Inverters

Site: NewEnergyAcademy Printed by: Melecio Jesus Leano Jr.

Course: Inverters Date: Saturday, 25 November 2023, 2:57 AM
Book: Inverters
 Table of contents

1. Before You Start

2. How Inverters Work

2.1. Switching
2.2. Inverter Voltage Control
2.3. Inverter Control Systems

3. Inverter Specifications
3.1. DC Specifications
3.2. AC Specifications
3.3. Inverter Efficiency
3.4. Physical Specifications

4. Types of Inverters
4.1. Grid-connect Inverters
4.2. Stand-alone Inverters
4.3. Multimode Inverters
4.4. Separated and Non-separated Inverters
4.5. PV Array to Inverter Interface
4.6. Overview of the PV Array to Inverter Interface

5. Grid-connect Inverter Protection Systems

5.1. Anti-islanding
5.2. Passive Protection
5.3. Active Protection
5.4. False Tripping (Voltage Rise)
5.5. Self-protection
5.6. Export-limiting Devices

6. Monitoring

7. What's Next?
 1. Before You Start

Inverters are used to convert the DC electricity generated by solar modules into AC electricity. This AC electricity must be compatible with the
grid and with electrical appliances.

This course will explain how inverters work and explore inverter specifications, types of inverters, grid-connect inverter protection systems and
monitoring.

This course correlates to chapter 7 in your Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International Version) resource book.
 2. How Inverters Work

Most appliances and loads use AC electricity and so the DC output of the PV array needs to be converted to an AC signal. An inverter achieves
this function of converting DC to AC.

Modern inverters use microprocessors and semiconductor switches to produce a waveform that closely resembles a sine wave and is therefore
compatible with the grid and AC loads.

The inverter is required to be capable of interacting with the grid and producing an AC signal that matches grid supply. This means the inverter
output must match the accepted limited range of values for the voltage, frequency and phase of the grid.

To achieve this, an inverter uses a combination of:

Switching
Voltage control (using a transformer or a DC–DC converter)
A control system
 2.1. Switching

To convert DC to AC, the pulse-width modulation (PWM) technique is used to vary the voltage and current to create a sine wave with the
required frequency. The average voltage is controlled by switching the supply on and off. Whether a part of an output sine wave is positive or
negative is handled by turning on different switches in the inversion circuit at different times. PWM controls the amplitude of the sine wave
within this process.

The PWM technique controls the output voltage by modifying the amount of time the output is switched on. It uses rapid pulses of varying
lengths, known as the duty cycle, so that the average output voltage is a fraction of the input voltage. The magnitude of the output voltage is
proportional to the time the source is on.

An inverter uses the PWM technique to change the output voltage and create a sine wave with the required frequency (see figure below). The
output will usually be passed through an electronic filter to smooth the output. PWM may be performed multiple times in an inverter.

Synthesised sine waves produced using the PWM technique. Varying the length (i.e. width) of each pulse can create sine waves of various sizes; for
example, amplitude = 0.5 V (a) or amplitude = 1.2 V (b).
 2.2. Inverter Voltage Control

A DC–DC converter or a transformer can be used to achieve the required voltage output.

DC–DC converters are used to change the voltage of a DC signal. They are switched-mode power supplies that use a combination of
switching and energy storage (capacitors and/or inductors). When the DC voltage is matched to the grid voltage, it can be converted to an AC
signal using switching.

Transformers can be used to change the voltage of an AC signal. They are, in essence, two wire windings coiled around a common core. The
alternating input current flows through the primary winding and generates an electromagnetic field. This electromagnetic field then induces an
alternating output voltage in the secondary winding, creating an AC flow when connected to a load.

The ratio between the output voltage and the input voltage will be the same as the ratio between the number of primary windings and the
number of secondary windings. Transformers also provide a means of electrical isolation between the primary side and secondary side.

This voltage matching can be done before or after switching, depending on the type of inverter.
 2.3. Inverter Control Systems

The AC output of the inverter must resemble the AC grid signal in both voltage and frequency. This can be achieved by using the AC grid signal
to control the DC to AC conversion (line commutation), or by independently controlling the DC to AC conversion and using the AC grid signal
only as a reference (self-commutation).

Line-commutated inverters use electrically triggered switches that are controlled by the AC signal from the grid.

As they are controlled by the grid, the output is synchronised with the grid. However, they produce a square wave, which means that filtering is
required to smooth the output into a sine wave. This kind of inverter is not generally used anymore.

Self-commutated inverters are controlled by a microprocessor rather than by the grid. They use semiconductor switches to create a
synthesised sine waveform. They must still reference the AC grid signal to ensure that the output waveform is synchronised.

The semiconductor switches use PWM to achieve a synthesised sine wave, and diodes are used to conduct current in the brief moments when
certain switches are off. The rapid switching used to create the sine wave causes electromagnetic interference (EMI); therefore, filtering is
necessary for the inverters to meet the various EMI guidelines required internationally.
 3. Inverter Specifications

An inverter data sheet will be provided with every inverter. It will detail all relevant information needed in designing and installing a grid-
connected PV system. The specifications can be divided into:

DC specifications
AC specifications
Efficiency
Physical specifications

Spend some time looking through the SMA Sunny Boy 3000TL and 3600TL specification sheet below. (Source: SMA Solar Technology AG)
 3.1. DC Specifications

The operating characteristics of the PV array that can be connected to the inverter are defined by the inverter’s DC specifications. These include
the array configuration, as well as the output current, voltage and power.

The DC specifications of an inverter that should be considered include:

Maximum DC power input - This is the maximum PV array power that can be connected to the inverter's DC input.

Maximum input voltage - The inverter’s maximum input voltage determines the maximum number of panels that can be connected in series
in each string of the array. This maximum number should take into consideration the effect of temperature on PV module voltage. For safety
reasons, the maximum input voltage must not be exceeded.

Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) voltage range - The MPPT voltage range is the range of voltages within which the inverter is able to
operate. If the voltage output of the array is too low, there will not be enough power for the inverter to operate. If the maximum power
voltage of the array exceeds the maximum MPPT voltage of the inverter, performance issues may occur as the tracker will not be able to
function and the array will operate at a reduced power.

Number of inputs and MPPTs - There are two main arrangements for having multiple inputs on inverters: Multiple inputs that feed to a single
MPPT, or each PV input with its own MPPT.

Maximum current per MPPT input - Each of the inverter’s inputs will have a maximum current for which it is rated. Inverters with multiple
inputs into a single MPPT will also have a maximum total current that the MPPT will take.

Electrical schematic of the SMA Sunny Boy 3000TL MPPT arrangement. There are two MPPTs (maximum 15 A), each with two inputs (maximum 15
A). Using both inputs in one MPPT, the maximum current for each string is 7.5 A (as shown here for MPPT A). Using only one input, the maximum
input is 15 A (as shown here for MPPT B).
 3.2. AC Specifications

The inverter’s output voltage and frequency must be suitable for exporting to the grid. There are two predominant sets of international voltage
and frequency requirements:

VRMS of 230 V and frequency of 50 Hz used in Australia, India, Europe, Africa and most of Asia.
VRMS of 110 V or 120 V and frequency of 60 Hz used in the USA, Canada, most of South America, Japan and parts of the Middle East.

The AC output information on the inverter's datasheet must match the local grid voltage and frequency requirements.

Inverters will have either single-phase or three-phase output. A three-phase inverter can only be installed on a three-phase connection. A
single-phase inverter can be installed on a single-phase connection or on one phase of a three-phase connection. However, the local network
may require that there is a limited amount of imbalance between the phases.
 3.3. Inverter Efficiency

The overall efficiency of an inverter is affected by the losses incurred from its two major functions:

Inverter’s Tracking Efficiency - One of the main functions of an inverter is to track the MPP of the PV modules or array. However, the inverter
cannot do this perfectly, resulting in a power difference between the maximum instantaneous DC power available from the PV array (PARRAY)
and the actual instantaneous DC power delivered to the inverter to be converted from DC to AC (PDC). This difference in ‘power available’ to
‘power achieved’ is known as the tracking efficiency (ηTR):

ηTR = PDC ÷ PARRAY

Where

PARRAY= Instantaneous maximum DC power that could be produced by array.

PDC = Instantaneous DC power input to inverter.

Inverter’s Conversion Efficiency - The other main function of an inverter is to convert DC electricity to AC electricity. There are losses in this
process, owing to the transformer (if the inverter uses one), the electronic control systems and other monitoring systems within the inverter.
These losses are represented by the conversion efficiency (ηCON):

ηCON = PAC ÷ PDC

Where

PDC= Instantaneous DC power input.

PAC = Instantaneous AC power output.

Overall Inverter Efficiency - [or inverter efficiency (ηINV)], is the product of the two individual efficiencies, tracking and conversion:

ηINV = ηTR × ηCON

It's important to note that the inverter efficiency will change depending on how much power the inverter is supplying and the ambient
temperature. The datasheet will typically show the "peak" or "maximum" efficiency as well as a more realistic "Californian" or "European"
efficiency, calculated for normal operating conditions at those locations. The manufacturer should also provide information for other power
output and temperature conditions, such as the curve below.

Example of an inverter efficiency curve (SMA Sunny Boy 5000TL). (Source: SMA Solar Technology AG.)
 3.4. Physical Specifications

The inverter installation location is affected by physical specifications, including:

Size and Weight - The size and weight of the inverter are needed to determine suitable installation locations for the inverter as well as the
inverter installation process.

Required Ventilation Space - The amount of heat produced by the inverter’s operation will determine the required ventilation for the inverter
equipment to operate safely and according to rated specifications.

Inverter IP Rating - The Ingress Protection (IP) rating of an inverter specifies the resistance of the inverter enclosure to both water and
dust. Inverters on the market will state their IP rating to specify the suitability of the inverter for installation in certain indoor and outdoor
operating conditions and temperatures. The IP rating must be suitable for the installation location of the inverter. Regardless of the IP rating
shown, the proposed installation location for any inverter should meet the inverter manufacturer’s installation recommendations in relation to
ensuring the inverter is kept at a temperature suitable for the inverter to operate efficiently and safely.

Table 1: IP rating classifications.

Meaning for the

Element Numerals
Protection of Equipment

First characteristic numeral 0 (non-protected)

(against ingress of solid
foreign objects) 1 ≥ 50 mm diameter

2 ≥ 12.5 mm diameter

3 ≥ 2.5 mm diameter

4 ≥ 1.0 mm diameter

5 dust-protected

6 dust-tight

Second characteristic 0 (non-protected)

numeral (against ingress of
water with harmful effects) 1 vertically dripping

2 dripping (15° tilted)

3 spraying

4 splashing

5 jetting

6 powerful jetting

7 temporary immersion

8 continuous immersion
 4. Types of Inverters

The correct type of inverter must be selected for a grid-connected PV system. This section will discuss:

The difference between grid-connect, stand-alone and multimode inverters.

The difference between inverters with transformers and inverters without transformers.

The different ways to interface the PV array with the inverter.

An example of a grid-connect inverter – the Fronius IG TL.

(Source: Fronius International GmbH.)
 4.1. Grid-connect Inverters

A grid-connect inverter (or grid-tied inverter), can produce an AC signal compatible with the grid. Grid-connect inverters cannot independently
produce an AC output: the inverter must be able to reference the grid to be able to connect to it. Without the grid reference, the inverter will
not operate.

Grid-connect inverters contain a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) that keeps the PV array at its maximum power voltage (VMP).

Grid-connect inverters require grid protection to ensure that the inverter will not be exporting power to the grid when there are abnormal grid
conditions.

The typical configuration is to have the PV system connected via the inverter and switchboard to the grid and/or the loads (see below).

A typical grid-connected PV system configuration.

 4.2. Stand-alone Inverters

Stand-alone inverters are not connected to the electricity grid: these inverters use energy storage systems (i.e. batteries) as their power source
and the inverter’s output provides mains equivalent power within the inverter’s operating specifications.

Most stand-alone inverters now on the market produce sine wave output. These inverters are not connected to the grid and therefore do not
need to conform to the quality standards of the grid, so it is important to confirm the suitability of the stand-alone inverter’s waveform for use
with the intended loads.

The standard configuration of a stand-alone power system has a charge controller and battery bank attached to the inverter. The PV array is
not directly connected to the stand-alone inverter: the array is connected to a solar controller, which feeds power to the battery storage system
and the inverter. The solar controller may have an MPPT but stand-alone inverters do not have the same MPPT function as grid-connect
inverters.

As stand-alone inverters connect to a battery bank, they are voltage-specific.

Stand-alone inverters must comply with the relevant International standards.

An example of a stand-alone inverter – the SMA Sunny Island.

(Source: SMA Solar Technology AG.)
 4.3. Multimode Inverters

A multimode inverter is capable of operating in either grid-connection operation or stand-alone operation. A typical configuration is similar to
that of a stand-alone system but with an additional connection to the grid (or other generator) to provide backup. These inverters are used in
grid-connected PV systems with battery storage, and they allow the loads to operate from the PV array and batteries during certain conditions,
such as a grid interruption, or to manage high electricity prices from the grid.

Multimode inverters must also comply with the relevant International standards.

An example of a multimode inverter – the Selectronic SP Pro. (Source: Selectronic.)

 4.4. Separated and Non-separated Inverters

The three main types of inverters are as follows:

Separated inverters with low-frequency transformers

Separated inverters with high-frequency transformers
Non-separated (transformerless) inverters.

Inverters with low-frequency transformers have the following advantages:

Simple
Galvanic isolation

And the following disadvantages:

Electrical losses
Heavy

Inverters with high-frequency transformers are designed to avoid the power losses of low-frequency transformers while maintaining the
advantages of having a transformer to electrically isolate the DC input from the AC supply. They have the following advantages:

Galvanic isolation
Lighter than inverters with low-frequency transformers
Higher efficiency than low-frequency transformers

And the following disadvantages:

More complex
Can produce high pitched noise

Non-separated inverters do not contain a transformer. They have the following advantages:

Smaller and lighter than inverters with transformers.

Higher efficiency than inverters with transformers

And the following disadvantages:

No electrical isolation
The inverter may inject DC currents into the grid
Higher input voltage is required to operate the inverter
 4.5. PV Array to Inverter Interface

Inverters come in many types and sizes which can be suitable for different applications.

Micro-inverters are small transformerless inverters that can be mounted either on the back or adjacent to every module or second module in
an array. They have the following advantages:

Each micro-inverter contains an MPPT

Less DC cabling is required
They are modular
Monitoring can be reported by micro-inverters, making troubleshooting easier

And the following disadvantages:

They are more expensive

They are exposed to higher temperatures
Maintenance on a micro-inverter involves removing a module as well

An example of a micro-inverter. (Source: Enphase Energy.)

Single-tracking inverters (or string inverters) have one MPPT. A single-tracking inverter is connected to a single string or to multiple strings or
modules. These multiple strings can be connected to the inverter via a single input or multiple inputs (if available). Connecting multiple strings
of modules to a single-tracking inverter may produce a lower output from the array. This would occur if one of the strings has a different
maximum power voltage than the other.

An example of a single-tracking inverter – the KACO Powador 7700. (Source: KACO new energy.)

Multi-tracking inverters (or multi-string inverters) have more than one MPPT. Each string, or a set of strings, can be connected to an individual
MPPT, enabling the MPP of each string, or set of strings, to be achieved.

An example of a multi-tracking inverter – the SMA Sunny Boy 3000TL. (Source: SMA Solar Technology AG.)

Central inverters are used for large grid-connected PV systems. They are used in a similar manner to single-tracking inverters with multiple
strings, except the PV array is often divided into several sub-arrays, each comprising several strings.
 An example of a central inverter with power stacks – the Fronius IG Central. (Source: Fronius.)

Solar Optimisers (or power optimisers or module MPPTs) are DC-DC converters connected to or embedded in each module. They are used to
operate each module at its maximum power voltage. They have the following advantages:

Each module operates at its maximum power

They are modular
They can offer data logging

And the following disadvantages:

They are more expensive

Provide more points of failure

An example of a solar optimiser.

 4.6. Overview of the PV Array to Inverter Interface

The advantages and disadvantages of each of the five types of interface between the PV and inverter are summarised in the table below.
 5. Grid-connect Inverter Protection Systems

The grid requires protection so that the inverter is disconnected from the grid when:

1. The grid is interrupted (a blackout)

2. The grid operates over or under the permitted voltage and frequency thresholds.

Having the inverter disconnect under these conditions protects the grid and prevents islanding. Grid-connect inverters incorporate two types of
grid protection:

1. Passive protection

2. Active protection

Sometimes, the grid protection functionality may cause the inverter to falsely disconnect from the grid. Inverters also have various levels of
self-protection to prevent the inverter from sustaining damage from the array or external conditions.

Some network operators impose a limit on the amount of electricity generated by grid-connected PV systems that can be exported to the grid.
They may do this by imposing export limitations on systems above a certain size or by giving preference to systems that have an approved
zero-export device (ZED) installed.

Installation with SMA Sunny Central 100kW Inverters. (Source: SMA Solar Technology AG.)
 5.1. Anti-islanding

There are two main problems caused by PV systems when the grid experiences abnormal conditions or is interrupted:

Islanding - A condition in which a distributed generator (e.g. a grid-connected PV system) continues to supply power to part of the grid after
the utility power generator is no longer supplying power, creating an ‘island’ (see figure a below). The exported power could pose a safety
issue to utility workers who may be working on the supply lines at that time and could cause further problems for the grid supply (see figure b
below).

Protecting the grid - If islanding occurs, there is a danger that the power dispatched from the PV system will no longer be operating at the
same voltage or frequency as the rest of the grid. When grid supply is restored and the islanding ceases, these differences in voltage or
frequency can damage the distribution wires, the inverter and equipment on the grid.

To avoid these problems, grid-connected inverters must contain circuitry so that they do not export power when abnormal grid conditions are
registered. This effectively shuts the PV system down, although the DC side remains live. This shut-down feature is known as ‘anti-islanding’ and
means the PV generation cannot worsen the grid conditions or cause injury to technicians working on the lines.

When the grid is normalised, the inverter will reconnect to the grid after the inverter has cycled through its timed delay start-up, which is
usually at least one minute.

Figure a: PV systems powering an island of the grid during a grid interruption. This islanding needs to be prevented for safety reasons and to protect
equipment.

Figure b: One of the issues with two-way electrical flow – the circuit breaker stops the current flowing in one direction (from the power station) into
a fault but cannot stop the current flowing in the other direction (from the residential PV system), thus creating a potential safety hazard for workers
trying to repair the fault.
 5.2. Passive Protection

Passive protection disconnects the inverter from the grid if there is a grid failure or the grid operates outside the permitted voltage and
frequency ranges. Passive protection is also known as passive anti-islanding protection.

There are four forms of passive anti-islanding protection:

Under-voltage protection (if under VMIN)

Over-voltage protection (if over VMAX)
Under-frequency protection (if under fMIN)
Over-frequency protection (if over fMAX)

If the grid voltage moves outside the range VMIN to VMAX or its frequency moves outside the range fMIN to fMAX, the inverter’s disconnection
device is operated within a set time period (usually 2 seconds).

The inverter must be programmed to the correct grid profile to ensure the passive protection works correctly.
 5.3. Active Protection

Active protection (also known as active anti-islanding protection) forces the passive protection of the inverter to operate under certain
situations. At least one method of active anti-islanding protection is usually required.

There are several active protection methods, including:

Frequency instability - The frequency of the inverter is inherently unstable in the absence of a reference frequency. This instability will lead to
either the ‘over frequency’ or ‘under frequency' protection operating.

Frequency drift - When there is no reference frequency, the inverter will shift its frequency away from nominal condition and the frequency
protection will operate.

Power variation - If there is no stable voltage from the grid, periodic variations in the output power of the inverter will lead to a drift in
voltage, thereby activating the under voltage or over voltage protection.

Monitoring the impedance of the grid - In Germany, inverters are required to monitor the impedance of the distribution system by injecting a
current pulse into the grid. As Germany is a large PV market, many inverter manufacturers incorporate this feature as standard in their inverters.
It can create problems in places where the grid is not well developed and, if permitted, it can be deactivated. In most countries, it can only be
deactivated if the inverter has one other active anti-islanding method.
 5.4. False Tripping (Voltage Rise)

The upper voltage limit of an inverter’s passive protection will disconnect the PV system when the grid operates above its permitted voltage
limit. However, the inverter protection can trip falsely owing to a voltage rise between the inverter and the grid.

Voltage rise at the inverter is caused by the impedance in the cables between the inverter and the point of connection to the grid. An increased
impedance results in a voltage rise. The inverter needs to produce an AC voltage slightly higher than the grid to ensure current flows in the
correct direction (from the inverter to the grid).

If the grid is operating at the upper grid limits, the voltage rise at the inverter could result in the inverter sensing a grid voltage above VMAX,
when it really is below VMAX. This causes the inverter to operate its passive protection system to protect the grid even though the grid is not
actually outside its permitted voltage range.

Some inverters have the capability to ‘ride through’ voltage fluctuations in the grid, and these may be suitable for systems connected to a grid
with stability issues.
 5.5. Self-protection

There are three main forms of self-protection:

Reverse-polarity protection
Temperature protection
Excessive input voltage protection.

Reverse-polarity Protection - This feature protects the inverter from damage if the array is connected to the inverter in reverse polarity.
However, under any circumstances, it is important that the polarity of the solar array is checked before connection because the inverter could
still be damaged.

Temperature Protection - The inverter must have sufficient ventilation and cooling. Some inverter models will protect themselves from over-
heating by reducing their power output rating as their temperature increases in excess of the manufacturer’s operating specification.

Excessive Input Voltage Protection - Inverters have a maximum DC input voltage. For some inverter models, this value is the same as the
upper limit of the MPPT voltage range, whereas for other inverter models, this value is greater than the maximum MPPT voltage. There are
some inverter models that have forms of inbuilt protection against high input voltage levels. For example, some inverters are designed to
switch off to protect the inverter’s electronics. Nevertheless, subjecting inverters to an excessively high input voltage should be avoided at all
times.
 5.6. Export-limiting Devices

Some network operators may impose export limitations on grid-connected PV systems in areas where the export of electricity from a PV
system is undesirable.

Small PV systems that generate significantly less electricity than the amount of power consumed by the site’s daytime loads may naturally
satisfy these restrictions; however, for most PV systems in these areas, an export-limiting device will be required to guarantee limited or zero
export.

Some exporting-limiting devices will switch the inverter off if the installation is close to exporting power (i.e. the generation is close to
increasing above consumption), whereas other export-limiting devices are able to reduce the inverter’s output to match the electricity demand
so that there is no electricity exported.

It is important to confirm that the network operator approves the export-limiting device proposed for use.

An example of a ZED. (Source: GNT engineering.)

 6. Monitoring

Many inverters will have built-in monitoring systems to provide system performance data that can be accessed using the inverter’s control
screen, Bluetooth, GSM, Wi-Fi or communication over the AC power line.

When digital screens are provided, instantaneous data are generally available, including:

Array voltage (V DC)

Array current (A DC)
Grid voltage (V AC)
Current to grid (A AC)
Power out (kW AC)
Energy generated that day (kWh)

Monitoring and data-logging systems available with the majority of inverters will provide the following data:

Daily energy yield for month and year

Daily power generated

Additional monitoring and/or data-logging equipment could be used to provide the following data:

Insolation and/or irradiance

Ambient temperature
Module temperature
Wind speed (important for mounting systems with trackers)

Examples of a PV-monitoring system output. a) Daily energy yield for 1 month. b) Daily power generation.
 7. What's Next?

You have now completed the Learning Material and can proceed with the Practice Exercise questions.