of which) you can collect and
consider all variables.
George Eliot was the name henceforth (= which was since then)
used with pride by both the author and publisher.
 Contrasting pairs:
phrases with relative pronouns
IN NON-DEFINING CLAUSES

A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still
being felt. (formal)
A huge amount of oil was spilled, whose effects are still being
felt. (less formal)

He slammed the door coming in, at which point I lost it.

The campaign, at the time of which I met Patrick, was an
event that taught me a lot about politics.
Mat, with whose help we tried to lift the car, is my best man.
 Practice
1. You shouldn’t believe (____) ____ ____ you read in the papers.
in which
2. The book was first published in 2001, ____ ____ over five million
copies have been sold worldwide.
3. She didn’t do any work, ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ she failed the
the result of which is

test.
4. The box office closed at midnight, ____ ____ ____ over 2000
at the time of which

tickets had been sold.

5. The computers in the library, ____ ____ ____ are well over five
years old, will be replaced next year.
6. Two English schools, ___ ___ ___ opened only last year, are
already facing financial difficulties.
7. I couldn’t remember the name of the school, ____ ____ I spent so
many months learning English.
 Practice
1. You shouldn’t believe (____) ____ ____ you read in the papers.
(every thing/everything/anything that)
2. The book was first published in 2001, ____ ____ over five million
copies have been sold worldwide. (since when)
3. She didn’t do any work, ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ she failed the
test. (as a result of which)
4. The box office closed at midnight, ____ ____ ____ over 2000
tickets had been sold. (by which time)
5. The computers in the library, ____ ____ ____ are well over five
years old, will be replaced next year. (some/all/many of which)
6. Two English schools, ___ ___ ___ opened only last year, are
already facing financial difficulties. (one/both of which)
7. I couldn’t remember the name of the school, ____ ____ I spent so
many months learning English. (at/in which)
More practice
1. I started work here as a junior clerk in 1996, ____ ____
I’ve risen to the post of senior manager.
2. All the students, ____ ____ ____ had worked extremely
hard, passed the exam.
3. We waited until half past eleven, ____ ____ ____ we gave
up waiting for her and went home.
4. He gave us several ridiculous excuses for his absence,
____ ____ ____ we believed.
5. It might rain, ____ ____ ____ you should take a raincoat.
6. I’ve only got two students in my class, ____ ____ ____
turned up late today.
7. We missed our flight, ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ we lost
two days of our holiday.
Key
1. I started work here as a junior clerk in 1996, ____ ____ I’ve risen
to the post of senior manager. (since when)
2. All the students, ____ ____ ____ had worked extremely hard,
passed the exam. (some/many of whom)
3. We waited until half past eleven, ____ ____ ____ we gave up
waiting for her and went home. (at which point)
4. He gave us several ridiculous excuses for his absence, ____ ____
____ we believed. (none of which)
5. It might rain, ____ ____ ____ you should take a raincoat. (in which
case)
6. I’ve only got two students in my class, ____ ____ ____ turned up
late today. (both/neither of whom)
7. We missed our flight, ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ we lost two days
of our holiday. (as a result of which)